Zargar classification of corrosive esophageal injury.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6566",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomarker - Indicator of Abnormal Physiological Process",title:"Biomarker",subtitle:"Indicator of Abnormal Physiological Process",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book investigates the emerging use of biomarkers as a diagnostic tool for the identification of patients with an abnormal condition or as a tool for staging the extent of disease, as an indicator of disease prognosis. Chapters in Part I focus on biomarkers for cancer, including breast cancer and pancreatic cancer, as well as circulating microRNA profiling in cancer biomarker discovery. Chapters in Part II focus on biomarkers of other diagnoses/diseases, including sepsis, childhood renal diseases, pulmonary diseases, Alzheimer's, leishmaniasis, and heart failure. This book investigates the emerging use of biomarkers as a diagnostic tool for the identification of patients with an abnormal condition or as a tool for staging the extent of disease, as an indicator of diseases prognosis. The book is of considerable importance for a broad range of people including researchers, clinicians, and university students.",isbn:"978-1-78923-667-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-666-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-558-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71302",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"biomarker-indicator-of-abnormal-physiological-process",numberOfPages:248,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d50cce2242888a02ce742196a7dbf09f",bookSignature:"Ghousia Begum",publishedDate:"September 5th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6566.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13850,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:27,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 5th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 26th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 20th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 15th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 14th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"83759",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghousia",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"ghousia-begum",fullName:"Ghousia Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/83759/images/3549_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ghousia Begum got her Ph.D from Osmania University and continued her postdoctoral wok in the same University. In 1998 she was appointed Junior Scientist in Biology Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Chemical Technology. She has significantly contributed to the field of Ecotoxicology, Biochemical and Molecular Mechanisms of Toxicity and Environmental Biology. Her research interests lies in how environmental changes, particularly toxicants affect physiological functions in aquatic animals especially in fish She is also working on alternative animal models which include lower invertebrates (Daphnia) and vertebrates (Zebra fish and edible fishes) for toxicity evaluation. She has published more than 30 research articles in reputed journals. She has more than 500 citations to her credit\nShe has been awarded YOUNG SCIENTIST AWARD for the year 1993 by National Environmental Science Academy (NESA), gold medal for academic excellence and SCIENTIST OF THE YEAR AWARD-2012 by NESA. She has edited a book entitled “ECOTOXICOLOGY” published by InTech. Presently she is editorial board member in eleven journals and editor of two journals. Many journals in the area of environmental biology, toxicology and related areas used her as peer reviewer.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Chemical Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1016",title:"Medical Instrument Technology",slug:"medical-instrument-technology"}],chapters:[{id:"62000",title:"Biomarkers in Breast Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77320",slug:"biomarkers-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1689,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women and its incidence experienced an important increase, thanks to the introduction of a systematic screening. The increased incidence of early breast cancer has led to debates on its over-treatment, which may cause unnecessary harm to patients with favorable prognosis. Therefore, modern research is in the quest of finding the perfect prognostic marker to avoid overtreatment in patients with a favorable prognosis. In this perspective, many molecular markers have been studied in the last decades in order to provide both a useful prognostic tool, able to determine whether the cancer is likely to be indolent or aggressive, and a possible therapeutic target. In this chapter, we review the current knowledge about the principal biomarkers, which are usually immunohistochemically tested on breast surgical specimens, including ER and PR, Mib1/Ki-67 and HER2/neu expression. Furthermore, we will analyze other possible prognostic markers which may have in the future a key role in breast cancer management, such as several multigene panels (OncotypeDX, Mammaprint, NanoString Prosigma). Finally, we will discuss the role of genetic tests for some know genetic mutations associated with higher breast cancer susceptibility (BRCA1 and 2 genes).",signatures:"Serena Bertozzi, Ambrogio P Londero, Luca Seriau, Roberta Di Vora,\nCarla Cedolini and Laura Mariuzzi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62000",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62000",authors:[{id:"74447",title:"Dr.",name:"Ambrogio P",surname:"Londero",slug:"ambrogio-p-londero",fullName:"Ambrogio P Londero"},{id:"167094",title:"Dr.",name:"Serena",surname:"Bertozzi",slug:"serena-bertozzi",fullName:"Serena Bertozzi"},{id:"234965",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberta",surname:"Di Vora",slug:"roberta-di-vora",fullName:"Roberta Di Vora"},{id:"234970",title:"Prof.",name:"Laura",surname:"Mariuzzi",slug:"laura-mariuzzi",fullName:"Laura Mariuzzi"},{id:"234971",title:"Dr.",name:"Carla",surname:"Cedolini",slug:"carla-cedolini",fullName:"Carla Cedolini"},{id:"235400",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",surname:"Seriau",slug:"luca-seriau",fullName:"Luca Seriau"}],corrections:null},{id:"60358",title:"Circulating MicroRNA Profiling in Cancer Biomarker Discovery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75981",slug:"circulating-microrna-profiling-in-cancer-biomarker-discovery",totalDownloads:1184,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNA molecules of approximately 22 nucleotides that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. Alterations in miRNA expression patterns correlate with a wide spectrum of pathological conditions, including cancer. miRNA profiling was mostly performed, in solid tissues, obtained by invasive diagnostic procedures. However, miRNAs in biofluids, such as serum and plasma, show high stability resulting from the formation of complexes with specific protein or incorporation within circulating exosomes or other microvesicles. Circulating miRNAs could be reliable biomarkers for early-stage cancer diagnosis, prognosis and response to therapy. In this chapter, we analyze the major pre-analytical and analytical challenges in experimental design for circulating miRNA detection, focusing on exosome fraction and microarray-based approach.",signatures:"Francesca Scionti, Pierosandro Tagliaferri, Pierfrancesco Tassone\nand Maria Teresa Di Martino",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60358",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60358",authors:[{id:"161607",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierosandro",surname:"Tagliaferri",slug:"pierosandro-tagliaferri",fullName:"Pierosandro Tagliaferri"},{id:"207596",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierfrancesco",surname:"Tassone",slug:"pierfrancesco-tassone",fullName:"Pierfrancesco Tassone"},{id:"228784",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Teresa",surname:"Di Martino",slug:"maria-teresa-di-martino",fullName:"Maria Teresa Di Martino"},{id:"228789",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",surname:"Scionti",slug:"francesca-scionti",fullName:"Francesca Scionti"}],corrections:null},{id:"60624",title:"Neutrophil/Lymphocyte Ratio, Platelet/Lymphocyte Ratio, and Mean Platelet Volume for Detection of Resectable Pancreas Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76168",slug:"neutrophil-lymphocyte-ratio-platelet-lymphocyte-ratio-and-mean-platelet-volume-for-detection-of-rese",totalDownloads:981,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Several biomarkers have been preferred for the early diagnosis of pancreatic adenocancer (PAC), but most are not ready to be included as part of the routine diagnostic algorithm because they still lack sensitivity, specificity or reproducibility. CA19-9 is the most widely used serum-based marker for the diagnosis and follow-up of pancreatic cancer. However, CA19-9 lacks sensitivity for early or small-diameter pancreatic cancers. For more than 3 decades, information on neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet/lymphocyte ratio (PLR), mean platelet volume (MPV) has been widely available to health care practitioners, as part of the data provided in the full blood count. However, these biomarkers have more than used in the routine. The present chapter shares the prognostic significance of the hematological parameters in the light of our own findings and recent studies in the literature.",signatures:"Kemal Turker Ulutas, Inanc Samil Sarici and Ozgul Duzgun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60624",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60624",authors:[{id:"213868",title:"Dr.",name:"Samil",surname:"Sarici",slug:"samil-sarici",fullName:"Samil Sarici"},{id:"214666",title:"Dr.",name:"Ozgul",surname:"Duzgun",slug:"ozgul-duzgun",fullName:"Ozgul Duzgun"},{id:"226644",title:"M.D.",name:"Kemal Turker",surname:"Ulutas",slug:"kemal-turker-ulutas",fullName:"Kemal Turker Ulutas"}],corrections:null},{id:"60889",title:"Biomarkers Utility for Sepsis Patients Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76107",slug:"biomarkers-utility-for-sepsis-patients-management",totalDownloads:1458,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sepsis is a global problem in either developing or developed countries and it is expected that the number of patients with sepsis and septic shock will tremendously increase in next decades also because of the antibiotic resistance growing issue worldwide. Criteria for sepsis diagnosis and prognosis have been recently established, but still a further understanding of the role of biomarkers in this setting is needed. Better utilization of biomarkers such as white blood cell count, CRP, lactate, procalcitonin, presepsin and bioadrenomedullin in sepsis patients, a state of the art on how to use them is needed. This review will focus on the actual recognized role of sepsis biomarkers not only for diagnosis purpose but also to improve patients treatment results in order to reduce mortality, hospital length of stay and cost related.",signatures:"Agustin Iskandar, Hani Susianti, Muhammad Anshory and Salvatore\nDi Somma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60889",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60889",authors:[{id:"187348",title:"Prof.",name:"Salvatore",surname:"Di Somma",slug:"salvatore-di-somma",fullName:"Salvatore Di Somma"},{id:"230421",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Anshory",slug:"muhammad-anshory",fullName:"Muhammad Anshory"},{id:"230444",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Agustin",surname:"Iskandar",slug:"agustin-iskandar",fullName:"Agustin Iskandar"},{id:"230467",title:"Dr.",name:"Hani",surname:"Susianti",slug:"hani-susianti",fullName:"Hani Susianti"}],corrections:null},{id:"60801",title:"Clinical Application of Coagulation Biomarkers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76589",slug:"clinical-application-of-coagulation-biomarkers",totalDownloads:1003,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coagulopathy is of intense interest in the fields of emergency medicine, with many recent studies of coagulation biomarkers for clinical use. The occurrence of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) also resulted in the activation of studies about the coagulopathy. At present DIC has been admitted in many clinical conditions and many coagulation biomarkers have been studied. Fibrin degradation product (FDP) and D-dimer are one type of coagulation biomarker. A characteristic of FDP and D-dimer is the rapid and dynamic elevation of their levels when fibrinolysis occurs in several acute diseases. In this chapter, we present the clinical application of FDP and D-dimer. In trauma, FDP and -dimer have been used for the evaluation of trauma severity, to predict the likelihood of hemorrhage and to evaluate the need for the transfusion of packed red blood cells. In cardiac pulmonary arrest (CPA), FDP and D-dimer have been useful for predicting the return of spontaneous circulation. Thus, the measurement of coagulation biomarkers is useful in the diagnosis and/or treatment of trauma and CPA.",signatures:"Makoto Aoki, Shuichi Hagiwara and Kiyohiro Oshima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60801",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60801",authors:[{id:"230400",title:"Dr.",name:"Makoto",surname:"Aoki",slug:"makoto-aoki",fullName:"Makoto Aoki"},{id:"231817",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",surname:"Hagiwara",slug:"shuichi-hagiwara",fullName:"Shuichi Hagiwara"},{id:"231818",title:"Prof.",name:"Kiyohiro",surname:"Oshima",slug:"kiyohiro-oshima",fullName:"Kiyohiro Oshima"}],corrections:null},{id:"60317",title:"Oxidative Status Pathways: Systemic Biomarkers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75543",slug:"oxidative-status-pathways-systemic-biomarkers",totalDownloads:955,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Systemic biomarkers (i.e. biomarkers of functioning of cellular pathways) offer a broad spectrum of diagnostic capabilities. There are several approaches to using systemic biomarkers that derive from exact needs of a researcher or a clinical specialist. First, analyzing a multifunctional and multi-systemic pathway in circulating cells (e.g. leukocytes) allows to gather generalized information on functioning of the organism. Second, there are numerous pathways that, even still in circulating cells, allow to assess risks of developing or stage of development of numerous diseases, including the leaders of non-infection diseases mortality—cardiovascular diseases. Third, biopsy specimens can readily be used to assess the exact signaling type of a disease (especially cancer) thus helping in selecting the best treatment option. Due to unique properties of the human oxidative status pathways that are discussed in the present chapter, diagnostics specialists are now acquiring an all-in-one toolbox for profiling and detecting almost any non-infectious and a broad range of infectious diseases. In addition to properties of the human oxidative status pathways opening these possibilities, this chapter considers exact systemic biomarkers deriving from this approach, reveals some examples of usage of the resulting diagnostic technology and provides instances of successful clinical application of the systemic biomarker approach.",signatures:"Peter Zolotukhin, Viktor Chmykhalo, Anna Belanova, Alexander\nDybushkin, Viktor Fedoseev and Dmitriy Smirnov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60317",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60317",authors:[{id:"189455",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Peter",surname:"Zolotukhin",slug:"peter-zolotukhin",fullName:"Peter Zolotukhin"},{id:"194928",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Anna",surname:"Belanova",slug:"anna-belanova",fullName:"Anna Belanova"},{id:"230968",title:"Mr.",name:"Dmitry",surname:"Smirnov",slug:"dmitry-smirnov",fullName:"Dmitry Smirnov"},{id:"230969",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Dybushkin",slug:"alexander-dybushkin",fullName:"Alexander Dybushkin"},{id:"240282",title:"BSc.",name:"Viktor",surname:"Chmykhalo",slug:"viktor-chmykhalo",fullName:"Viktor Chmykhalo"},{id:"240283",title:"Mr.",name:"Viktor",surname:"Fedoseev",slug:"viktor-fedoseev",fullName:"Viktor Fedoseev"}],corrections:null},{id:"60380",title:"Ovarian Reserve Markers: An Update",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75521",slug:"ovarian-reserve-markers-an-update",totalDownloads:1031,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ovarian reserve (OR) is defined as the pool of follicles available to provide eggs cells throughout the fertile age in each woman and define the potential of fertility to predict the reproductive lifespan of women. Several studies have focused on the clinical use in order to identify women with a decreased ovarian function and to improve the clinical approach to these patients. In this chapter we will describe different OR markers such as antimullerian hormone (AMH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), count by ultrasound of antral follicles (AFC) and ovarian volume. The measure of OR markers has been reported as an effective test to predict a possible failure of reproductive capacity and important tool in the primary prevention of infertility and other related problems. Therefore, we will show the clinical use of these markers in both healthy and infertile women studies. Additionally, we describe the most recent and promising progress in the OR evaluation by construction of algorithms.",signatures:"Harold Moreno-Ortiz, Iván Darío Acosta, Elkin Lucena-Quevedo,\nLuis Alejandro Arias-Sosa, Alix Eugenia Dallos-Báez, Maribel Forero-\nCastro and Clara Esteban-Pérez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60380",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60380",authors:[{id:"225381",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",surname:"Forero-Castro",slug:"maribel-forero-castro",fullName:"Maribel Forero-Castro"},{id:"241468",title:"Dr.",name:"Harold",surname:"Moreno",slug:"harold-moreno",fullName:"Harold Moreno"},{id:"241469",title:"BSc.",name:"Iván",surname:"Acosta",slug:"ivan-acosta",fullName:"Iván Acosta"},{id:"241471",title:"Dr.",name:"Elkin",surname:"Lucena",slug:"elkin-lucena",fullName:"Elkin Lucena"},{id:"241472",title:"BSc.",name:"Luis",surname:"Arias",slug:"luis-arias",fullName:"Luis Arias"},{id:"241473",title:"MSc.",name:"Alix",surname:"Dallos",slug:"alix-dallos",fullName:"Alix Dallos"},{id:"241474",title:"Dr.",name:"Clara",surname:"Esteban",slug:"clara-esteban",fullName:"Clara Esteban"}],corrections:null},{id:"59229",title:"Biomarkers of Common Childhood Renal Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74016",slug:"biomarkers-of-common-childhood-renal-diseases",totalDownloads:944,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Novel biomarkers are now used in the diagnostic and prognostic evaluation of common kidney diseases in children. The increased scientific interest in these biomarkers is partly due to the remarkable progress in their discovery techniques, and their validation in clinical subjects. However, the wide variation in their sensitivity and specificity is still a major concern. In the identification of biomarkers of kidney injury, an ideal biomarker should be produced after organ injury in concentrations which directly correlates with the degree of injury; should be easily measured in body fluids; and should serve as a potential tool to monitor therapeutic response which is predicated upon a post-injury decrease in its concentration. This book chapter aims to highlight and discuss the novel biomarkers used in the diagnostic and prognostic evaluation of common acute diseases of the kidney in children, such as urinary tract infection (UTI) and acute kidney injury (AKI), as well as chronic kidney disease (CKD) secondary to idiopathic nephrotic syndrome (INS) and diabetic nephropathy (DN).",signatures:"Samuel N. Uwaezuoke",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59229",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59229",authors:[{id:"229083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Samuel N.",surname:"Uwaezuoke",slug:"samuel-n.-uwaezuoke",fullName:"Samuel N. Uwaezuoke"}],corrections:null},{id:"59880",title:"Molecular Diagnostics of Pulmonary Diseases Based on Analysis of Exhaled Breath Condensate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74402",slug:"molecular-diagnostics-of-pulmonary-diseases-based-on-analysis-of-exhaled-breath-condensate",totalDownloads:1735,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Measurements of biomarkers in exhaled breath condensate (EBC) extend a novel route for monitoring lung physiology and provide a beneficial insight into the pathophysiology of a specific disease. From the medicinal point of view, biomarkers present in EBC depict rather the processes occurring in lungs than those in the entire system. Therefore, particular profiles of exhaled biomarkers (e.g. cys-LTs, LTB4, 8-isoprostane, etc.) apparently reveal information exclusively applicable to differential lung disease diagnoses. This chapter describes the developed analytical method being applied to a clinical study for differential diagnostics of various phenotypes of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, etc. In particular, having determined cys-LTs and LXs by the described method, and having applied them as biomarkers of bronchial asthma, their distinctive potential was demonstrated to differentially diagnose the specific disease, clearly suggesting this method to be reckoned as a beneficial alternative to existing diagnostic methods. Consecutively, the developed method was expanded to other asthma markers as aldehydes, nitrotyrosine, 8-isoprostane, PGE2, adenosine and finally, a supplementary study was carried out, engaging in detecting serotonin. The multi-marker screening and importance in the diagnostics of pulmonary diseases are referenced in the text as well.",signatures:"Tereza Kačerová, Petr Novotný, Ján Boroň and Petr Kačer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59880",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59880",authors:[{id:"190932",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",surname:"Kačer",slug:"petr-kacer",fullName:"Petr Kačer"},{id:"197652",title:"Ms.",name:"Tereza",surname:"Kacerova",slug:"tereza-kacerova",fullName:"Tereza Kacerova"},{id:"207204",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",surname:"Novotný",slug:"petr-novotny",fullName:"Petr Novotný"},{id:"207205",title:"Dr.",name:"Ján",surname:"Boroň",slug:"jan-boron",fullName:"Ján Boroň"}],corrections:null},{id:"61081",title:"Topological Biomarker of Alzheimer’s Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76633",slug:"topological-biomarker-of-alzheimer-s-disease",totalDownloads:898,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For years, it has been assumed that the cerebral accumulation of pathologic protein forms is the main trigger of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) pathology; however, recent studies revealed strong evidences that the alternations in synaptic activity precede and affect the homeostasis of amyloid-beta and tau, both of which aggregate during AD. Given that the neuropathological changes, characteristic for AD, start decades before the onset of the first symptoms, when alternations become irreversible, it is crucial to find a biomarker that can detect the preclinical signs of disease, presumably synaptic dysfunction of specific cerebral areas. Here is presented a novel, a high potential neuroimaging biomarker that can detect the postsynaptic dysfunction of specific neural substrate located in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) during sensory gating processing of a simple auditory stimulus. The magnetoencephalography-based localization of mPFC gating activation has the potential not only to detect symptomatic AD but also to become a predictor of cognitive decline related to the pathophysiological processes of AD, both at the individual level. The strengths of proposed biomarker lie in the simplicity of using a binary value, i.e., activated or not activated a neural generator along with its potential to follow the evolution of the pathophysiological process of disease from preclinical phase. The novel biomarker does not require estimation of uniform cutoff levels and standardization processes, the main problems of so far proposed biomarkers. Ability to individually detect AD pathology during putative preclinical and clinical stages, absolute noninvasiveness, and large effect size give this biomarker a high translation capacity and clinical potential.",signatures:"Sanja Josef Golubic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61081",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61081",authors:[{id:"225125",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sanja",surname:"Josef Golubic",slug:"sanja-josef-golubic",fullName:"Sanja Josef Golubic"}],corrections:null},{id:"60134",title:"Biomarkers in Leishmaniasis: From Basic Research to Clinical Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75315",slug:"biomarkers-in-leishmaniasis-from-basic-research-to-clinical-application",totalDownloads:1121,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Leishmania is an intracellular protozoan parasite and the etiological agent of a vector-borne disease known as leishmaniasis. This neglected tropical disease exhibits high morbidity and mortality putting at risk people from multiple countries worldwide. It is endemic in 97 countries and 700,000–1 million new cases are estimated to occur each year. Leishmaniasis management is very challenging, the symptoms are non-pathognomonic (in both human and canine populations) and the treatments are associated with significant toxicity. Therefore, the need for detection in symptomatic and asymptomatic hosts is important to tackle the dissemination of infection, increasing the need for highly specific biomarkers. In this complex the available disease biomarkers will be addressed in a retrospective manner, focusing on their development from laboratory to their direct use in clinical settings.",signatures:"Sofia Esteves, Inês Costa, Célia Amorim, Nuno Santarem and\nAnabela Cordeiro-da-Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60134",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60134",authors:[{id:"169577",title:"Dr.",name:"Anabela",surname:"Cordeiro-Da-Silva",slug:"anabela-cordeiro-da-silva",fullName:"Anabela Cordeiro-Da-Silva"},{id:"233018",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuno",surname:"Santarem",slug:"nuno-santarem",fullName:"Nuno Santarem"},{id:"233019",title:"Prof.",name:"Celia",surname:"Amorim",slug:"celia-amorim",fullName:"Celia Amorim"},{id:"242895",title:"MSc.",name:"Sofia",surname:"Esteves",slug:"sofia-esteves",fullName:"Sofia Esteves"},{id:"242896",title:"MSc.",name:"Inês",surname:"Costa",slug:"ines-costa",fullName:"Inês Costa"}],corrections:null},{id:"59812",title:"Biomarkers and Heart Failure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74798",slug:"biomarkers-and-heart-failure",totalDownloads:853,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Heart failure (HF) represents fatal endpoint of all cardiovascular diseases. Acute and chronic HF is a complex, heterogeneous syndrome consisting of many overlapping syndromes making its diagnosis and treatment more challenging. There is no single test for diagnosis of HF, and diagnosis is based on clinical judgment driven by a combination of history, physical examination, and appropriate tests. Despite improvements in clinical management within the last 50 years, it has still been a disease of poor prognosis. Attempts to further improve its prognosis can only be achieved by understanding pathophysiology of HF clearly and finding, developing, and using appropriate and new clinical biochemical markers for diagnosis of each different clinical subtype and hence unique intervention of that specific subtype of HF. This review is an overview of biomarkers, which are either currently used in the clinical practice or hold promise for future use in patients with both chronic and acute HF.",signatures:"Hakan Altay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59812",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59812",authors:[{id:"188670",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hakan",surname:"Altay",slug:"hakan-altay",fullName:"Hakan Altay"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"677",title:"Ecotoxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1925c37f0dfc6eb0d8448aa22777eb9e",slug:"ecotoxicology",bookSignature:"Ghousia Begum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"83759",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghousia",surname:"Begum",slug:"ghousia-begum",fullName:"Ghousia Begum"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6095",title:"Insecticides",subtitle:"Agriculture and Toxicology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e249884334e8155c1e57e34b7d8c9d2",slug:"insecticides-agriculture-and-toxicology",bookSignature:"Ghousia Begum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6095.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"83759",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghousia",surname:"Begum",slug:"ghousia-begum",fullName:"Ghousia Begum"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4576",title:"Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c4fcda89f1173a1ec31aabd7f4ac894",slug:"rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4576.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6655",title:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT)",subtitle:"Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"af6863294c037ec8e4f13785cb65e6fb",slug:"medical-internet-of-things-m-iot-enabling-technologies-and-emerging-applications",bookSignature:"Hamed Farhadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6655.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171143",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamed",surname:"Farhadi",slug:"hamed-farhadi",fullName:"Hamed Farhadi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Essentially every country in the world is faced with the expanding number and growing portion of its older inhabitants. Within the next 30 years, the number of persons aged 60 years or over is expected to more than double, reaching to more than 2 billion in 2050. Moreover, average life expectancy is consistently increasing, i.e., older population is itself aging—the share of people over 80 (the “oldest old”) within the older population was 14% in 2013 and is projected to reach 19% in 2050 [1]. This so-called graying of the population will most certainly be the number one trademark of the twenty-first century’s societal changes. Furthermore, due to the specificities of older population, worldwide aging will affect probably all sectors of society, from family structure to labor market, as well as goods and services needed. A growing field of gerontology has thus a main aim of providing societal decision-makers with advices on creating retirement and social security policies adequate for the growing size of aging population and on ensuring conditions, which support and promote successful aging, i.e., appropriate housing, family relations, and free time of the elderly. What we usually refer to as successful aging is the set of individual and societal conditions under which older people get a maximum of satisfaction and happiness, while the society maintains balance among satisfaction of all age and gender groups [2].
In psychology, life satisfaction and happiness are studied under the umbrella term of well-being [3]. Other componential constructs include optimal experience and functioning [4]. Although seemingly a complex construct, well-being has been repeatedly associated with a number of health, family, work, and economic benefits, for example, decreased risk of disease [5, 6], better immune functioning [7], better coping and speedier recovery [8], and increased longevity [9]. Well-being is also associated with more job-related success and higher incomes, and individuals with higher well-being are more likely to engage in community projects [10]. Globally speaking, countries with higher average well-being are wealthier and have better civil liberties, more equality, and more governmental stability and political engagement [11]. It is of no surprise that well-being of the population has become almost a societal imperative and public policy makers are getting more and more concerned with this topic. Economic reports show that traditional economic variables, such as gross domestic product, average income, or housing conditions, are becoming insufficient in indicating nation’s progress and that self-reported well-being is emerging as a variable that must be taken into account [12].
What certainly comes to mind when mentioning old population is the decline of their cognitive capabilities. Until recently, findings of cognitive decline have been relatively unified and disheartening. Beginning of the 1990s, efforts to improve cognitive functioning of healthy older adult have begun. Evidence is accumulating that cognitive training—a therapeutic intervention aimed at empowering cognition—might actually improve cognitive performance and slow down the inevitable cognitive decline. There are now quite robust findings of variability and trainability of aspects of cognition in the old age [13, 14]. Consequently, the topic of understanding and promoting successful cognitive aging is granted high scholarly and practical importance. Since older adults are usually faced with more spare time in the years following their retirement, an important direction in promoting overall well-being of elderly is to identify activities in which they might participate and that might improve their functional status and overall quality of life.
In sum, well-being of elderly is obviously becoming a major societal concern, and upsurge of interest in interventions and activities that could contribute to the life satisfaction and happiness of older people is of no surprise. In this chapter we will (1) give a theoretical overview of well-being research and recapitulate findings on the sociodemographic correlates of well-being, most specifically age; (2) offer accounts on “successful aging,” with a focus on cognitive aging; (3) present evidence linking cognition and well-being of elderly; (4) recapitulate benefits of cognitive training programs for elderly; and, finally, (5) advocate leisure activities as a widely available platform to train cognition.
National surveys measuring well-being are becoming increasingly popular and are being carried out worldwide [15, 16]. Measurement of well-being is a focus of debate itself, and the issue has raised considerable controversies. This controversy stems partly from how “optimal functioning” and “good life” are defined at the level of an individual and is exponentially gaining complexity as we go beyond individual level toward various, cultures, economies, and personalities. Since the 1960s, when the movement of human potentials has spread throughout the Western countries, in which psychological advancements of the time were mostly nested, research on well-being has generated two distinct philosophies, labeled hedonism and eudaimonism.
Within these two approaches, a number of measurement instruments have been proposed and are widely used. Kobau et al. [19] conducted an extensive study to examine descriptive and psychometric properties of widely used scales and to examine the level of well-being in a representative sample of community-dwelling adults. The study covered (1) satisfaction with life [22]; (2) meaning in life [23]; (3) basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness [24]; (4) domain-specific life satisfaction [25]; and (5) select positive and negative affect items [26]. The scales demonstrated acceptable psychometric properties, and the results confirmed previous findings of preponderance of mildly positive level of SWB in adults [11, 27]. Except for the autonomy, competence, and relatedness scales, all other scales showed good variability and expected differences across sociodemographic subgroups.
Sociodemographic picture of well-being, as seen through the lenses of psychological research, is more or less clear. In a stratified sample of almost 5500 respondents, Kobau et al. [19] tested for the well-being differences in gender, race/ethnicity, educational level, and household income. Men and women generally reported similar degree of SWB or PWB, i.e., exhibited similar levels of meaning in life, positive or negative affect, global happiness, autonomy, and competence. Women exhibit higher satisfaction with spiritual, religious, and philosophical beliefs, as well as with housing, family and social life, and their ability to help others. Men, however, reported of being more satisfied with their energy level than women did. Also, only slight differences in well-being domains were found across race/ethnicity. Higher educational level is found related to higher well-being across life domains. Respondents of low-level education experienced similar level of positive affect as those highly educated, yet they reported of experiencing significantly more negative affect and lower levels of happiness. In terms of household income, households with lower incomes are generally associated with lower levels of well-being. It seems that income provides clear advantages, with high-income respondents reporting more satisfaction with life, while lower-income respondents generally report lower levels of satisfaction across all life domains.
What does lifespan perspective say about well-being? The U-shaped association between age and well-being is usually taken as standard finding with the most salient finding being the so-called paradox of aging [4]. Not only does well-being not decline, but it usually increases, despite many challenges and losses experienced in the old age. Still, depending on the approach and instruments used, the findings from various studies reveal a relatively dynamic age-related trajectory of well-being. When a more descriptive approach to lifespan changes in well-being is taken, interesting theoretical and methodological issues arise. Namely, when a multidimensional way of measuring well-being is applied, studies show that age is related to (1) people’s conception of well-being and (2) content of life aspects contributing to well-being. Young adults draw their well-being from the perceived self-knowledge and competence and are more involved in gaining new experiences. Older adults draw their satisfaction from experiences of positive coping with change, as well as depth and concentration directed toward tasks at hand. Carstensen et al. [28] proposed a socio-emotional selectivity theory to explain these findings. They argue that age is associated with increasing motivation to extract emotional meaning from life and decreasing motivation to expand one’s horizons. As they age, people accumulate emotional wisdom, which leads them to select more emotionally gratifying events, relationship, and experiences. By limiting their set of social contacts and experiences, despite of deteriorating health, lowered income, and losses related to deaths and retirement, older people maintain and even increase their self-reported well-being.
When speaking of aging, we usually refer to the physiological and behavioral changes leading to senescence. Disciplines dealing with senescence, such as sociology, biology, and psychology, are not consistent in their definitions and criteria of old age, yet ages 60–65 are most often marked as the beginning of the old age. As the population is “graying,” suggested phases of aging are being more and more refined. The rule of thumb in categorization of age cohorts is three life stages: the young-old (approximately 65–74), the middle-old (ages 75–84), and the old-old (over age 85). Yet criteria of old age are very broad and subjective—it can be the loss of reproductive ability, attainment of wisdom, or retirement. Although highly correlated with age, at an individual level, these indicators of old age may arrive at very different ages. Such a broad range of interindividual differences in older adults proves that chronological age is not a reliable guide in understanding the aging process.
Therefore, today age is held as one of many variables accounting for interindividual differences among elderly. As people move through the lifespan, adult development is less and less under control of physical ontogeny. In adulthood, the information of one’s age tells relatively little besides the fact that one has lived for a certain number of years. Knowing solely one’s age is informative neither of one’s health condition, cognitive status, physiological state, socioeconomic status, nor their lifestyle. Other contributing variables include various physical factors, such as exercise or nutrition [29], psychological health (e.g., Ref. [30]), social factors [31], and various lifestyle factors [32].
Probably the best-documented changes related to aging come from physiology. Aging heart becomes more vulnerable to disease; vision and hearing undergo qualitative changes and so do the skeletal and endocrine systems. Advancements in medicine, throughout the last century, have cushioned much of age-related changes and bolstered longevity. Psychological aspects of aging have not captured researchers’ attention until much later—beginnings of organized research in psychology of aging are set in the mid-1950s. Psychology defines aging as a “result of ecological relationships – a particular genetic background is expressed in particular social and physical environments and modified by the strategic capacities of the individual” [33, pg. 3]. In terms of psychological characteristics of aging, the most studied ones come from the domain of cognition.
What is known about everyday cognitive abilities along adult lifespan? Over the last decades, the magnitude of cognition-related age differences reported in the literature has shrunk. This is likely due to a more systematic investigation of the influences of other concomitant variables that could account for a significant share of variance that was previously attributed to chronological age. Human mind, as suggested by lifespan psychology, is viewed as a complex system composed of many intellectual abilities that develop with different rates and trajectories, and lifespan changes in cognitive ability should be considered in a differential manner [34].
The most influential and certainly still the most resilient perspective on cognitive abilities in aging is Cattell-Horn’s legacy of fluid and crystallized intelligence [35, 36]. Fluid and crystallized intelligence represent a categorization of numerous discrete abilities into two different sets of abilities with different trajectories over the course of development—while crystallized abilities incrementally improve throughout life, fluid abilities peak at around 20 years of age and start declining after 40, with decline progressing after the age of 65. And indeed, some abilities, mostly those broadly termed fluid, decrease with age, such as processing speed [37], working memory capacity [38], associative memory [39], executive functioning [40, 41], fluid intelligence, and reasoning (e.g., Ref. [42]). On the other hand, abilities associated with experience, cultural and social processes, and measures of crystallized intelligence, for example, vocabulary, remain preserved even in very old age [43].
However, if a more differential approach is taken and age differences in various tasks are decomposed depending on the contribution of content, strategy use, or other more reality-related criteria to the efficacy of executing the task, findings show a slightly different perspective. For example, problem solving is often found to show marked age differences with young excelling the old. Yet when problems are analyzed in terms of strategies used to solve them or social and emotional impact a solution of the problem, performance is stable throughout lifespan and sometimes even improved in late adulthood [44]. It seems that young adults excel older ones in problem solving only when tasks are based on fluency or involve single solution [45]. In other words, human development can be seen as a continuous and dynamic interplay of cognitive gains and losses. To underline this thesis, Baltes et al. [46] showed that older adults can profoundly profit from guided practice in tasks or when they are shown and taught strategies for problem solving. In a sample of healthy older adults, they found improvement in fluid ability of healthy older participants when tutor-guided training was provided. A rearview mirror view would probably reveal this study as the beginning of the end of Cattell-Horn’s era of innate abilities and the dawning of utility hypothesis of cognitive abilities which is slowly, but steadily, getting recognition under the auspices of
In recent years, a body of evidence suggesting that well-being might be a potential resource for healthier aging is growing. Older people with higher well-being are less likely to develop mobility problems or other activities of daily life [48]. High positive affect seems to lower the risk of frailty [49]. However, it is unclear whether positive well-being might act protectively with regard to cognitive aging, another important component of healthy and successful aging [50]. Some recent cross-sectional analyses of several older age cohorts have found small to moderate positive association between well-being and cognition [51, 52]. Studies have found links of stronger sense of perceived control, a component of eudaimonic well-being, with higher scores in memory performance [53, 54].
Enkvist et al. [55] tested six cognitive domains (executive function, processing speed, episodic memory, semantic memory, spatial ability, and working memory) in a sample of oldest old (aged 78–98), and after the adjustment conducted for potential confounding factors including depression, processing speed and spatial ability were positively associated with life satisfaction 3 years later. Somewhat stronger evidence that poorer fluid abilities might have a detrimental effect on well-being is found in the study investigating whether fluid cognitive ability predicts exposure and emotional reactivity to daily stressors [56]. Findings showed that higher levels of fluid ability were associated with smaller stressor-related increases in negative mood and smaller stressor-related decreases in positive mood, suggesting that cognitively better-off individuals may be more emotionally resilient in the face of daily stress. Allerhand et al. [42] used multilevel modeling to estimate association between cognitive function and positive well-being in four waves of data, collected on a sample of over 10,000 participants, aged 50–90. They found that, although most variation in cognitive function was explained by age and most variation in well-being was explained by depression, small but significant associations between cognition and well-being remained after variation in age and depression were controlled.
It remains unclear whether these significant cross-sectional associations reflect the effect of well-being on cognition or vice versa. It might also be plausible that the relationship between positive well-being and cognitive function is bidirectional. For example, cognitive success in younger age might lead to higher self-efficacy and feeling of mastery, which in turn leads to an increase in cognitive appraisal of satisfaction with life, i.e., increase in well-being. On the other hand, at older ages impaired cognition may constrain managing of daily activities and hence cause detrimental well-being. Studies suggest that cognitive decline leads to diminished well-being, more in terms of its eudaimonic than hedonic aspects [57]. A more rapid cognitive decline in a 5-year period preceding well-being assessment, as measured by Scales of Psychological Well-being [58], was associated with lower level of nearly all aspects of well-being. The extent of the association varied across well-being dimensions. Also, rate of decline of episodic memory, semantic memory, and perceptual speed was associated with rate of decline in purpose in life, and the association between rates of decline in working memory and purpose in life was of borderline significance. A prospective epidemiological study of community-dwelling elderly has also found that greater purpose in life is associated with a reduced risk of incident Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment [59].
People’s cognitive responses to various life events are also associated with different levels of well-being. Happier and more satisfied individuals are more characterized by optimistic strategies and biases when facing different outcomes. They tend to perceive life’s circumstances positively [60], expect favorable future [61], experience more internality in terms of control [62], and are confident about their strengths and skills [63]. Inverse relation to well-being is found in inclination to encode negative aspects of events and ruminate about one’s problems [64].
Further elaboration associating cognition and well-being comes from the research on self-efficacy. Significant associations between well-being and self-efficacy have been reported [62], and self-efficacy is referred to as a strong predictor of subjective well-being and a mediator of the relation between personality and SWB [65]. Twin and family studies have found that genetic factors may account for 30–40% of the variance in SWB, leaving a fair share of variance of SWB under environmental influences [66]. Environmental factors can obviously play an important role in individual differences in SWB. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that, partially at least, interventions aimed at various cognitive correlates of well-being could change the self-reported perception of well-being. In sum, an association between cognition and well-being is a sensible assumption, although it is still escaping firm explanations and mechanisms enabling it. In the following paragraphs, we will review types of cognitive interventions offered to elderly and then offer an account of arguments for leisure time activities as a form of cognitive training.
Although nowadays research argues that age is one of many variables accounting for individual differences in cognition, it is still often taken as a cause of decline in cognitive abilities. Therefore, it is not surprising that practitioners and scholars are increasingly confronted with the question of what can be done to maintain cognitive abilities by postponing degenerative (yet normative) aging processes, thus improving the quality of life in elderly. Pushing the limits of what is currently known about sustaining cognitive functioning in the old age and about the ways of improving cognitive status of the elderly has become one of the most intriguing endeavors of psychologists, gerontologists, and cognitive scientists alike. Also, it is a pursuit which brings together not only scientists but also clinicians and entrepreneurs. In 2012, the brain-fitness market had total revenues of more than $1 billion, and forecasts for 2020 are settling around $6 billion [67]. The metaphors of the brain gym and workout for the mind have never been more appealing. Although cognitive training programs could be tailored to suit various age cohorts, aging baby boomers seem to be their number one consumers.
Similar to children, adults do not often function at the limits of their capacities; when placed in conditions that support and foster their higher-level functioning, resources are activated, but they are not spontaneously used [68]. In many areas of life, performance of older adults is below their actual competence level. This idea of an unused reserve, which is not activated because the situation is not requiring it, is partly described in the concept of cognitive reserve. Cognitive reserve refers to the brain’s capacity to cope actively with neuropathological damage through the implementation of cognitive processes [69]. It is the ability to adapt to neural damage by employing alternative cognitive processes and/or strategies in compensation. In essence cognitive training procedures are based on this idea that the brain, even in old age, can change for the better. Findings of brain’s plasticity [70], i.e., brain’s ability to change and keep its vitality, suggest that it resembles muscles. As physical training can improve physical abilities and overall physical fitness, cognitive training can improve trained activities and cognitive status. Such training can take many shapes. The use of instruction and guided practice on tasks related to specific cognitive abilities or cognitive appraisals of one’s own ability has proven to be a key to success of such programs intended for the elderly. In the consecutive order of their development, these types of training are listed: strategy training, multimodal training, cardiovascular exercise, and process training [71].
Cognitive interventions are best delivered in a group format, although individual sessions and even self-help trainings [76] have been successfully implemented. Similar to real-life experiences, adaptive tasks are instrumental for training success, i.e., tasks which grow more challenging as the performance is getting better [72]. There is evidence that even relatively simple cognitive exercises can help to improve aspects of cognition. For example, older people can benefit from cognitive interventions in forms of computerized board games of chance [76]. Authors argue that the reason for this improvement lies in the newly acquired skill (i.e., computer use) and draw attention to higher feelings of mastery and self-efficacy as a potential reason behind the improvement. Other computer-based procedures come to similar conclusions. Whitlock et al. [77] confirm enhancement of well-being and life satisfaction after a multimodal game-based intervention and, in line with other studies on cognitive exercise and well-being, suggest a link between gaming and better emotional functioning and higher well-being. In sum, programs for the elderly which are now needed are those targeting multiple cognitive and physical functions because age-related decline is experienced in both of these areas. This decline is often accompanied by emotional difficulties, which might affect cognition. Thus, interventions which incorporate multiple components, such as regular physical and cognitive activity and stimulation, and are depression protective, are needed—most likely in midlife and earlier—to maximize their potential of slowing down cognitive decline in later age. Finally, cognitive training procedures may have practical values and benefits even if they do not change the rate of cognitive decline, in terms of statistical significance. Even if the rate of decline returns to normal after temporary improvement in the level of function due to the intervention, it may delay the point at which an individual reaches sufficient degrees of impairment to impact daily life in terms of dependency, housing, or constant medical care [71].
Two contrasting, although not mutually exclusive, views have been proposed to account for the contribution of activities in successful aging. According to the
Ever since the 1960s, both of these theories have been a benchmark for testing various hypotheses explaining why some people age more adaptively, in terms of successfully standing up to the challenges which aging brings. They both hold an interdisciplinary approach on aging, taking into account not just medical/physiological data but also social, psychological, and interpersonal factors. Most importantly, they have both called scholars’ attention to the positive and healthy aspects of aging instead of the usual studies on frailty and decline in relation to age. Furthermore, both theories apply a developmental perspective to late adulthood, a standpoint in which aging involves a progression through consecutive stages rather than a decline from middle adulthood toward the end of one’s life [2]. Activity and disengagement theories have provided a fruitful theoretical platform for the study of aging and have extensively advanced our knowledge and appreciation of aging.
Studies identify three categories of leisure time activity as valuable constituents of “successful aging”—social engagement, physical exercise, and mental stimulation [50]. Many recent studies have found that social network size (number of people we see or meet in certain periods) is inversely related to the risk of cognitive decrement [80, 81]. Large social networks provide cognitive and physical engagement, which mediates cognitive decline, while preserved cognitive abilities are mostly a condition sine qua non for lasting social network. As for the physical component of leisure time activities, studies show that long-standing aerobic fitness leads to positive cognitive outcomes, even in old age, and cardiovascular trainings can improve cognitive performance in otherwise mostly sedentary older adults (e.g., Refs. [13, 82]). Cognitively demanding leisure activities, such as reading books and high-level journals and visiting plays and exhibitions, intuitively perpetrate higher cognitive abilities [83]. However, there are methodological issues involved in this intuition—it might be that highly functioning individuals seek complex, more cognitively demanding, leisure activities.
Interestingly, there are three lifestyle factors important in slowing the rate of cognitive decline: social network, regular physical activity, and cognitive leisure activities [84]. The integration of these aspects into neurorehabilitative methods is strongly recommended [71]. Combined interventions are often designed to be enjoyable or socially meaningful for older adults, increasing the chances that they will maintain the activities and skills even after the formal training period has ended. Compared with just physical or cognitive training programs, combined trainings provide significantly greater benefits in various cognitive functions of older adults [85, 86]. Given the similarity of training components contributing to training success and lifestyle factors important in slowing the rate of cognitive decline, it is justified to ask whether leisure activities could serve as a form of cognitive training.
An important aspect to bear in mind, in the discussion of leisure time activities as a “substitute” for cognitive trainings, is their relation to well-being. Overall, training and cognitive aging studies, although not extensively, provide evidence of a positive association between cognitive status and well-being in the old age. Literature on leisure activities almost unambiguously demonstrates that leisure activities can improve well-being. Well-being is positively associated with frequency of participation in enjoyable activities (e.g., different hobbies, reading, socializing) [87, 88]. The level of participation of older adults (age 60+) in leisure activity was found to predict life satisfaction 7 years later. A similar longitudinal finding is the one of older adults (age 72+) who volunteered in community work and other helping behaviors and were found to have greater life satisfaction 3 years later [89], while more hours of volunteering resulted in even greater benefit in well-being in older (age 60+) adults [90]. Overall, both cross-sectional and longitudinal evidences speak in favor of leisure time activities in terms of well-being. Long-term participation in leisure activities is not just protective of cognition in old age but is also regarded as a factor contributing to its improvement.
It seems that leisure time activities have some striking similarities to cognitive training program. These similarities certainly lie in factors proven to slow down the rate of cognitive decline and components of frequent leisure time activities in which elderly are involved are striking, namely, social network, physical activity, and cognitively demanding tasks. Also, just as cognitive trainings provide users with the sense of mastery and self-efficacy, especially if new skills are required through the course of the training, so do leisure time activities. Based on their facial validity, i.e., instantly seen pleasurable purpose of these activities, development of mastery and self-efficacy in leisure time activities is probably even more pronounced. Furthermore, leisure activities circumvent crucial shortcoming of cognitive trainings—they are mostly free and available to almost everyone. Cognitive training procedures are usually not offered to older population on a larger scale. They are usually based in validity studies and are at disposition to volunteers in research institution—university centers, geriatric units, or aging institutes. Web-based programs are becoming an economically available alternative, yet they still require resources and, after all, a home computer with Internet access. Finally, traditional leisure time activities are perceived as much more enjoyable than strategy trainings and extensive practice tasks, and this enjoyment might ensure for higher motivation and adherence of older participants in pursing them.
A successful example in which an initially leisure time activity, volunteering, was tested as a cognitive protection intervention [91]. Older adults (ages 60–86) worked with elementary school students in supportive interactive roles for 15 hours weekly over the school year. Physical activity, strength, reported social support networks, and cognitive activity significantly increased for these elders. This study is an example of targeting social engagement interventions to enhance cognitive aging for older adults and a further support of the theory that active involvement with society and engagement in meaningful activity are critical to “successful aging.” More studies like this are needed to have a sound, psychometrically proven, argument of leisure activity being the No. 1 choice of cognitive training. However, such studies are usually not commercially or grant-wise interesting because the final products—a participation in activity—cannot be sold and there are no financial incentives; it is most often open to community dwellers in forms of various hobby centers, book clubs, or volunteering opportunities.
At the end, which is then the right way to healthy aging and cognitive vitality in the old age? Is it the activities, is it training programs either web-based or offered by research in others, or might it be both? Aging is a dynamic progress in which we win some and we lose some. Losses are mostly there by default; wins mostly require hard work. Studies on cognitive plasticity show that behavioral effects of experience are quite narrow and the effects of participation in activities show because engaged lifestyle pulls attentional resources to support abilities and maintain skills needed to pursue such lifestyle [92]. In other words, abilities are maintained through consistent use of exercising them. Exercise and engagement can be operationalized in various ways, but they usually involve challenging levels of activity situated in real-life contexts. So the question of activity or disengagement as a key to successful aging can best be rephrased by emphasizing choices we make about our activities and involvements in them. Such a claim is advanced in the Dumbledore hypothesis of cognitive aging—suggested by Elizabeth Stine-Morrow and inspired by the wise words of Dumbledore, a kind wizard in the Harry Potter saga—it is not our abilities that define us; it is our choices that show what we truly are [92]. What seems crucial for successful aging and higher well-being of elderly is to find the right balance between one’s ability, choice of activities, and the level of engagement in these activities. Choosing to engage in leisure activities and adjusting this engagement to own aging abilities, yet making it inspiring enough to provide a mastery experience, which would lead to higher self-efficacy, seem to be the path to maximize our own potentials and be well.
Corrosive ingestion is a medical emergency that is especially prevalent in developing countries such as Thailand [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Since 2020, the COVID-19 has had an enormous impact on many sectors worldwide, and it had affected the trend of rising incidence and severity of diseases [10]. However, the actual incidence should not be precise as the tip of the iceberg phenomenon is probably under-report [4, 8]. Currently, various studies on this topic are still being developed for medical knowledge to the achievement goal of the best practice. Perforation and stricture are complications of corrosive ingestion which are currently being researched and which are discussed in this chapter.
Caustic injuries are caused by the ingestion of substances with acid or base properties. Acids cause coagulation necrosis, and alkalis cause liquefaction necrosis. Corrosive ingestion in children is usually accidental. In adults, it might be related to suicide. Therefore, it is a public health concern with mental and socioeconomic aspects [1, 2, 6, 11].
Morbidity with mortality rates of corrosive injuries are high [12, 13]. Airway assessment and prompt management are priorities in emergency settings, especially in severe cases [2, 13, 14]. Extensive burns can cause the fragile esophageal wall to become perforated. Physicians must evaluate this condition as soon as possible. Stricture is another complication that physicians need to evaluate. Post-corrosive esophageal strictures cause patients to suffer and are difficult to treat [2, 3, 4, 9, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].
Caustic substances with pH less than two or more than 12 are especially destructive. Form, concentration, amount of ingestion, and contact duration also affect the results. Acidic substances generate coagulation necrosis which creates eschar formation. Eschar can limit the penetration of injuries [16]. On the other hand, alkaline substances melt the tissue protein and initiate liquefactive necrosis with saponification that can penetrate deeper into the esophageal wall [17].
Perforation occurs in the acute stage of severe esophageal injuries. As a consequence of perforation, stricture follows during the recovery stage. Tissue injuries after corrosive ingestion go through three phases. Phase 1 is characterized by cell necrosis and thrombosis, 48–72 hours after the event. Next, in Phase 2, there is mucosal sloughing with ulceration of the esophageal wall plus fibroblast colonization and granulation. This phase continues for 14 days from the Phase 1, and the esophagus is friable during this phase. Finally, in Phase 3, the healing process starts in the third week and usually continues 3–6 months [3, 20, 21].
When patients arrive at the emergency department, stabilization of the patient is the most important target for this stage [21]. Signs and symptoms that often occur in corrosive ingested patients include burning of the oral cavity, drooling, nausea, and vomiting. Upper gastrointestinal bleeding can be found in severe cases, indicating substance injuries to the alimentary tract. Respiratory trauma can result in hoarseness, difficulty to breathe, stridor, and airway compromise. Esophagus perforation can be expressed as mediastinitis, chest wall emphysema, and pneumothorax, depending on time and severity.
Physicians should first examine the airway, especially for signs of aspiration or laryngeal injury. Physical examination and history taking should be done for details of the corrosive substance, the volume, timing before admission, pre-hospital treatment, and cause of ingestion. The patient should be given nil per os (NPO) and adequate resuscitation. Nasogastric tube intubation, gastric lavage, administration of emetic drugs, and neutralizing agents are not recommended because reflux of these agents into the esophagus could result in further damage [1, 8, 21]. Intravenous broad-spectrum antibiotics may benefit a patient with high-grade esophageal injuries. The investigation by chest and abdominal radiography should be evaluated. In cases of attempted suicide, the patient should be evaluated by the psychiatric department [1, 3, 4, 9, 22, 23].
The initial evaluation of the severity of a caustic injury provides important information. Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) is recommended for grading esophageal injuries following the Zargar classification (Table 1). Zargar classification can assist prognosis and guide clinical management [16]. The EGD should be done as soon as possible within 24–48 hours. Performing endoscopy after 48 hours is not recommended because the tissue injuries go through Phase 2 when they should not be subjected to an unwanted event [16, 21]. For patients with Zargar grade 1 and 2a, an oral diet may be given. Patients with Zargar grade 2b and 3a can start an oral diet once they can swallow saliva. Esophagectomy should be performed on patients with Zargar grade 3b injuries.
Zargar classification | Description |
---|---|
Grade 0 | Normal finding on endoscopic examination |
Grade 1 | Edema and hyperemia of the mucosa |
Grade 2a | Friability, blisters, exudates, hemorrhages, whitish membrane, erosions, and superficial ulceration |
Grade 2b | Grade 2a plus deep discrete or circumferential ulceration |
Grade 3a | Small scattered areas of multiple ulceration and areas of necrosis with brown-black or grayish discoloration |
Grade 3b | Extensive necrosis |
Zargar classification of corrosive esophageal injury.
The method for assessing the degree of esophageal damage by computed tomography (CT) with scoring was recently established as a noninvasive modality [24]. Nowadays, the use of CT scans of the chest and abdomen is increasing. CT can assist prognosis after ingestion, but it is still inconclusive [25, 26, 27]. CT also provides extraesophageal information regarding anatomies such as the mediastinum, lung, and pleural cavity, which endoscopies do not (Table 2).
Score | Endoscopic score [16] | Computerized tomography score [24] |
---|---|---|
0 | Grade 0; Normal | Normal |
I | Grade 1; Edema and hyperemia of the mucosa | No definite swelling of esophagus wall (<3 mm, within normal limit) |
II | Grade 2a; Friability, blisters, exudates, hemorrhages, whitish membrane, erosion, and superficial ulceration | Edematous wall thickening (>3 mm) without periesophageal soft tissue infiltration |
Grade 2b; Grade 2a plus deep discrete or circumferential ulceration | ||
III | Grade 3a; Small scattered areas of multiple ulceration and areas of necrosis with brown-black or grayish discoloration | Edematous wall thickening with periesophageal soft tissue infiltration pulse well-demarcated tissue interface |
Grade 3b; Extensive necrosis | ||
VI | Grade 4; Perforation | Edematous wall thickening with periesophageal soft tissue infiltration plus blurring of tissue interface or localized fluid collection around the esophagus or the descending aorta |
Endoscopic score and computerized tomography score of corrosive esophageal injury.
Although an endoscopy is an important tool for initial evaluation, contraindications are suspected perforation, oral cavity necrosis, and airway injury with compromised respiration. CT scans can safely provide details about esophageal transmural necrosis consisting of esophageal wall blurring, peri-esophageal fat stranding, and no enhancement of esophageal wall after administration of intravenous contrast [24]. Recent studies reported that unnecessary esophagectomy following endoscopic evaluation of patients with Zargar grade 3b could have been avoided if CT had been used [28, 29, 30].
Both CT and endoscopy have distinctive advantages. CT is minimally invasive with high sensitivity and specificity [24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Intra-luminal evaluation by endoscopy reveals subtle details of the esophageal mucosa and degrees of damage [31]. The combination of CT and endoscopy is especially useful for examining patients with Zargar 3b injuries [8, 30, 31].
As the esophagus is healing following ingestion of a corrosive substance, the possibility of stricture should be assessed. Post-corrosive esophageal stricture is a complication that produces suffering for victims [9, 15, 17]. Esophageal dilation is a therapeutic intervention of choice to perform at the onset of stricture. If left until later, the procedure becomes more difficult, decreasing the success and increasing adverse events [21, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Esophageal dilatation can be performed repeatedly according to schedule and using various dilators such as Maloney-Hurst, Savary-Gilliard, and Balloon dilator under the endoscopy, fluoroscopy, or both. Alternative methods for post-corrosive esophageal stricture such as esophageal stenting [21, 37, 38], intralesional steroids [21, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43], and, Mitomycin-C [21, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48] have been published with various outcomes. These options might supplement dilation with better results. In cases of severe stricture, failure to dilate, or refractory strictures, surgery might be necessary (Figure 1) [4, 18, 19, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54].
The treatment options for post-corrosive esophageal stricture. (A) Severe post-corrosive esophageal stricture; (B) Savary-Gilliard dilator; (C) endoscopic balloon dilation; (D) esophagectomy with open right thoracotomy; (E) esophagectomy with video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS); (F) reconstruction with cervical anastomosis after esophagectomy; (G, H) right side colonic conduit for esophageal replacement; and (I) subcutaneous colon interposition.
Post-corrosive esophageal stricture should highly consider inpatient with Zargar grade 2b and 3a [4, 5, 8, 9, 16, 55]. Although various treatment strategies have been developed, none of them can provide outstanding results. Stricture prevention would be the ideal method. Corticosteroids reduce inflammation, but the benefit is inconclusive. Steroids cause severe adverse side effects such as esophageal candidiasis, gastric ulcer, ethmoiditis, osteomyelitis, and osteoporosis [56, 57, 58]. Recent studies have demonstrated that omeprazole with proton pump inhibitor activity could enhance healing, reduce stricture, and reduce the short-term risk of developing esophageal stricture in patients with 2b and 3a corrosive injuries [9, 59, 60, 61]. However, further studies of omeprazole are needed to corroborate these findings (Figure 2).
Schematic diagram of corrosive ingestion in esophageal injury.
Corrosive ingestion is a serious medical emergency that is a global problem, especially in several developing countries. When patients arrive at the emergency department, stabilization of the patient is initially the most important target. Airway assessment and prompt management are the priorities for emergency settings, especially in severe cases. Any intervention that might cause substance reflux into the esophagus resulting in further damage is not recommended. Current methods for assessing the degree of esophageal damage are early endoscopy for Zargar classification and CT scan, which focuses on ruling out perforation. Post-corrosive esophageal stricture can be a consequent complication with poor treatment outcomes, and stricture prevention is an interesting idea.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Special thanks to Michael Jan Everts for assistance in editing the English version of this chapter.
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Therefore, more studies are needed to assess the benefit of antibiotic prescription and whether it is safe to refrain from its use.",book:{id:"5185",slug:"dental-implantology-and-biomaterial",title:"Dental Implantology and Biomaterial",fullTitle:"Dental Implantology and Biomaterial"},signatures:"Dalia Khalil, Bodil Lund and Margareta Hultin",authors:[{id:"179031",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",middleName:null,surname:"Khalil",slug:"dalia-khalil",fullName:"Dalia Khalil"},{id:"185113",title:"Dr.",name:"Bodil",middleName:null,surname:"Lund",slug:"bodil-lund",fullName:"Bodil Lund"},{id:"185114",title:"Dr.",name:"Margareta",middleName:null,surname:"Hultin",slug:"margareta-hultin",fullName:"Margareta Hultin"}]},{id:"47915",title:"Rationale for Dental Implants",slug:"rationale-for-dental-implants",totalDownloads:3076,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"4548",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Ilser Turkyilmaz and Gokce Soganci",authors:[{id:"171984",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ilser",middleName:null,surname:"Turkyilmaz",slug:"ilser-turkyilmaz",fullName:"Ilser Turkyilmaz"}]},{id:"18430",title:"An Important Dilemma in Treatment Planning: Implant or Endodontic Therapy?",slug:"an-important-dilemma-in-treatment-planning-implant-or-endodontic-therapy-",totalDownloads:6264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Funda Kont Cobankara and Sema Belli",authors:[{id:"28846",title:"Dr.",name:"Funda",middleName:null,surname:"Kont Çobankara",slug:"funda-kont-cobankara",fullName:"Funda Kont Çobankara"},{id:"75862",title:"Prof.",name:"Sema",middleName:null,surname:"Belli",slug:"sema-belli",fullName:"Sema Belli"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"998",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",abstract:"This chapter will address evidence-based prosthetic concepts in dental implantology as well as clinical evidence with focus on appropriate logic and technical skills. Those prosthetic factors are as just important as surgical factors, and long-term success can only be achieved if both of those factors are considered, respected, and strictly followed from planning to prosthetic phase of treatment. This chapter will deal with materials selection for prosthetic part, shape, size, and design of supracrestal parts of abutments and their influence on soft tissue and bone stability around dental implants. Furthermore, one of most important decisions is about choosing the proper way of retention: screw- vs. cement-retained restorations, and it will be discussed in detail. Additionally, emergence profile and its function in soft tissues adaptation and adhesion to different prosthetic materials also have important role in long-term success of dental implant restorations.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Ivica Pelivan"},{id:"80500",title:"Novel Dental Implants with Herbal Composites: A Review",slug:"novel-dental-implants-with-herbal-composites-a-review",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101489",abstract:"Missing a permanent tooth is a miserable condition faced by a common man. A tooth decay, periodontitis, mechanical trauma, or any systemic complications lead to such a complication. These bone defects when left untreated lead to severe resorption of the alveolar bone. A proper dental filling with an appropriate bone substitute material could prevent such resorption and paves a way for subsequent implant placement. Dental implants are considered as the prime option by dentists to replace a single tooth or prevent bone resorption. A variety of bone substitutes are available differ in origin, consistency, particle size, porosity, and resorption characteristics. Herbal composites in dentistry fabricated using biphospho-calcium phosphate, casein, chitosan, and certain herbal extracts of Cassia occidentalis, Terminalia arjuna bark, Myristica fragans also were reported to possess a higher ossification property, osteogenic property and were able to repair bone defects. C. occidentalis was reported to stimulate mineralization of the bone and osteoblastic differentiation through the activation of the PI3K-Akt/MAPKs pathway in MC3T3-E1 cells of mice. This implant proved better osteoconductivity and bioactivity compared to pure HAP and other BCP ratios. Terminalia Arjuna was also worked in the incorporation in the graft to enhance the osteogenic property of the implant and gave good results. Another implant bone graft was synthesized containing BCP, biocompatible casein, and the extracts of Myristica fragans and subjected to in vitro investigations and the results revealed the deposition of apatite on the graft after immersing in SBF and also the ALP activity was high when treated with MG-63 cells, NIH-3 T3, and Saos 2 cell lines. This study indicates that the inclusion of plant extract enhances the osteogenic property of the graft. Thus, these novel dental implants incorporated with herbal composites evaluated by researchers revealed an enhanced bone healing, accelerates osseointegration, inhibits osteopenia, and inhibits inflammation. This application of herbal composite inclusion in dentistry and its applications has a greater potential to improve the success rate of dental implants and allows the implications of biotechnology in implant dentistry.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Gopathy Sridevi and Seshadri Srividya"},{id:"78320",title:"Implant-Retained Maxillary and Mandibular Overdentures - A Solution for Completely Edentulous Patients",slug:"implant-retained-maxillary-and-mandibular-overdentures-a-solution-for-completely-edentulous-patients",totalDownloads:66,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99575",abstract:"The main goal of modern removable prosthodontics is to restore the normal appearance, function, esthetics and speech in each completely edentulous patient. However, if all teeth are missing in a patient, it becomes very complicated to achieve it using traditional protocols. Therefore, implants were introduced into removable prosthodontics to ensure better retention and stability of the conventional dentures. In case of a large amount of bone missing in the jaw it is necessary to ensure the functioning of the dentures constructing various additional stabilizing and retentive prosthodontic solutions on the osseointegrated implants. Numerous types of attachment systems have been used recently for relating implant-retained overdentures to underlying implants: basically splinting (various bar shape designs) and non-splinting attachments (various ball type attachment, magnet attachment, telescopic coping systems). Indications for their use depend on the surgical and prosthodontic factors such as the number and position of the implants, the amount of free intermaxillary space and the type and size of the overdentures. Different indications, types of the overdentures and the attachment systems will be discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Dubravka Knezović Zlatarić, Robert Ćelić and Hrvoje Pezo"},{id:"79724",title:"Implant Stability Quotient (ISQ): A Reliable Guide for Implant Treatment",slug:"implant-stability-quotient-isq-a-reliable-guide-for-implant-treatment",totalDownloads:60,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101359",abstract:"Implant stability is a prerequisite for successful dental implants and osseointegration. To determine the status of implant stability, continuous monitoring in an objective and qualitative manner is important. To measure implant stability two different stages are there: Primary and secondary. Primary implant stability at placement is a mechanical phenomenon that is related to the local bone quality and quantity, the type of implant and placement technique used. Primary stability is checked from mechanical engagement with cortical bone. Secondary stability is developed from regeneration and remodeling of the bone and tissue around the implant after insertion and affected by the primary stability, bone formation and remodeling. Implant stability is essential for the time of functional loading. Classical benchmark methods to measure implant stability were radiographs or microscopic analysis, removal torque, push-through and pull-through but due to lack of feasibility, time consumption and ethical reasons other methods have been propounded over period of time like measurement of implant torque, model analysis and most important ISQ which has the ability to monitor osseointegration and the life expectancy of an implant. ISQ is a valuable diagnostic and clinical tool that has far-reaching consequences on implant dentistry and this article throws light on advanced and reliable methods of assessing ISQ.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Gaurav Gupta"},{id:"79817",title:"Peri-Implant Soft Tissue Augmentation",slug:"peri-implant-soft-tissue-augmentation",totalDownloads:128,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101336",abstract:"The peri-implant soft tissue (PIS) augmentation procedure has become an integral part of implant-prosthetic rehabilitation. Minimal width of keratinized mucosa (KM) of 2 mm is deemed necessary to facilitate oral hygiene maintenance around the implant and provide hard and soft peri-implant tissue stability. PIS thickness of at least 2 mm is recommended to achieve the esthetic appearance and prevent recessions around implant prosthetic rehabilitation. The autogenous soft tissue grafts can be divided into two groups based on their histological composition—free gingival graft (FGG) and connective tissue graft (CTG). FGG graft is used mainly to increase the width of keratinized mucosa while CTG augment the thickness of PIS. Both grafts are harvested from the same anatomical region—the palate. Alternatively, they can be harvested from the maxillary tuberosity. Soft tissue grafts can be also harvested as pedicle grafts, in case when the soft tissue graft remains attached to the donor site by one side preserving the blood supply from the donor region. Clinically this will result in less shrinkage of the graft postoperatively, improving the outcome of the augmentation procedure. To bypass the drawback connected with FGG or CTG harvesting, substitutional soft tissue grafts have been developed.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Marko Blašković and Dorotea Blašković"},{id:"79611",title:"Growth Factors and Dental Implantology",slug:"growth-factors-and-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:103,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101082",abstract:"Normal healing procedure of bone involves various sequential events to develop bone and bridge the bone -to- bone gap. When this healing occurs with a metal (titanium) fixture on one side, it is called as osseointegration. After extensive studies on this topic, it is found that this procedure occurs in presence of various biologic constituents that are spontaneously released at the site. Thus, to accelerate normal healing after implant placement and make results more predictable, it has been proposed to use these autologous factors in the osteotomy site. Since it is the beginning of a new revolution in dental implantology, right now it is essential to analyze all possible combinations of host conditions, bone quality and quantity and bio factors being used. This can definitely be a boon for the patients with compromised systemic or local conditions.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Deeksha Gupta"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). 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