\r\n\tIn the maintenance and conservation of our planet's biodiversity, knowledge of current biogeographical patterns, speciation or invasion processes, flora, fauna, natural history, and ecology have outstanding importance. Many areas of biodiversity are still completely undiscovered nowadays. The ecological impacts of global climate change, urbanization, overpopulation, environmental pollution, deforestation, land cover and land-use changes also have a significant impact on biodiversity, flora, and fauna, through biogeographical patterns. \r\n\tThe management tools, methods and processes (as applied ecological aspects) of Protected Areas and National Parks are a very important part of conservation policy. I am sure that this book will be very useful for everybody who would like to get some insight into the recent problems of biodiversity research, ecology and conservation biology also from practical or theoretical viewpoints.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6ff1661b4f38a8de841d53771c3d83cd",bookSignature:"Dr. Levente Hufnagel",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12045.jpg",keywords:"Terrestrial Ecosystems, Freshwater Ecosystems, Marine Ecosystems, Tropics, Biodiversity, Population Biology, Community Ecology, Ecosystem Ecology, Endangered Species, Endangered Habitats, Endangered Ecosystems, Global Problems",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"13 hours",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in applied ecology, sustainability, conservation ecology, biogeography, and eco-theology, head of Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Ecotheology of John Wesley Theological College, editor-in-chief of the Applied Ecology and Environmental Research. He has more than 300 scientific publications and more than 1100 independent citations. Dr. Hufnagel has significant experience in multidisciplinary collaborations (with more than 200 coauthors in different publications).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"10864",title:"Dr.",name:"Levente",middleName:null,surname:"Hufnagel",slug:"levente-hufnagel",fullName:"Levente Hufnagel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/10864/images/system/10864.JPG",biography:"Dr. Levente Hufnagel is an associate professor and the head of the Research Institute of Multidisciplinary Ecotheology, John Wesley Theological College, Budapest, Hungary, working on ecology, biogeography, ecological research methodology, and sustainability. He has more than 20 years of experience in leading Hungarian academic institutions teaching Ph.D., MSc, and BSc students from various social and cultural backgrounds. He has more than 300 scientific publications (in both aquatic and terrestrial ecological aspects of plants, animals, and microbes at both the community and population levels) and more than 1100 independent citations to his credit. As a participant in several big ecological research and development projects, Dr. Hufnagel has significant experience in multidisciplinary collaborations (with more than 200 coauthors in different publications). He has supervised several Ph.D., BSc, and MSc theses, and served as editor in chief of an international scientific journal. Dr. Hufnagel graduated from Eötvös Lorand University with a master’s degree in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and a Ph.D. in Hydrobiology. He also has a Ph.D. in Agricultural Science from Szent István University, Hungary, and several other degrees from the Corvinus University of Budapest and Adventist Theological College.",institutionString:"John Wesley Theological College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"11",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Szent István University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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1. Introduction
Frankincense, gold, and myrrh were the three gifts from the wise men (the Magi, or the three kings) brought from the East to celebrate the birth of baby Jesus Christ (Bible, Matthew 2:11) According to the Christian belief (Botros et.al. 2003). Nine compounds with immunostimulant and antiviral activity were isolated from the oleogum resin of frankincense (Boswellia carterii Birdwood). The frankincense essential oil (3%) found to contain monoterpenes (13.1 %), sesquiterpenes (1 %), and diterpenes (42.5 %). Both isolated oil and resins exhibited strong immunostimulant activity. Badria et al. (2003) proved that the of boswellia, curcumin, and glycyrrhizin exhibited the highest activity against Herpes simplex virus. However, boswellia extract retained a significant increase in both FEV1 and PEFR (P ≤ 0.05 and ≤ 0.01 respectively) with no significant change in FVC in the severe persistent bronchial asthma (Badria et. al. 2003). Boswellia-Curcumin preparation was investigated clinically for treatment of knee osteoarthirits (Badria et. al. 2002). Meanwhile, glycyrrhizin, curcumin and Boswellia carterii formula exhibited a hepatoprotective effect and used as endogenous interferon inducer, demonstrating that two phases of the induction of IFN in serum takes place; the induced IFN was regarded as IFN-γ. This induction may be followed by activation of macrophages and augmentation of natural killer (NK) activity through the action of the induced IFN (Badria 2001). This combination was successfully tried in a clinical study as endogenous interferon inducer for treatment of hepatitis C (Badria 2001).
1.1. Historical Background and Folkloric use (Ryman, 1997)
The earliest recorded use of frankincense is found in an inscription on the tomb of a 15th century BC Egyptian queen named Hathsepsut who exported it from Punt\'s Land "Somalia" to prepare her cosmetics, skin care lotions, and perfumes. Ancient Egyptians burned frankincense as incense in religious ceremonies and rituals. They used it also in embalming and mummification of dead bodies. As an evidence for incense burning, burners with a shape of long handle spoon from the old kingdom in ancient Egypt have been found in which the resin was burnt to provide aromatic warmth on the braziers of their homes in chilly weather. The ancient Egyptians used to grind the resin after charring to provide the black powder that called “Kohl” which used in manufacturing of distinctive eyeliner as seen in a lot of Egyptian art figures. This is the cause of employment of frankincense in the worship of the Egyptian sun God "Horus", a primordial symbol for who was the sacred "All-seeing" eye that burned with judgment.
The use of resin as incense was not confined to ancient Egyptians but extended to Babylonians, Greeks, Romans and Assyrians. It was Herodotus who reported that "in ancient Babylon, 1000 talents weight was offered every year during the feast of Bel, on the great altar of his temple". Nero burnt frankincense by the ton. Romans burnt large quantities of the resin along the routes of the Roman triumphs or victory parades.
The frankincense was a kings\' gift, it is said that the queen of Sheba presented a large amount of frankincense, brought by her from Yemen, to the wise King Solomon in 1950 B.C. The original use of the word “incense” was to descripe the aromatic smoke that produced from a substance upon burning, the term has been gradually limited now to frankincense. Interestingly, several myths surrounded the harvest of frankincense; it was believed that valleys where frankincense is collected were guarded by huge horrible winged creatures and red poisonous snakes that attack any one trying to touch the frankincense tree. These mysterious stories tells also that the mythological bird Phoenix, when ready to die, makes its final nest from frankincense and Cassia and there; its spirit ascends to the heavens with the perfume of this sacred herb (Miller and Morris, 1988).
The use of camels in transport flourished frankincense trade in the 11th century BC. One of the oldest international trade routes, the frankincense route, runs parallel to the Red Sea outseting from Yemen through a distance of almost 3,400 Km towards Palestine. Such huge trade made Pliny the Elder, the first century Greek Writer, to claim that "the control of the frankincense trade had made the South Arabians the richest people on earth".
Frankincense is one of the crude drugs that are heavily associated with religious rituals and cults; it was thought that incense smokes carried the prayers to the heaven. In Judaism, frankincense was one of the four sweet scents used in compounding the ceremonial incense of Jewish temples. As a part of the meet offering as well as the chew-bread on Sabbath day, pure frankincense was utilized. It was preserved with many other spices in great chamber of the GOD house at Jerusalem.
Figure 1.
Boswellia carterii Birdwood Tree; Frankincense
In Christianity, Frankincense occupied a distinguished place; it was mentioned 22 times in the Bible. According to the Christian belief; gold, frankincense, and myrrh were the three gifts from the wise men (the Magi, or the three kings) brought from the East to celebrate the birth of baby Jesus Christ (Bible, Matthew 2:11). Frankincense enters into the composition of incense now used in the Christian churches.
Frankincense was one of the most prized and costly substance in the ancient world, worth more than its weight in gold. Dioscorides and others mentioned the therapeutic use of the resin in the treatment of skin disorders, in ophthalmology, hemorrhages and pneumonia. Pliny the Elder (1st century) mentions it as antidote to hemlock (Encyclopedia Britannica web site). The Iranian physician Avicenna "Ibn Sina" (10 th century) in his book "El-Kanon Fi El-Tibb" thought that frankincense was useful in many disorders and disease as fever, gastric disorders and tumors. B. carterii is used almost for everything in China.. In Ayurvedic medicine (Kapoor, 1990) the resin is prescribed in chronic lung diseases, diarrhea, dysentery, pulmonary diseases, menorrhea, dysmenorrhea, syphilis, piles, and liver disorders. The oil extracted from the gum resin is prescribed with a demulcent drink in gonorrhea. A paste made of the gum resin with coconut oil or lemon juice is applied to ulcers, swellings, boils, and ringworm (Chopra et al., 1956). The antiseptic action of the resin encourages healing so it is used to treat ulcers and wounds. The resin is used nowadays in manufacture of incense, and as ingredient in plasters and fumigating pastilles (Wallis, 1967). It is also important as a scent and a fixative in perfumery industry. The recommended dosage of frankincense in inflammatory or bronchoconstrictive conditions is 400 mg three times daily. The frankincense is one of the safest herbals. Toxicity studies of Boswellia in rats and primates showed that LD50 was established at more than 2 g/kg (Murray, 1995).
Frankincense is an oleogum resin obtained through a deep longitudinal incision the trunk of the Boswellia tree.The milk-like juice which exudes is hardened by exposure to the air. In about three months, the resin attains the required degree of consistency, hardening into yellowish tears (Fig. 2). (Miller and Morris, 1988).
Figure 2.
Oleogum Resin Tears of Boswellia carterii Birdwood
Even the frankincense collected from the wounds is graded into several grades (Singh and Atal, 1988) of which are, Grade I (Tears); which is the best and most carefully selected grade of white color; Grade II (Reddish) that is mixed white and reddish quality which contains some particles of the bark; and Grade III (Dust and Sifting). The latter grade, because of its low price and finer size, is the most suitable quality for distillation of volatile oil. The harvest lasts from May till the middle of September, when the first shower of monsoon rain puts a close to the gathering for that year. Once the collection season is completed, the raw frankincense is allowed to cure for three months before being sold. It is stored on the floor of dry caves during that period of maturation. The resin occurs in small tears (Fig. 2) varying from 0.5 to 3 cm in length and usually ovoid, pear-shaped, or club-shaped. It is usually of pale yellowish color, frequently with a greenish, bluish or reddish tinge, semi-translucent and covered with a dull white dust, the surface of the tear being dull even after the dust has been removed. They are brittle and internally are opalescent and translucent, the fractured surface being dull and waxy. The drug has a fragrant, balsamic odor and an aromatic, slightly bitter taste, and softens to a plastic mass when chewed. The oleogum resin when triturated with water yields a whitish emulsion (Wallis, 1967).
After such presentation of the deep-rooted usage of frankincense, one can really understand how frankincense is a truly Kings\' gift. The oleogum resin of different Boswellia species that has various vernacular names viz. Frankincense, Incense, or Olibanum in English; Luban Dakar, Bakhor, Kendar in Arabic; Salai guggal In Ayurveda, and H-15 in Germany and Switzerland; was subject to various phytochemical investigations. It is noteworthy that the word Frankincense comes from a 10th century French word meaning "luxuriant incense". The word olibanum is derived from the Hebrew word "Lebonah" and the Greek word "Libanos" meaning white.
The genus takes its name from Professor John Boswell (Miller and Morris, 1988) the uncle of the famous novelist James Boswell, the writer of the well-known Story of Samuel Johnson. The genus comprises several species; all of which are trees (Guenther, 1972 and Lawerence, 1969); of which the most reputed are:
A tree which is native to Somalia, Southern Yemen (in Hadra’mout valley), and Oman (in Dhofar region). Miller and Morris (Kapoor, 1990) stated that the only species of Boswellia present in the Arabian Peninsula is Boswellia carterii. This species was named after the English surgeon H.G. Carter who was the first to discover it in his expedition in Southern Arabia at 1846. In 1876, the Swiss chemist and botanist Flüeckiger re-examined the same plant describing it as new species and called it Boswellia sacra. Three years later, The English botanist Birdwood reviewed the whole genus and found that the specimens described earlier by Carter and Flüeckiger are identical to those found in Somalia and Known as Boswellia carterii so that the two species should be considered synonymous (Miller and Morris, 1988).
1.3. Boswellia frereana Birdwood
A species which is grown in small scale in northern regions of Somalia.
1.4. Boswellia serrata Roxb. Ex Colebr.
A species which is grown in India and have been differentiated botanically into two varieties (var. serrata with serrated and pubescent leaves, and var. glabra with glabrous leaves). Both varieties yield Indian Olibanum.
1.5. Boswellia papyrifera (Delile ex Caill.) Hochst
A species which is grown in North Eastern tropical Africa, especially in Sudan (Benson, 1967). The Egyptians supply of the oleogum resin of Frankincense, Olibanum, or Luban dakar comes mainly from Somalia, and rarely from Sudan or Kenya, therefore it is considered to be originated from Boswellia carterii Birdwood.
2. Chemistry
A review of the chemistry of Frankincense is made by (Khalid, 1983).
A-The Essential oil:
There has been considerable work done on the composition of olibanum oil from different species and commercial brands of Boswellia(Peyron et al., 1980). The volatile oil was found to contain a variety of components viz.
Monoterpenes:
In 1978, Obermann investigated the essential oil derived from Aden and Eritrean frankincense and reported that α-pinene is the main component in the Aden oil, whereas n-octyl acetate and n-octanol are the dominant compounds in the Eritrean oil.
In 1978, De Rijke et al. isolated traces of the monoterpene acid α-campholytic acid [1] from olibanum oil. This acid was synthesized and showed a rather strong odor reminiscent of the oil. Thus in spite of being a trace constituent, it influences the olfactory character of the oil greatly.
In 1987, Abdel Wahab et al. examined the oil of Somali frankincense using GC/MS and found a variety of monoterpene hydrocarbons viz. sabinene, camphene, and myrcene; oxides viz. cineole; alcohols viz. decanol, α-terpineol, and linalol; esters viz. bornyl acetate, neryl acetate, and geranyl acetate.
Olibanum oil is reported to contain several odorless cembranoid diterpenes viz. cembrene [2], isocembrene [3] (Khalid, 1983) that was initially identified in pine tree resins, whereas incensole [4] and the 1-hydroxy derivative [5] occur only in olibanum. These cembranoid macromolecules may in part account for the reported fixative properties of frankincense oil (Ohloff, 1994); just like the macromolecules of Musk oil.
The yield of steam distillation of frankincense essential oil (3%); and its physicochemical constants were determined. Capillary GC/MS technique was used for the analysis of the oil. Several oil components were identified based upon comparison of their mass spectral data with those of reference compounds published in literature or stored in a computer library. The oil was found to contain monoterpenes (13.1 %), sesquiterpenes (1 %), and diterpenes (42.5 %). The chemical profile of the oil is considered as a chemotaxonomical marker that confirmed the botanical and geographical source of the resin (Mikhaeil BR, 2003)
B. The Gum: In 1992, Sen et al. were able to isolate and elucidate the structure of 4-O-methyl-glucurono arabinogalactan from the oleogum resin of Boswellia serrata Roxb.
C-The Resin:
Several authors reported the isolation and identification of various triterpenes of different skeletons from the resin of different species of the genus Boswellia.
2.1. Pentacylic Triterpenes
Olean-12-ene (β-amyrin type) Triterpenoids:
Classical acid-base extraction procedure led to isolation of α-boswellic acid [58].
In 1972, Elkhadem et al. isolated the 3-acetoxy derivative [59] of α-boswellic acid (acetyl α-boswellic acid) by precipitation from ether extract of the resin of the Somaliland variety of olibanum by barium hydroxide followed by acetylation with acetic anhydride and hydrolysis.
Urs-12-ene (α-amyrin type) Triterpenoids: Elkhadem et al. were able to eliminate that diene impurity completely by treatment of β-boswellic acid with maleic anydride twice, followed by filtration of the adduct and crystallization. They were able also to prepare different synthetic derivatives of α-, and β-boswellic viz. ethyl, ethyl acetyl, and methyl benzoyl esters.
The configurations of such groups and double bond position were later unveiled through progress in NMR spectroscopic techniques especially after 2D-NMR has emerged. Recent advances in crystallographic analysis confirmed the α-configuration of 3-acetoxyl group in both acetyl-β-boswellic acid, and 3-acetoxyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA) (Schweizer et al., 2000).
In 1995, Mahajan et al. isolated 3α-hydroxy-urs-9,12-diene-4β-oic acid [64] and 2α, 3α-dihydroxy-urs-12-ene-4-β-oic acid [65] together with other known boswellic acid derivatives by repeated chromatography of the acidic fraction from the ethanolic extract of Boswellia serrata Roxb. oleogum resin. They separated also urs-12-ene-3α,24-diol [66] by chromatographic fractionation of the neutral fraction of the resin.
Lupane Triterpenoids:
Proietti et al., 1981 managed to isolate 2 lupane-skeleton triterpenoids from resin exudate of Boswellia frereana distributed in the northern regions of Somalia namely, lupeol [67] and epilupeol [68].
2.2. Tetracyclic triterpenes
Tirucallane Triterpenoids:
Liang et al., (22) reported the presence of a variety of tirucallane triterpenoids in family Burseraceae.
In 2001, Boden et al. reported isolation of three triterpenoids having tirucallane nucleus from the oleogum resin of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ; namely 3-keto-8,24-diene-21-β-oic acid (3-oxo-tirucallic acid) [69], 3-β-hydroxy-tirucall-8,24-diene-21-β-oic acid (3-hydroxy-tirucallic acid) [70], and 3-β-acetoxy-tirucall-8,24-diene-21-β-oic acid (3-acetoxy- tirucallic acid) [71].
Dammarane triterpenoids:
In 1985, Fattorusso et al. isolated four dammarane triterpenes from the most polar fractions of the chloroformic extract of the exudate of Boswellia frereana, namely 3β-acetoxy-16(S),20(R)-dihydroxy dammar-24-ene [72], 3β,20(S)-dihydroxy dammar-24-ene [73], its 3-acetyl derivative [74], and 20(S)-protopanaxdiol [75].
3,4- Secotriterpenoids:
3,4-secotriterpenic acids carrying an isopropyl group at position 5 are very rare as naturally occurring compounds. They are considered to be degradation products originating through geochemical process involving photochemical or photomimetic reactions. In 1983, Fattorusso et al. managed to isolate a member of such group of compounds, namely 4(23)-dihydro roburic acid [76] from the acidic fraction of incense Boswellia carterii Birdwood after methylation with diazomethane followed by catalytic hydrogenation of the produced methyl ester and column chromatography.
Analysis of the oleogum resin:
In 2001, Ganzera and Khan developed a reversed phase HPLC method for the separation of boswellic acids from Boswellia serrata oleogum resin. The first accurate determination of 6 individual acids was possible in the resin as well as in multi-component preparations. By using an acidic mobile phase, raised temperature, and a 4 μm Synergi MAX-RP 80 A column, the acids could be detected at levels as low as 0.9 μg/ml. The study of market products revealed significant variations in the content of these pharmacologically active compounds in commercial samples. (Ganzera & Khan, 2001)
Assignment of other atoms was made by referring to reported compilation data of a variety of similar compounds (Mahato et al., 1994), and by using data from DEPT spectrum combined with 1H-1H COSY, HMQC correlations and long range C-H correlation data from HMBC spectrum which is illustrated by (Fig. 3). EI/MS fragments corroborated the aforementioned assignments showing a molecular ion peak [M]+ at m/z 512.35 corresponding for the molecular formula C32H48O5.
Figure 3.
HMBC Correlation for 3-acetyl 11-keto β-Boswellic acid [63]
From the above mentioned data, and from literature data; one can conclude that compound A-6 is 3α-acetoxy-urs-12-ene-11-Keto-24β-oic acid known as acetyl-11-Keto-β-Boswellic acid (AKBA). A computer- generated model for that compound after energy minimization using
Figure 4.
Computer-generated Model of 3-acetyl 11-keto β-Boswellic acid [63]
CSChem3D program pro-version 4.0 (Cambridge Soft Corp.) is shown in Fig. 4.
The aforementioned data; it was suggested that 3α-hydroxy-urs-12-ene-11-keto-24β-oic acid known as 11-keto β-Boswellic acid (Kβ-BA). A computer-generated model for that compound after energy minimization using CSChem3D program pro-version 4.0 (Cambridge Soft Corp.) is shown in (Fig. 5).
Figure 5.
Computer-generated Model of 11-Keto-β-Boswellic acid [62]
3. Biology
Rough based Granular computing approach had been used to predict response to new medication from Boswellia and other components for treatment of HCV patients as presented in Fig. 6 (Badria et. Al al. 2013).
Figure 6.
Rough based Granular Approach (RGA) Used in HCV Dataset Classification
Figure 7.
Classifications Accuracy for Each Reduct During Experiment
Boswellia carterii extract in combination with glycyrrhizin (Badria et al. 2003) showed a strong biochemical and histopathological hepatoprotective effect on rat Liver Injury.
Frankincense triterpenoids showed Anti-Herpes activity (Badria et al. 2003) and Immunomodulatory effects (Badria et al. 2003 and Botros et al. 2003).
Animal studies showed that the ingestion of a defatted alcoholic extract of Boswellia decreased polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration and migration, decreased primary antibody synthesis (Sharma and Singh, 1989) and caused almost total inhibition of the classical complement pathway (Wagner, 1989) and alternate complement system (Knaus and Wagner, 1996).
The gum resin extract from Boswellia was recently shown to have positive therapeutic effects in inflammatory bowel disease. However, the mechanisms and constituents responsible for these effects are poorly understood (Krielgstein, 2001). Moreover, in a clinical study reported that Boswellia extract appears to be superior over mesalazine in terms of a benefit-risk-evaluation (Gehardt et al., 2001).
β-boswellic acid and its derivatives have anti-tumor and antihyperlipidemic activities (Huan et al., 2000).
Boswellia has also been observed to inhibit human leukocyte elastase (Safayhi et al., 1997 and Schweizer et al., 2000): Boswellic acids are effective anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritis agents,they also help control high blood lipids and protect the liver against bacterial galactosamine -endotoxin. The non acid part of the gum has pain relieving and sedative qualities, and in high doses can lower blood pressure, and reduce heart rate in dogs but increase in frogs observed benefits of Boswellia include reduction in joint swelling, increased mobility, steroid sparing action, less morning stiffness, improved grip strength, and general improvement in quality of life, for both osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. (Pachnanda et al. 1996).
Boswellia gum has been used for the treatment of diabetes, skin and blood diseases, fever, cardiovascular disorders, neurological disorders, dysentery and diseases of the tests (Adrian, 1998).
3.1. Predicting the Effect of Boswellic Acid
If the boswellic acid was just another leukotriene inhibitor, then its effects probably could be predicted on the basis of these drugs: It probably works sometimes, it probably doesn’t work for everyone, it probably is very effective for aspirin-induced asthma, it isn’t going to be quite as strong as corticosteroids, and it isn’t going to have as big an effect on the amount of air that can be expelled in one second as it does on other symptoms. These are, in fact, reasonable expectations (Safahyi et al., 1992). However, the boswellic acids neutralize elastase (Safahyi et al., 1997). It is not known how important this is. First, it is not known to what extent elastase contributes to the problem of asthma. Second, it is not known to what extent elastase is a problem when taking a leukotriene inhibitor (Safahyi et al., 1997). Boswellic acid’s ability to neutralize elastase is superfluous, or it might nicely complement the inhibition of leukotrienes. Also, we don\'t know how much the boswellic acids actually neutralize elastase.
Wildfeuer et al., 1998 administered a mixture of acetyl-boswellic acids to guinea pigs with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Multiple sclerosis occurs when the myelin insulating the neurons in the brain is destroyed. Researchers wishing to study this can’t wait for rats to get multiple sclerosis. Instead, they create a problem that is much like multiple sclerosis, which is called experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (Wildfeuer et al., 1998). Two studies (Safayhi et al., 1992) had previously found that leukotriene inhibitors reduced the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Of course, there is a jump from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in a rodent to multiple sclerosis in a human. Curiously, the role of leukotrienes in multiple sclerosis seems to have garnered more attention. People with multiple sclerosis do have increased leukotrienes (Sailer et al. 1996).
4. Blocking the formation of leukotrienes
4.1. Leukotrienes Inhibitors
Safahyi et al., 1992, observed the ability of the different boswellic acids to inhibit the formation of the leukotriene LTB4. As noted, the other leukotrienes are more important with regard to asthma. However, the mode of action of the boswellic acids should be equally effective for all leukotrienes, because they inhibit 5-lipoxygenase, the key enzyme needed for starting the synthesis of all leukotrienes. Safahyi and his group (1992) measured the concentration needed to block the activity of LTB4 by 50%. For AKBA, the needed concentration was 1.5 micromoles.
For the other boswellic acids, it was 4-7 micromoles, which means that 3 to 4 times greater a concentration was needed. A factor of 3 or 4 might not be that important as things go, but this finding singled out AKBA as being the most powerful boswellic acids (Safahyi et al., 1992). Wildfeuer et al., 1998, found that boswellic acids reduce leukotriene formation, and AKBA is the most effective.
5. Clinical applications
5.1. For treatment of knee osteoarthritis
After one month of treatment there was a significant reduction of pain on active movement, passive movement, tenderness, nocturnal pain and a significant improvement of pain free walking time. After two months of therapy, there was a highly significant reduction of pain on active movement, pain on passive movement, tenderness, nocturnal pain, and highly significant prolongation of pain free walking time. At the end of three months, there was a significant reduction of grade of knee effusion, with highly significant reduction of pain on passive movement, pain on active movement, tenderness, and significant prolongation of pain free walking time (Badria et al. 2004).
Efficacy and tolerability of Boswellia and turmeric in this work is superior to clinical trial of NSAIDs in treatment of active osteoarthritis. The efficacy of NSAIDs (diclofenace) were tested in a double blind clinical trail in 50 OA patients at dose of 50 mg bid for three weeks and follow up visit after seven weeks. At the end of the trial, there was a significant reduction in pain, joint tenderness (P < 0.05) and swelling (Badria et al. 2002).
5.2. For treatment of bronchial asthma
Badria et. al, 2002 and Gupta et al, 1998 performed the best type of research study in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Some subjects with bronchial asthma. During the 6 week treatment period, the subjects taking boswellic acid had an average of.3 asthmatic attacks and the subjects taking the placebo had an average of 1.2. despite worse starting signs, the subjects taking boswellic acid actually had fewer asthmatic attacks. Therefore, Gupta’s study stands as good evidence that boswellic acid at least reduces the probability of an asthmatic attack (Gupta et al, 1998).
After 2 weeks treatment with boswellia, there was a significant increase in both FEV1 and PEFR (P ≤ 0.05 and ≤ 0.01 respectively) with no significant change in FVC in the severe persistent asthma subgroup (C1) when compared to those received placebo (C2). The potent inhibitory action of boswellia extract on blood eosinophils, can be explained by a potent anti-inflammatory action extends beyond the leukotriene inhibition (Badria et al. 2004).
5.2.1. Ulcerative colitis
Badria et al., 2001 and Gupta et. al. 1997 compared boswellic acid to a typical therapy for ulcerative colitis, sulfasalazine. To roughly characterize the finding, there was no observable difference between the two treatments (Badria et al., 2001)
5.3. For treatment of hepatitis C
Inclusion Criteria:
positive PCR for HCV.
Elevated liver enzymes within 6 months of the Entry, with no attribution to causes other than HCV
Chronic HCV confirmed histologically with Liver biopsy within 2 years of entry
Both genders were eligible within age of 18-70 years old.
Participants were enlisted from a group of HCV-infected patients currently enrolled in a large observational study in Egypt. Participants received the supplements daily for 18 months, with measures obtained every 6 months.
Measures to be assessed will include: compliance with assignment, retention in the study, Liver enzymes levels, serum collagen markers, self-described symptoms, viral load and clearance, abdominal ultrasound. It is hypothesized that the supplements led to clearance of HCV infections and/or at least prevent progression of liver disease in participants with chronic HCV hepatitis and, in some cases, reverse hepatic lesions that are already present, as well as improving the quality of life in individuals who use this dietary supplement. (Badria et al. 2002)
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Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",email:"faridbadria@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Historical Background and Folkloric use (Ryman, 1997)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Boswellia carterii Birdwood (Syn. Boswellia sacra Flüeckiger)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3. Boswellia frereana Birdwood",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"1.4. Boswellia serrata Roxb. Ex Colebr.",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"1.5. Boswellia papyrifera (Delile ex Caill.) Hochst",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"2. Chemistry",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.1. Pentacylic Triterpenes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.2. Tetracyclic triterpenes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Biology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.1. Predicting the Effect of Boswellic Acid",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2. Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (Multiple Sclerosis)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Blocking the formation of leukotrienes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.1. Leukotrienes Inhibitors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Clinical applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.1. For treatment of knee osteoarthritis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.2. For treatment of bronchial asthma",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"5.2.1. Ulcerative colitis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.3. For treatment of hepatitis C",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Abdel wahab SM., Aboutabl E. A., Elzalabani S. M., Fouad H. A., De Pooter H. L., and El Fallaha B.; (1987The Essential Oil of Olibanum, Planta Medica, 53, 382.Abdel wahab S. M., Aboutabl E. A., Elzalabani S. M., Fouad H. A., De Pooter H. 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Pand SafayhiH2000Work-up dependent formation of 5-lipoxygenase-inhibitory boswellic acid analogues J Nat Prod; 63105861Schweizer S, Von Brocke AF, Boden SE, Bayer E, Ammon HP and Safayhi H, (2000), Work-up dependent formation of 5-lipoxygenase-inhibitory boswellic acid analogues J Nat Prod; 63: 1058-61.'},{id:"B44",body:'SafayhiHMackTSabierajJAnazodoM. ISubramanianL. Rand AmmonH. P. T1992Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 261, 1143.Safayhi H., Mack T., Sabieraj J., Anazodo M. I., Subramanian L. R. and Ammon H. P. T.; (1992), Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 261, 1143.'},{id:"B45",body:'SafayhiHRallBSailerE. RAmmon HPT, (1997Inhibition by Boswellic acids of human leukocyte elastase. J Pharmacol Exp Ther; 281460463Safayhi H, Rall B, Sailer ER, Ammon HPT, (1997) Inhibition by Boswellic acids of human leukocyte elastase. J Pharmacol Exp Ther; 281: 460-463.'},{id:"B46",body:'SailerE. RSubramanianL. RRallBHoernleinR. FAmmonH. P. Tand SafayhiH1996British Journal of Pharmacology, 117, 615.Sailer E. R., Subramanian L. R., Rall B., Hoernlein R. F., Ammon H. P. T., and Safayhi H.; (1996), British Journal of Pharmacology, 117, 615.'},{id:"B47",body:'SenA. KDasA. KBanerjiNVignonM. R1992Isolation and structure of a 4-O-methyl-glucouroarabinogalactan from Boswellia serrata, Carbohy. Res. 2233217Sen A. K., Das A. K., Banerji N., Vignon M. R., (1992), Isolation and structure of a 4-O-methyl-glucouroarabinogalactan from Boswellia serrata, Carbohy. Res. 223, 321-7.'},{id:"B48",body:'SharmaM. LBaniSSinghG. B1989Antiarthritic activity of boswellic acid in bovine serum albumin-induced arthritis. In J Immunopharm; 6647652Sharma ML, Bani S, Singh GB; (1989), Antiarthritic activity of boswellic acid in bovine serum albumin-induced arthritis. In J Immunopharm; 6:647-652.'},{id:"B49",body:'WagnerHSearch for new plant constituents with potential antiphlogistic and antiallergic activity. 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“One should act as a man of thought and think as a man of action”.
Henri Bergson
1. Introduction
If the qualities required of a leader to be a good commander and a good decision maker remain constant in human history in the face of the complexity of the battle, the leader of tomorrow will have to adapt to the uses of new technologies. This will allow him to be better informed, and consequently to be more reactive in order to keep the initiative in the manoeuvre, but also to carry his action further and delegate certain tasks to the machines he will have at his disposal. Such adaptations are not trivial, because they reconsider the existing military doctrines, and can call into question the very principle of the hierarchy that makes the strength of armies. It is therefore necessary for the military to know how to use these new technologies through training, but also to know how to keep control of the use of new systems integrating a certain form of autonomy. Above all, it is important for the military leader to preserve the very essence of his very identity: to give meaning to military action and command to achieve his goals.
2. Commandment
Primarily, a military leader must command, which implies legitimate decision-making authority and a responsibility towards the soldiers entrusted to him for the mission which he must ensure.
The command is the very expression of the personality of the leader. It depends on the tactical situation which includes the risk and the obligations of the mission to be carried out.
To be a good military leader implies several additional qualities: to be demanding, to be competent, to have a high moral strength in the face of the difficulties of war, to have confidence in his own abilities and in those put at disposal, to be in responsibility to assume his decisions and for that to put in responsibility his subordinates, and finally to be able to decide in complete freedom.
He is the one who decides and commands. He is the one to whom all eyes turn in difficulty [1], but the exercise of his command requires a demanding discernment between reflection and action.
3. Decision
The military world is very demanding and dangerous. Having to take into account the danger for his soldiers, the danger for himself and the responsibility of the mission he has been given, the military leader should:
discern in complexity (deploy true situational intelligence);
decide in uncertainty (have the strength of character to accept calculated risks);
act in adversity (to unite energies, encourage collective action and make conscious decisions);
This forms the basis of the educational project of the Saint-Cyr Coëtquidan military academy, and perfectly synthesises the objectives of a training system adapted to the officers of the 21st century. However, this initial training must take into account the technological evolutions allowing military decision-makers of today and tomorrow to reduce the fog of war.
3.1 Military leader is accountable for the decision
What is decision-making for a military officer? It consists of choosing between different possibilities and opting for a conclusion among the different possible solutions, while having analysed all effects that this decision implies.
In order to decide, the leader must master the various areas listed below: a perfect knowledge of the mission entrusted to him, of the means at his disposal and of his troops. Nothing is worse than indecision when the lives of soldiers are in danger. His decision must call for moral and intellectual courage.
“The unknown is the governing factor in war” said Marshal Foch. However, the role of the leader is above all to be able to adapt and modify his analysis and the behaviour of his troop in order to respond to unforeseen situations. This ability to adapt is essential to maintain the freedom of action that allows for initiative on the battlefield, and to be able to innovate according to the constraints.
The leader must show discernment in action, to appreciate facts according to their nature and their fair value. This implies being cautious in his choices and the scope of his choices.
Finally, the leader must be lucid, and control his stress, pressure and emotions. These to preserve his “esprit d’initiative”.
3.2 Information, the key to victory
To meet all these requirements, information is one of the major foundations for the exercise of the command of the chief. It is the keystone of all military action, to keep the initiative and maintain supremacy on the ground [2].
In fact, information allows the chief to plan the military action, taking into account the means at his disposal, ensuring the transport logistics, and confronting the possible friendly and enemy modes of action in order to determine the manoeuvre that he will conduct.
The management of the information received is reflected “en conduite1” by the regular rhythm of reports and situation updates to higher or subordinate levels, in order to anticipate threats and maintain a capacity to react as quickly and efficiently as possible in the face of adversity or any obstacle hindering the manoeuvre.
For the decision-making process to run smoothly, the information must be updated regularly because the situation can change very quickly and the leader will have to adapt his analysis accordingly.
Thus, there is no single decision of the military commander in operation, but a continuum of decisions, some of which are almost routine or implicit, while others require extensive analysis. Some decisions are ultimately critical, as they can result in a favourable or tragic outcome to a given situation.
4. What is fundamentally changing
This chapter addresses the change in the art of decision-making for a military officer, implied by the use of some technologies that will gradually invade the battlefield.
Indeed, some technologies will allow the leader to be better informed, but also to be more reactive in order to keep the initiative. Their management requires a mastery of new data management processes resulting from the digitisation of the battlefield, in particular the possible influx of operational data from the field and their synthesis for the military leader.
4.1 A more accurate and faster remote information acquisition
The one who sees further and before the others is the one who dominates the military manoeuvre. This is what enables him to gain a tactical advantage because the one who acts first with determination is most often the one who wins. Moreover, the ability to see further and more accurately thanks to remote sensors or cameras brings an undeniable advantage to the military leader, enabling him to react faster than his enemy.
Today, spaces are getting tighter, and information can be transmitted in a few milliseconds to any point on the planet, provided that the sensor capturing the information is available. This is done through cyberspace which must be secured for military forces so that they can be sure of the veracity of the data they use. This immediacy of information is a new parameter in the art of command. It forces the leader to make a quick analysis and to be reactive in his response.
It also raises the question of his capacity to process the information, if there is too much data to process. In this case, it will be necessary to process automatically the data as soon as it is received by the systems, to extract only the relevant information. And if these systems are unable to do this, the leader will have to be assisted in the analysis and decision-making by a third party, which may also be a machine. This raises the question of the control of these decision aids provided and which he must rely on.
4.2 Act remotely to remove the danger and increase the area of action
One of the major military revolutions that began at the start of the 21st century in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars is the robotisation of the battlefield. It is unavoidable and will gradually be introduced into the battlefield because the use of unmanned robots (UAV, USV, UUS and UGV) offers many advantages to the armies that will use them on the ground.
Firstly, it avoids exposing our own combatants, which is all the more important in our modern armies where the latter are a scarce and expensive resources to train.
Secondly, it extends the area of perception and action of a military unit. In a sense, they are the “5 deported senses” of the fighter, i.e. his eyes (camera), his ears (reception), his mouth (transmission), his touch (actuator arm) and even his sense of smell and taste (detection of CBRN products).
As tools placed at the disposal of the combatant, robots will allow him to control the battlefield by deporting effectors or sensors allowing a control of the various dimensions and spaces of the battlefield, on land, in the air, at sea and even electromagnetically. These will thus progressively move the combatant behind the contact zone, in order to move him away from the dangerous area and reduce the risks, or allow him to dive in with the maximum of means at his disposal, thus significantly reducing the vulnerability of the combatants [3].
Finally, the ability to act remotely while preserving the lives of his men will allow the leader to act even the enemy can even deploy his forces for his manoeuvre.
Robotic systems will thus become new tactical pawns that the military leader will now use to prepare his action, to facilitate his progress, allowing him new effects on the enemy, the terrain, the occupation of space and on the rhythm of the action. Especially since these machines will eventually be more efficient, more precise and faster for specific tasks than a human being can be. This is currently evident in industrial manufacturing and assembly plants.
4.3 The disruption of autonomy
This military revolution of deporting action with robotic systems is accompanied by another, no less disruptive, that of the autonomy of these systems. Autonomy will allow for omnipresence of action in the area, 24 hours a day, subject to energy sufficiency. It will allow the machines to adapt to the terrain and its unforeseen events in order to carry on the mission entrusted to them by the military leaders. Autonomous systems will allow them to react to complex situations by adapting their positioning strategy, and even adapting the effects it produces on the battlefield. For example, it may be an automatic reorganisation of the swarm formation adopted by a group of robots to follow an advancing enemy, followed by the decision to block an axis of progression with smoke or obstacles to hinder enemy progression.
However, autonomy is not fundamentally new for a leader. A section or a platoon leader has combat groups under his command, whose group leader who receives a mission has full autonomy to carry it out. The new fact is that if robots are tactical pawns at the disposal of the combatant, and if they can have a certain form of autonomy in the execution of their action, they do not have and will never have the awareness of their action and the capacity of discernment which are characteristics of the human being. This opens up a number of ethical questions regarding the opening of fire that will not be addressed in this chapter (See [3]).
5. The contribution of new technologies to military decision-making
These upheavals are based on technologies that create new opportunities in military decision-making processes.
5.1 All deployed systems are interconnected
The digitisation of the battlefield stems from the constant trend towards the integration of electronic components in all future military equipment, which, coupled with a means of transmission, allow for their interconnection and the dissemination of the information collected. It affects all systems deployed in the field (from weapons systems to military vehicles), right down to the disembarked combatant who, just like any civilian with a smartphone, will be connected to the great digital web of the battlefield and therefore traceable and reachable. Just like every individual in the civil society, every actor on the battlefield is traceable and able to communicate.
5.2 Enriched information
As explained above, technology will enable a faster detection of threats on the battlefield. The Law of Moore has sometimes been used to describe the increase in the capabilities of digital cameras, according to a ratio of “twice as far” or “twice as cheap” or “twice as small” every 3 years. In fact, each innovation allows to see further for a smaller footprint. The digital zoom allows high magnifications but at the cost of algorithmic processing of the image which causes lesser definition quality. It is often paired with the optical zoom, which consists of adapting the focal length to the target you want to look at. Cameras can now merge data from multiple sensors of different types. In particular, thermal imaging allowing you to see a large fraction of the spectrum and to view and measure the thermal energy emitted by an equipment or a human. To which one can add light intensification processes to amplify the existing residual light to recreate an image usable by the human eye, in low light conditions.
All of this fused data can enrich the field of vision of the combatant by superimposing additional data that completes his knowledge of the tactical situation. This is the principle of augmented reality.
5.3 The immediacy of information processing
If data acquisition and transmission is possible, the information should nevertheless be processed. However processing it requires easily accessible hardware and software resources offering the necessary computing capacity to react as quickly as possible, particularly in order to be extremely reactive in situations where the analysis time is too short for a human to do it by himself. Embedded computer software can provide such capacity at the core of deployed systems, but this capability can also be moved to a secure cloud, which can be both a tactical cloud, i.e. a cloud deployed on the battlefield in support of the manoeuvre, or to a further away, highly sovereign and secure cloud.
5.4 To the detriment of human decision-making
This immediacy of information processing allows a hyper-reactivity of systems, foreshadowing the concept of “hyperwar” formulated by General John Allen & Amir Hussain Allen in 2019, which puts forward the idea that the advent of hyperwar is the next fundamentally transformative change in warfare.
“What makes this new form of warfare unique is the unparalleled speed enabled by automating decision-making and the concurrency of action that become possible by leveraging artificial intelligence and machine cognition… In military terms, hyperwar may be redefined as a type of conflict where human decision-making is almost entirely absent from the observe-orient-decide-act (OODA) loop. Consequently, the time associated with an OODA cycle will be reduced to near-instantaneous responses. The implications of these developments are many and game changing2”.
5.5 A support for information processing
For information processing, the volume of data produced increases exponentially and the accuracy and granularity of the data produced by sensors grows. This trend will become more and more pronounced over time [4].
Military experts usually process observation data retrieved from the battlefield by satellites, reconnaissance aircraft, drones or sensors abandoned on the ground. However, as human resources are scarce and the volume of data is constantly increasing, it will be necessary to delegate the processing of this amount of data to AI algorithms in support of the human being, at the risk of not being able to process all of them without this technology.
On the ground, the deployed combatant will be increasingly charged cognitively by the complexity of the systems to operate and the amount of information to process. It will be vital to automate the processing of certain information in order to unload it, so that only what is really necessary will be presented. This needs to be done in an extremely ergonomic way. This requires defining which data can be subjected to artificial processing, and up to what hierarchical level their processing can be automated.
5.6 The contribution of artificial intelligence
Automated management of routine, repetitive and time-consuming procedures could emerge. In a headquarters, for example, reports management and automatic production of summaries adapted to the level of command would immediately make the chain of command more fluid. The AI could take the form of a dashboard to stimulate the reflection of the commander and his advisers by dynamically delivering relevant information and updated statements [5].
During operational preparation, depending on the tactical situation, the leader must confront the possible modes of action he envisages with the reference enemy situation and the possible enemy modes of action. Very often he does not have the material time to confront his action with several enemy modes of action, and he only anticipates certain non-compliant cases that he considers probable. Artificial intelligence could be more exhaustive in confronting more possible modes of action of the enemy, and thus present a more complete analysis of possible options to the military leader who could then decide accordingly.
The field is wide, and even more infinite. A new question then arises: for new technologies, is a new way of command needed?
6. Reduction of the OODA decision cycle
The technologies listed above have a direct effect on the OODA decision cycle, which will be profoundly impacted by the new technologies.
This concept was defined in 1960 by an American military pilot by the name of John Boyd to formalise the decision cycle in air combat. It has since been used to schematise any decision cycle. The author will use it here in the light of the potential offered by the technologies detailed above (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
OODA cycle time reduction: A better reactivity.
6.1 Observe: a better detection
“Seeing without being seen” is essential in military operations, and remains a common adage. Technology is helping, with the extended distances made possible by long-range cameras and their deportation to robotic systems. It can now also help to overcome several natural detection constraints such as night, fog or walls.
Moreover, digitised systems can operate 24 hours a day with great consistency, where humans are subject to fatigue and inattention, avoiding the risk of missing information.
For surveillance or patrol missions, where human resources are often lacking, the leader can delegate to systems the analysis of images of the area for the detection of movements and the potential presence of enemies. It should be noted that this detection should filter out false alarms as much as possible, such as the movement of leaves in the trees when the wind picks up.
6.2 Orient: a better analysis
Remotely seeing will make it possible to identify a potential target from afar, to discriminate it (is the target a combatant) and to characterise its behaviour (is it hostile or not). If these criteria are met, the target becomes a potential target that can easily be geolocated, this information will then be transmitted to the decision-making levels. The gain here is that of anticipating the analysis for better decision-making.
The leader will also be able to rely on the automatic processing of data acquired within the digital environment of the battlefield. Faced with the potential ‘infobesity’ of the battlefield, artificial intelligence will enable massive data processing, subject to the availability of a computing capacity directly embedded in remote robotic platforms, or by remote processing of information via long-distance communications. It will allow constant monitoring of the analysis of captured images or sounds, a task that the best human experts can only supervise because they are subject to fatigue and inattention. This is particularly the case with satellite images or images captured by surveillance drones, which can monitor an area 24 hours a day. Finally, it will also enable the detection of weak signals that would be invisible to humans, by correlation between several distinct events, or by cross-checking.
There are still two essential components to the analysis of the situation that a machine can never integrate. Firstly, instinct and intuition, which a machine cannot have and which are the fruit of a life-long learning of human experience, and secondly, the transcendence of military action which only a metaphysical dimension in the literal sense can provide.
6.3 Decide: a better reaction
The military commander is the decision-maker for military action. It is therefore up to him to take the decision according to the information at his disposal. He can of course rely on a deputy or on operational advisers who help him analyse the situation, if time permits.
For example, France is intervening in Mali and the Sahara as part of the Barkhane military operation to combat Salafist jihadist armed groups infiltrating the entire Sahel region. Launched on 1 August 2014, this operation replaces operations Serval and Épervier. The following scenario is fictitious: an armed Reaper drone of the French army flies over a region of the Malian desert at night and its cameras (incorporating AI for automatic motion detection processing of the captured images) detect a suspicious movement. The sensor operator of the drone is alerted and zooms in on the area to detect a jihadist 4x4 occupied by armed personnel via its Infrared camera. This vehicle is moving towards a village 20 kilometres away. Setting up an operation with Special Forces is not possible because they are not in the area, and there is a great risk that the occupants of the 4x4 will disperse once they reach the village. The legal advisor on duty quickly confirms the possibility of the drones firing on the target because no collateral damage is possible in this desert area. The head of the operation decides to give the order to fire the drone.
This example clearly shows the drastic reduction in the OODA decision cycle offered by the new technologies: the chief detects and is informed as soon as possible by an automatic detection of a suspicious movement of an enemy vehicle. He confirms with his image operator the Positive identification (PID) of the target as an enemy. He then reports it to his hierarchy and receives the order to open fire. He can thus, in compliance with IHL, open fire from a distance. The enemy has not even spotted him.
There are still situations where time is critical and the leader will not have time to make a decision due to the rapidity of the attack. The automation of response processes then becomes a possible option, i.e. he can delegate to a machine the possibility of giving an appropriate response to a situation by itself. This is already the case with missiles or ballistic threats, which require armies to use automatic systems to counter them. This requires automatic systems that are faster and more precise than human beings (e.g. coupling weapons and radar). Tomorrow, faced with future systems that will develop unpredictable trajectory strategies (enemy missiles with AI), faced with saturating threats that risk overwhelming our defences, faced with swarms of offensive robots, our systems will have to adapt in real time to counter the threat. Only a certain autonomy of the defensive systems will make it possible to face them, an autonomy which will have to remain under the control of the leader having these systems at his disposal.
6.4 Act: a quicker and more accurate reaction
A quicker reaction: A man reacts in a few seconds, the machine in a few milliseconds or less. Where a human thinks in a few seconds for the best, the machine will analyse parameters in a few milliseconds and propose a response in near real time.
A more accurate action: A human shooter who moves, breathes and shakes is less accurate than a machine that does not move, breathe or shake because it is not subject to emotion. Precision in action will therefore increasingly be the prerogative of the machine.
The outcome of a fight or a counter-measure may depend on these factors 10 or 100 seconds to a thousand seconds.
7. Technology as a decision aid for the leader
Military decision-making is centred on the military leader, because he is at the heart of the command situation. He takes responsibility for military action, a mission given to him by the legitimately elected political power.
The leader must therefore control the decisions taken within the framework of military action because he is the guarantor and he assumes the consequences.
What lessons can one learn from the opportunities offered by new technologies for military decision-making and the possible resulting changes in the art of command?
7.1 To reduce the “fog of war”
The leader must rely on technology to reduce the uncertainty and fog of war. It will allow him to be more aware of his tactical situation by searching for intelligence. Furthermore, it will enable him to delegate to machines the management of repetitive tasks that do not require constant situational intelligence.
Depending on the circumstances and if he has time to reflect, the digitisation of battlefield information will also allow the leader to replay certain possible scenarios before taking a decision. Finally, it will give him the possibility to select the information he has received that he deems important, to view it several times (especially if the information is imprecise) before making a decision.
7.2 For decision support
A digital aid will be welcome to synthesise the multiplication of digital actors on the ground with whom he is in contact, or whom he must command or coordinate as a leader.
One of the consequences of the digitization of the battlefield is that it may lead to information overload for the leader who is already very busy and focused on his tasks of commanding and managing. It is already accepted in the military community that a leader can manage a maximum of seven different information sources at the same time, and even less when under fire.
Delegating is one way to avoid cognitive overload. Thus, one possible solution is to create a “digital assistant” who can support the leader in the information processing steps.
His digital deputy can be a digital assistant, an autonomous machine that will assist the leader in filtering and processing information, which will help the leader in the decision-making process.
Nevertheless, the leader will have to fight against the easy way out, take a step back, allow himself time to reflect, and reason with a critical sense when faced with machines that will think for him. This process will help him fight against a possible inhibition of human reasoning. Artificial intelligence does not mean artificial ignorance if it is used as an intellectual stimulant, although it can have this flaw.
7.3 For an optimization of its resources
The chief will be able to entrust machines with the execution of certain time-consuming and tedious tasks, such as patrols or the surveillance of sectors, and thus conserve his human resources for missions where they will have a higher added value.
The same applies to missions that require reactivity and precision, especially if there is a need to be extremely quick to adapt to the situation. For example, it will be useful in the case of saturating threats, where targeted destruction or multi-faceted and omnipresent threats such as swarms of drones must be dealt with.
8. But technology as a decision aid subject to control and confidence
Delegation of tasks to increasingly autonomous machines raises the question of the place of humans who interface with these systems and should stay in control.
8.1 The leader must always control execution of an autonomous system
At first, the military will not use equipment or tools that they do not control, regardless of the army in the world. Every military leader must be in control of the military action, and for this purpose, must be able to control the units and the means at his disposal. He places his confidence in them to carry out the mission, which is the basis of the principle of subsidiarity.
For this reason, it is not in his interest to have a robotic system that governs itself with its own rules and objectives. Moreover, this system could be disobedient or break out of the framework that has been set for it. Thus, machines with a certain degree of autonomy must be subordinate to the chain of command, and subject to orders, counter orders, and reporting [6].
8.2 Operators must have confidence when delegating tasks to an autonomous system
The military will never use equipment or tools that they do not trust. This is the reason why a leader must have confidence in the way a machine behaves or could behave. For that, military engineers should develop autonomous systems capable of explaining their decisions.
Automatic systems are predictable, thus, one can easily anticipate how it will perform the task entrusted to it. However, this becomes more complex with autonomous systems, especially self-learning systems where one may well know the objective of the task to be performed by the machine, but has no idea how it will operate. This raises a serious question of trust in this system. As an example, when I ask an autonomous mowing robot to mow my lawn, I know my lawn will be mowed, but I do not know exactly how the robot will proceed.
The best example to focus on are the expectations of the soldier about Artificial Intelligence embedded in autonomous systems.
AI should be trustable. This means that adaptive and self-learning systems must be able to explain their reasoning and decisions to human operators in a transparent and understandable manner;
AI should be explainable and predictable: one must understand the different steps of reasoning carried out by a machine that delivers a solution to a problem or an answer to a complex question. For this, a human-machine interface (HMI) that explains its decision-making mechanism is needed.
One must therefore focus on more transparent and personalised human-machine interfaces for the operator and the leader [6].
9. The risks inherent in the use of new technologies for military decision-making
9.1 Tunnel effect
Easy access to information or possible information overload both favour a possible tunnel effect. This effect, due to a sudden rise in adrenaline, causes a failure in the analysis of signals and data received by a brain that is no longer able to step back and analyse the situation. For the military, this tunnel effect is clearly the enemy of the soldier who has to concentrate on a screen, on a precise task, forgetting to look at the enemy threat around him and thus exposing himself seriously. It is also the enemy of the leader who, because he focuses on a piece of information that he finds crucial, becomes unable to step back and fulfil his role as a leader, which is to take into account the globality of the military action, and not one of its particular aspects highlighted by this information. Too much information should not prevent the commander from stepping back and reflecting.
The question of the gender of the soldier operator may be an avenue of exploration here, as women may have the capacity to manage several tasks simultaneously better than men.
9.2 Inhibit the action
Easy access to information encourages another possible flaw in decision-making. That of not deciding anything until one has all the information at his disposal. This flaw can probably become a major concern in the future. With the responsibility of the soldier at stake, he may hesitate until the last moment to take a decision because he lacks information that he can hope to recover by technological means. This is the death of daring, of manoeuvre by surprise, which often ensures a victory for the leaders who dare to practice them.
9.3 AI will influence the decision of the leader
Stress is an inherent component of taking responsibility. It is common for a military leader to have the feeling of being overwhelmed in a complex (military) situation. In such contexts, the leader will most often be inclined to trust an artificial intelligence because it will appear to him, provided he has confidence in it, as a serious decision-making aid not influenced by any stress, having superior processing capabilities, and able to test multiple combinations for a particular effect.
9.4 Too much predictability in operational decision-making patterns
The modelling of human intelligence by duly validated but very fixed algorithmic processes can lead to the inhibition of human intelligence. In particular, there will be a risk that military thinking will be locked into decision-triggering software. In other words, the formatting of military thought into controlled and controllable decision-making processes, developed by the need to respect the rules of engagement and international rules, particularly those of the decision to open fire. The processes will certainly be validated, but once activated, these processes may become completely rigid technological gems, admirably designed, but incorporating doctrinal biases that cannot be challenged in the face of unpredictable enemy behaviour [7]. By the time, these systems and their uses are adapted, it will be too late and the battle will be lost.
Another major risk is the predictability of the behaviour of these systems by the enemy. As these systems are known, their vulnerability will also be known. It will therefore be easy for the enemy to circumvent them by manoeuvres combining cunning and opportunity, with victory only reflecting the inability of these highly technical systems to adapt to an unpredictable or simply illegal conflict.
The leader must therefore anticipate these pitfalls and use the means at his disposal with intelligence. On these aspects, the French army has developed the concept of “major effect” to be achieved. This major effect conceptualises the way in which the leader intends to seize the initiative in the execution of his mission and which makes it possible to adapt the means and methods of execution to the final effect sought [8].
9.5 A principle of subsidiarity undermined
As a corollary to the extraordinary potential of the digitisation of the battlefield, namely to allow all levels of the hierarchy to access information in real time and simultaneously, there is also a new risk at every level of the military hierarchy: that of the leader having the possibility of directly accessing ‘target information’, thus breaking the principle of subsidiarity, which requires him to delegate to his subordinates the responsibility for and the use of the means made available to him. The temptation to interfere in the decisions of subordinates and to decide in their place will be great, given his experience and his position. In order to avoid this possible risk, it will be necessary to define precisely the right level of information to be communicated for the right strategic level, in order to respect the freedom of action of each level and to avoid a general and systematic dissemination of information without intermediate processing and filtering.
10. Conclusion
“The philosophy of war does not change. It will not change as long as it is men who make war” said General Charles de Gaulle.
In spite of everything, new technologies bring new equipment to the forces in operation. They are transforming the art of waging war through the opportunities they offer and by the new uses they bring to the battlefield.
With these new means at his disposal, the leader must continue to ensure the delicate balance between reflection and action. Without real and concrete commitment, there can be no good understanding of the situation, and without hindsight, there can be no good decisions [9].
This balance can only be achieved through advanced training. Firstly, human learning, to know how to command his men and respect the opponent. Secondly, intellectual learning, because he must understand the technologies he will use on the battlefield. Military training, because war is an art that leaves no room for the unexpected and requires skills and qualities that are acquired through effort, courage and performance training.
It is this leader of tomorrow that the French Military Academy of Saint-Cyr Coëtquidan is training in Brittany, in the western part of France.
Glossary
AI
Artificial Intelligence
CBRN
Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear
HMI
Human-Machine Interface
OODA
Observe-Orient-Decide-Act
PID
Positive Identification
UAV
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UGV
Unmanned Ground Vehicle
USV
Unmanned Surface Vehicle
UUS
Unmanned Underwater Vehicle
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Commandment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Decision",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Military leader is accountable for the decision",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Information, the key to victory",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. What is fundamentally changing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 A more accurate and faster remote information acquisition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2 Act remotely to remove the danger and increase the area of action",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3 The disruption of autonomy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. The contribution of new technologies to military decision-making",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.1 All deployed systems are interconnected",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.2 Enriched information",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.3 The immediacy of information processing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.4 To the detriment of human decision-making",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.5 A support for information processing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.6 The contribution of artificial intelligence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. Reduction of the OODA decision cycle",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"6.1 Observe: a better detection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"6.2 Orient: a better analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"6.3 Decide: a better reaction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"6.4 Act: a quicker and more accurate reaction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"7. Technology as a decision aid for the leader",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"7.1 To reduce the “fog of war”",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"7.2 For decision support",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"7.3 For an optimization of its resources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26",title:"8. But technology as a decision aid subject to control and confidence",level:"1"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"8.1 The leader must always control execution of an autonomous system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"8.2 Operators must have confidence when delegating tasks to an autonomous system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29",title:"9. The risks inherent in the use of new technologies for military decision-making",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"9.1 Tunnel effect",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"9.2 Inhibit the action",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"9.3 AI will influence the decision of the leader",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"9.4 Too much predictability in operational decision-making patterns",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"9.5 A principle of subsidiarity undermined",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35",title:"10. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_35_2",title:"Glossary",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'French Army Staff. L’exercice du commandement dans l’armée de Terre, 2016 ; Available from: https://www.defense.gouv.fr/content/download/467991/7465134/Exercice_commandement.pdf [Accessed: 2021-05-28]'},{id:"B2",body:'Gérard de Boisboissel. Special edition DSI magazine n° 45, Le soldat augmenté, 2016, p. 54'},{id:"B3",body:'Gérard de Boisboissel. Special edition Revue Défense Nationale, déc. 2018 : Autonomie et létalité en robotique militaire, p.45; and Available from: https://www.defnat.com/pdf/cahiers/Cahier%20CREC%202018%20-%20Autonomie%20et%20l%C3%A9talit%C3%A9%20en%20robotique%20militaire.pdf [Accessed: 2021-05-28]'},{id:"B4",body:'Cédric Villani. Donner un sens à l’intelligence artificielle, 2018, p. 220; and Available from: https://www.aiforhumanity.fr/pdfs/MissionVillani_Report_ENG-VF.pdf [Accessed: 2021-05-28]'},{id:"B5",body:'Major Sauget. Special edition DSI magazine n° 65, IA & Défense, 2019, p. 30'},{id:"B6",body:'Gérard de Boisboissel. The contribution of human work to safety in high-hazard industries in the future, editors Foundation for an industrial safety culture (FonCSI); 2021'},{id:"B7",body:'Benoit Bihan. Special edition Guerres & Histoire magazine n°60, 2021, p. 14'},{id:"B8",body:'general Michel Yakovleff. Theoretical Tactics, 2nd ed. Économica, 2018'},{id:"B9",body:'Ivan Morel. L’Hyper-conscience du chef militaire : moteur ou frein pour l’action ?, editors revue Inflexions, 2006/2, p. 115 et 124'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"“en conduite” is a French expression literally translated by “ while driving ” which means to decide while the military action is taking place."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"https://www.fifthdomain.com/dod/2017/08/07/emerging-hyperwar-signals-ai-fueled-machine-waged-future-of-conflict/"}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Gérard de Boisboissel",address:"gerard.de-boisboissel@st-cyr.terre-net.defense.gouv.fr",affiliation:'
Challenges of Emerging Technologies for the Armed Forces, Military Academy Saint-Cyr Coëtquidan Research Centre, France
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The American Academy of Pediatrics and the Canadian Paediatric Society position statements only advocate for RSV prophylaxis for infants <30 wGA. Several publications prove the contrary, reporting substantial morbidity and even mortality in older GA infants, following RSV infection. Consequently, other Societies, such as from Spain and Italy, have different criteria, and include as candidates 30–32 wGA infants and 33–35 wGA infants with risk factors for severe RSV disease. This chapter will systematically examine the current evidence for RSV prophylaxis in both early and late preterm infants 29–35 wGA and the cost-effectiveness of this strategy with the use of risk scoring tools. 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The coffee quality is associated with pre-harvest and post-harvest management activities. Each step starting from selecting the best coffee variety for plantation until the final coffee drink preparation determines the cupping quality. The overall coffee quality influenced by the factors which involve in changes the physicochemical properties and sensorial attributes, including the post-harvest operations. The post-harvest processing activities contribute about 60% of the quality of green coffee beans. The post-harvest operations include pulping, processing, drying, hulling, cleaning, sorting, grading, storage, roasting, grinding, and cupping. This chapter comprises the harvest and post-harvest operations of coffee and their impacts on coffee quality.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Mesfin Haile and Won Hee Kang",authors:null},{id:"69900",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89508",title:"Coffee By-Products: Nowadays and Perspectives",slug:"coffee-by-products-nowadays-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:1148,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Coffee is one of the most consumed products around the world; 2.25 billions of coffee cup are consumed everyday in the world. For coffee crop production, different by-products are produced, such as coffee peel, coffee husk, parchment, and spent coffee grounds. These by-products have several problems associated at the final disposition. In this book chapter, we study the main coffee varieties produced in the world, the by-products produced, and its composition and finally assess the potential of supramolecular solvents (SUPRAS) and water as green solvents for high-added-value compound extractions. Bioactive compounds were extracted from fresh and dried coffee peel in an acceptable rate for industrial applications. SUPRAS offer advantages in terms of rapidity (5 min) and simplicity (stirring and centrifugation at room temperature), thus avoiding costly processes based on high pressure and temperature. Extractions carried out using water as solvent is another technique of extraction mixing temperature (above 60°C) and time (4.5 min) obtained a beverage or solution with presence a bioactive compounds how caffeine, chlorogenic acid and polyphenols.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Laura Sofía Torres-Valenzuela, Johanna Andrea Serna-Jiménez and Katherine Martínez",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71528",title:"A Detail Chemistry of Coffee and Its Analysis",slug:"a-detail-chemistry-of-coffee-and-its-analysis",totalDownloads:2331,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This review article highlights the detailed chemistry of coffee including its components; chemical constituents like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and caffeine; aromatic principles; oil and waxes; and minerals and acids. The high extent of caffeine can be found in the coffee plants; hence, in the second part of the study, various analytical methods are designed for the proper identification, separation, optimization, purification, and determination of caffeine present in coffee, tea, and marketed coffee. These analytical methods are appropriated for the separation and quantification of caffeine. The various analytical methods include spectroscopy methods like UV, IR, and NMR spectroscopy; chromatographic methods like paper, TLC, column, HPLC, and gas chromatography; and hyphenated techniques like LC–MS, GC–MS, and GC–MS/MS. 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To promote vegetables’ contribution to the above, there is a need for sustainable and efficient production process. The paper reviewed production, socioeconomic factors, and constraint affecting efficiency of production of three important vegetables (tomato, pepper, and onion). The review showed that socioeconomic factors found to increase technical efficiency in vegetable production were educational level, extension contact, and household size. Influence of farmer age on technical efficiency was inconclusive due to varied opinions. Increase in farm size, quantity of seed, amount of fertilizer, and agrochemical were found to have positive influence on output. Majority of the literature reviewed opined that increase in quantity of labour raises productivity; however, it must be utilized efficiently. The mean technical efficiency of the vegetables varied from the southern to the northern part of the country. The cross cutting constraints in vegetables production are pest and diseases, inadequate storage facilities, and high cost of improved inputs. The study recommends increase awareness and sensitization on optimum levels of resource use for increased productivity and appropriate intervention to constraints in the value chain.",book:{id:"10142",slug:"agricultural-economics",title:"Agricultural Economics",fullTitle:"Agricultural Economics"},signatures:"Iyabo Bosede Adeoye",authors:[{id:"317695",title:"Dr.",name:"Iyabo Bosede",middleName:null,surname:"Adeoye",slug:"iyabo-bosede-adeoye",fullName:"Iyabo Bosede Adeoye"}]},{id:"65591",title:"Insect Pest Management in Organic Farming System",slug:"insect-pest-management-in-organic-farming-system",totalDownloads:2595,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Due to the regulations of organic farming, few options remain for organic farmers to manage pests and diseases in their crops compared to conventional farming. However, major pests could still be managed through manipulation of the agroecosystem processes in advantage of the crops and disadvantage of pests. The limited number of active plant protection substances authorized for use in organic farming can provide support to natural and biological control agents in suppression of pests and diseases. This chapter highlights the principles and strategies of crop protection in organic farming, the cultural practices adopted, the active substances allowed for use to suppress pests, and the impacts on faunal and floral biodiversity. A case study of organic date palm cultivation is discussed.",book:{id:"6988",slug:"multifunctionality-and-impacts-of-organic-and-conventional-agriculture",title:"Multifunctionality and Impacts of Organic and Conventional Agriculture",fullTitle:"Multifunctionality and Impacts of Organic and Conventional Agriculture"},signatures:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",authors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu El-Shafie"}]},{id:"69412",title:"Soil Management and Water-Use Efficiency in Brazilian Coffee Crops",slug:"soil-management-and-water-use-efficiency-in-brazilian-coffee-crops",totalDownloads:806,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Brazil is a world leader in coffee production. However, currently, it coexists with recurrent and severe droughts, accompanied by intense heat, strong insolation and low relative humidity. As the cultivation is carried out primarily in the rainy season, these world climate variations have affected crops yields and fruits quality, requiring innovative actions that promote efficient use of water stored in the soil. Among several soil management practices that promote a more rational use of water, deep tillage combined with liming, gypsum and fertilizer amendments lead to an increase in effective depth of coffee roots, therefore reducing water stress. Moreover, intercropping with Urochloa sp. is highly efficient in enhancing soil structure, water infiltration and plant available water capacity. Additionally, other innovative techniques and practices are also introduced in this chapter.",book:{id:"8952",slug:"coffee-production-and-research",title:"Coffee",fullTitle:"Coffee - Production and Research"},signatures:"Bruno Montoani Silva, Geraldo César de Oliveira, Milson Evaldo Serafim, Carla Eloize Carducci, Érika Andressa da Silva, Samara Martins Barbosa, Laura Beatriz Batista de Melo, Walbert Junior Reis dos Santos, Thiago Henrique Pereira Reis, César Henrique Caputo de Oliveira and Paulo Tácito Gontijo Guimarães",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"27",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",issn:"2753-894X",scope:"
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Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11601",title:"Econometrics - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11601.jpg",hash:"bc8ab49e2cf436c217a49ca8c12a22eb",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12141",title:"Leadership - Advancing Great Leadership Practices and Good Leaders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12139",title:"Global Market and Trade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",hash:"fa34af07c3a9657fa670404202f8cba5",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 21st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"435274",title:null,name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid Khan",slug:"muhammad-shahid-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Shahid Khan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Islamia University of Bahawalpur",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"86",type:"subseries",title:"Business and Management",keywords:"Demographic shifts, Innovation, Technology, Next-gen leaders, Worldwide environmental issues and clean technology, Uncertainty and political risks, Radical adjacency, Emergence of new business ecosystem type, Emergence of different leader and leader values types, Universal connector, Elastic enterprise, Business platform, Supply chain complexity",scope:"
\r\n\tThe Business and Management series topic focuses on the most pressing issues confronting organizations today and in the future. Businesses are trying to figure out how to lead in a time of global uncertainty. In emerging markets, issues such as ill-defined or unstable policies, as well as corrupt practices, can be hugely problematic. Changes in governments can result in new policy, regulations, and interest rates, all of which can be detrimental to foreign businesses and investments. A growing trend towards economic nationalism also makes the current global political landscape potentially hostile towards international businesses.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe demographic shifts are creating interesting challenges. People are living longer, resulting to an aging demographic. We have a large population of older workers and retirees who are living longer lives, combined with a declining birthrate in most parts of the world. Businesses of all types are looking at how technology is affecting their operations. Several questions arise, such as: How is technology changing what we do? How is it transforming us internally, how is it influencing our clients and our business strategy? It is about leveraging technology to improve efficiency, connect with customers more effectively, and drive innovation. The majority of innovative companies are technology-driven businesses. Realizing digital transformation is today’s top issue and will remain so for the next five years. Improving organizational agility, expanding portfolios of products and services, creating, and maintaining a culture of innovation, and developing next -generation leaders were also identified as top challenges in terms of both current and future issues.
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\r\n\tThe most sustained profitable growth occurs when a company expands its core business into an adjacent space. This has significant implications for management because innovation in business ecosystems differs from traditional, vertically integrated firms. Every organization in the ecosystem must be aware of the bigger picture. Innovation in ecosystems necessitates collaborative action to invent and appraise, efficient, cross-organizational knowledge flows, modular architectures, and good stewardship of legacy systems. It is built on multiple, interconnected platforms. Environmental factors have already had a significant impact in the West and will continue to have an impact globally. Businesses must take into account the environmental impact of their daily operations. The advantage of this market is that it is expected to grow more rapidly than the overall economy. Another significant challenge is preparing the next generation of leaders to elevate this to the number one priority within the next five years. There can be no culture of innovation unless there is diverse leadership or development of the next generation of leaders; and these diverse, next-generation leaders are the ones who will truly understand the digital strategies that will drive digital transformation.
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