\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6898",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Comparative Endocrinology of Animals",title:"Comparative Endocrinology of Animals",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In this book, the editor has reviewed the scientific articles from a diverse group of scientists from around the world who actively participate in comparative endocrinology. Some of the important categories represented here are human health, aquaculture, wildlife conservation, and production animals. Eminent scientists write from their experience, providing an overview of the current information on comparative endocrinology of animals. The chapters also provide valuable information for animal production and human health management. The book will be useful to biologists, biomedical researchers, veterinary students, wildlife managers, researchers, and wildlife conservationists.",isbn:"978-1-83881-194-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-396-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-195-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73427",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"comparative-endocrinology-of-animals",numberOfPages:102,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1c615706c8e4220ea5a24d231947ac7a",bookSignature:"Edward Narayan",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6898.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6049,numberOfWosCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:39,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 24th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 31st 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 29th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 18th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 16th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1379",title:"Theriogenology",slug:"animal-science-theriogenology"}],chapters:[{id:"67234",title:"Introductory Chapter: Applications of Stress Endocrinology in Wildlife Conservation and Livestock Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86523",slug:"introductory-chapter-applications-of-stress-endocrinology-in-wildlife-conservation-and-livestock-sci",totalDownloads:793,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Edward Jitik Narayan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67234",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67234",authors:[{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan"}],corrections:null},{id:"65620",title:"Ontogeny of the Human Pancreas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84515",slug:"ontogeny-of-the-human-pancreas",totalDownloads:1267,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pancreatic disorders are the most common pathologies in humans worldwide. Detailed information on pancreatic cytoarchitecture, vascularisation, innervation, morphogenesis, and cell differentiation is required for the development of new approaches to the treatment of these diseases. Currently, the majority of studies on pancreas development are performed on experimental animals (mainly rodents). Studies on human pancreatic prenatal development are restricted in number by ethical constraints and some technical difficulties. However, interspecies differences in pancreatic structure and development are considerable. Therefore, data obtained in experiments on animals and cell cultures must be supplemented with information obtained directly from human pancreatic autopsies. In this chapter, we summarise our previous results and the literature data on human pancreatic ontogeny. Special attention has been paid to the endocrine pancreas, which undergoes morphogenetic restructuring during human development. Several forms of structural organisation of the endocrine pancreas (single endocrine cells, small clusters of endocrine cells, mantle, bipolar, and mosaic islets) gradually appear during development. It is important that this restructuring is accompanied by changes in the ratio of pancreatic endocrine cells. The mechanisms of these changes are still unclear. The difficulties in identifying progenitor cells and tracking cell differentiation are the main problems associated with this issue.",signatures:"Alexandra E. Proshchina, Yuliya S. Krivova, Larisa E. Gurevich, Valeriy M. Barabanov, Dmitriy A. Otlyga, Iya A. Voronkova and Sergey V. Saveliev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65620",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65620",authors:[{id:"189522",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandra",surname:"Proshchina",slug:"alexandra-proshchina",fullName:"Alexandra Proshchina"},{id:"242828",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuliya",surname:"Krivova",slug:"yuliya-krivova",fullName:"Yuliya Krivova"},{id:"242829",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeriy",surname:"Barabanov",slug:"valeriy-barabanov",fullName:"Valeriy Barabanov"},{id:"242830",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Saveliev",slug:"sergey-saveliev",fullName:"Sergey Saveliev"},{id:"269989",title:"Dr.",name:"Larisa",surname:"Gurevich",slug:"larisa-gurevich",fullName:"Larisa Gurevich"},{id:"269990",title:"MSc.",name:"Dmitriy",surname:"Otlyga",slug:"dmitriy-otlyga",fullName:"Dmitriy Otlyga"},{id:"269992",title:"Dr.",name:"Iya",surname:"Voronkova",slug:"iya-voronkova",fullName:"Iya Voronkova"}],corrections:null},{id:"64652",title:"Deltamethrin Alters Thyroid Hormones and Delays Pubertal Development in Male and Female Rats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81107",slug:"deltamethrin-alters-thyroid-hormones-and-delays-pubertal-development-in-male-and-female-rats",totalDownloads:1080,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pyrethroid insecticides are suspected endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Deltamethrin has been reported to antagonize thyroid hormone receptor activity in a reporter assay. We hypothesized that deltamethrin alters thyroid function. Male and female rats were administered daily oral gavages with 0, 0.3, 1, or 3 mg/kg/day deltamethrin on postnatal days 23–53 and 22–42, respectively. Results showed that deltamethrin decreased the relative thyroid weight in 0.3 and 1 mg/kg/day in female but not in male rats. Although the histology and several parameters of thyroid were not affected, the decreased relative weight exhibited underlying meaning. Deltamethrin delayed the age of vaginal opening (VO) and increased body weight upon VO in 3 mg/kg/day. Deltamethrin failed to delay the age of preputial separation in male rats. In the respective of serum hormone concentration, deltamethrin increased 17β-estradiol (E2) with dose-dependent manner in female rats. The novel finding is that deltamethrin decreased thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in the female rats. In contrast, deltamethrin increased T3 and TSH but not in T4 in male rats. We inferred that deltamethrin disrupts thyroid hormone and might be related to estrogen receptor agonist. The future work is to investigate if deltamethrin disrupts the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis.",signatures:"Shui-Yuan Lu, Pinpin Lin, Wei-Ren Tsai and Chen-Yi Weng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64652",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64652",authors:[{id:"245140",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shui-Yuan",surname:"Lu",slug:"shui-yuan-lu",fullName:"Shui-Yuan Lu"},{id:"257857",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei-Ren",surname:"Tsai",slug:"wei-ren-tsai",fullName:"Wei-Ren Tsai"},{id:"270116",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinpin",surname:"Lin",slug:"pinpin-lin",fullName:"Pinpin Lin"},{id:"270118",title:"MSc.",name:"Chen-Yi",surname:"Weng",slug:"chen-yi-weng",fullName:"Chen-Yi Weng"}],corrections:null},{id:"68173",title:"A Review on the Influence of Climate Change on Sheep Reproduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86799",slug:"a-review-on-the-influence-of-climate-change-on-sheep-reproduction",totalDownloads:1271,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Increasing food and natural fibre production ensure food security for nearly 10 billion people, the projected global population in 2050, without causing further environmental damage can be achieved by transforming systems and adopting sustainable agriculture practices within a changing climate. Globally, climate change effects are having both direct and indirect effects on agricultural productivity including changing rainfall patterns, drought, flooding and the geographical redistribution of pests and diseases. Climate change induced heat stress is thus one of the complex factors making sheep management and husbandry challenging in many geographical locations in the world. Within the sheep industry, reproductive wastage (RW) is a major challenge throughout the varying breeding landscapes. Reproductive wastage is defined as the early losses of embryos undergoing natural and/or artificial breeding programs. Our previous research showed that heat stress (THI > 75) and elevated glucocorticoid levels (indexed using faecal glucocorticoid metabolites) are linked to embryo loss in Merino ewes. This mini review discusses how extreme variation in climate such as heat stress affects the maternal reproductive performance in the Merino sheep and the impacts on the wool industry. We provide recommendations to sheep producers for monitoring and managing the effects of heat stress on-farm.",signatures:"Gregory Sawyer and Edward Jitik Narayan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68173",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68173",authors:[{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan"},{id:"260924",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Gregory",surname:"Sawyer",slug:"gregory-sawyer",fullName:"Gregory Sawyer"}],corrections:null},{id:"65460",title:"Endocrinology of Reproduction in Crustaceans",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83018",slug:"endocrinology-of-reproduction-in-crustaceans",totalDownloads:1638,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Crustaceans have become the most popular proteinacious foods to meet the food demand of ever growing human population in the World. But, the culturing of crustacean species has many problems, including limited availability of quality seed. Out of all conventional methods practiced to increase seed of good quality and quantity, manipulation of the endocrine system of brood stock is found to be one of the best methods. Regulation of crustacean reproduction is under the control of many hormones and factors. The eyestalk hormones, namely gonad/vitellogenin-inhibiting hormone (VIH) and mandibular organ inhibiting hormone (MOIH) show negative effects on maturation, whereas the other eyestalk hormones show mixed effects on maturation. The non-eyestalk hormones namely gonad stimulating hormone (GSH), methyl farnesoate (MF) and ecdysteroids are ovarian maturation inducers in crustaceans. The pros and cons of endocrine manipulation in crustaceans are discussed in this chapter.",signatures:"Ramachandra Reddy Pamuru",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65460",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65460",authors:[{id:"242524",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramachandra Reddy",surname:"Pamuru",slug:"ramachandra-reddy-pamuru",fullName:"Ramachandra Reddy Pamuru"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"185",title:"Artificial Insemination in Farm Animals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8c5b0152828cb1d252f0531fe4024fa",slug:"artificial-insemination-in-farm-animals",bookSignature:"Milad Manafi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/185.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"56772",title:"Dr.",name:"Milad",surname:"Manafi",slug:"milad-manafi",fullName:"Milad Manafi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8460",title:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"32ef5fe73998dd723d308225d756fa1e",slug:"reproductive-biology-and-technology-in-animals",bookSignature:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi and Katy Satué Ambrojo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8460.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79356",slug:"corrigendum-satellite-control-system-part-i-architecture-and-main-components",title:"Corrigendum: Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76873.pdf\r\n",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76873",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76873",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76873",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76873",chapter:{id:"72485",slug:"satellite-control-system-part-i-architecture-and-main-components",signatures:"Yuri V. Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",email:"yurikim@hotmail.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"72485",slug:"satellite-control-system-part-i-architecture-and-main-components",signatures:"Yuri V. Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",email:"yurikim@hotmail.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11925",leadTitle:null,title:"Cloud Computing - New Perspectives for AI and Cybersecurity",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tCloud computing services play a very important role in many applications that involve the provision of machines for computing and storage. Additionally, the cloud infrastructure can also offer data platform services that span the different available databases. With all developments in cloud computing infrastructures and services, it becomes mandatory to use cybersecurity and Artificial Intelligence (AI) to address the needs of end-users of Cloud Computing. Utilizing AI software-based machine learning (ML) algorithms in cloud environments is widely used nowadays to deliver intuitive for users and customers. Alexa and Siri are good examples that use AI to search the cloud to get much information or to play songs to make a purchase. Cybersecurity in cloud computing environments is required for involving best practices in user access and privileges, hardware and software security, virtualization, firewalls, and other processes used to protect data and infrastructure.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will concentrate on all aspects of Cloud Computing. Principally, it will address topics that are core to Cloud Computing, focusing on the Cloud applications, the Cloud systems, utilizing both the AI and cybersecurity to advance Cloud systems for better use in the future.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-708-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-707-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-709-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d0810b3f0c23214bf7dddeaafcb6c3ef",bookSignature:"Dr. Yasser Ismail",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11925.jpg",keywords:"Cloud Computing, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Private Cloud, Cognitive Cloud Computing, Cybersecurity, Cloud Security, Cloud Infrastructure, Cloud System, Cloud Applications, Cloud Deployment, Types of Cloud Computing, Cloud Computing Features",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 30th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 18th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 17th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Yasser Ismail has over twenty years of professional experience in teaching and research in national and international universities, such as Southern University, A&M College, Mansoura University, and the University of Bahrain. He has obtained a Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. He is awarded the Partnering, Research, Innovation, Development, and Entrepreneurship award by Southern University and A&M College.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"255636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasser",middleName:null,surname:"Ismail",slug:"yasser-ismail",fullName:"Yasser Ismail",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255636/images/system/255636.png",biography:'Overview\nA highly motivated detail-oriented professional with excellent organizational and results-oriented abilities. My educational background and diverse experiences have provided me with wide knowledge and a strong set of skills that allow me to contribute to many fields of image processing – based Machine Learning (ML) and how it may be used to characterize various materials’ degradations, digital video, and VLSI design (algorithmic and architecture levels), smart traffic system design, cybersecurity based Additive Manufacturing, and Internet of Video Things (IoVT).\nResearch Interest:\n•\tImage Processing – Based Machine Learning (ML): Develop a system that can monitor and determine the effect that long-term exposure to some chemical materials that can be added to plants and soils. This work may be extended to characterize various materials’ degradations,\n•\tSmart traffic-Based Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): Develop smart systems-based Deep Learning algorithms that can automatically count different objects. Such systems and algorithms are very helpful in designing new smart cities.\n•\tInternet of Video Things (IoVT): Design video surveillance systems, for homeland security applications that match the allowed hardware complexity of the Internet of Video Things (IoVT) infrastructure.\n•\tDigital Video Processing Algorithms/Architectures levels: Develop video processing algorithms and architectures. My research involves Video Compression algorithms and architectures, specifically Motion Estimation and Compensation, DCT transform, and Vector Quantization.\n•\tVLSI and FPGA Design (Low-Power and High-Speed Performance Embedded Systems): Design video systems taking into consideration optimizing the encoding speed and study the effect on both the area and power consumption of the designed systems. Systems are tested and implemented in either FPGA or ASIC flow design.\n•\tWireless and Digital Communication Systems: Design several techniques and systems that help in compressing the transmitted bit-rate of a speech signal over wireless communication channels. \nEducation\t\n•\tPh.D. Computer Engineering. University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, USA, 2010. Dissertation Title: “Efficient Smart Algorithms and Architectures for Real-time Video Transmission in Pixel and Frequency Domains”.\n•\tM.S. Computer Engineering. University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, USA, 2007.\n•\tM.S. Electrical Communication Engineering. Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt, 2002. \n•\tB.Sc. Electronics Engineering. Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt, 1999.\nHonors and Awards\n•\tThe 2019 Partnering, Research, Innovation, Development, and Entrepreneurship award (P. R. I. D. E) by Southern University and A&M College – USA.\n•\tListed in Marquis Who’s Who in America 2009 and 2010.\n•\tThird place winner in “the student paper contest” at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette in 2009 and 2008.\n•\tHonored Student, The University of Louisiana at Lafayette Honors Convocation Committee (2006) and (2007).\n•\tFirst Rank Graduate in MS, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt (2003).\n•\tSecond Rank Graduate in BS, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt (1999).\nAppointments and Teaching Experience \n\n•\tMay 2022 to Present: Associate Professor, Southern University and A&M College, Department of Electrical Engineering, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.\n•\tAugust 2017 to May 2022: Assistant Professor, Southern University and A&M College, Department of Electrical Engineering, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.\n•\tJuly 2016 to July 2017: Assistant Professor, Mansoura University, Electronics and Communications Department, Egypt, \n•\tSeptember 2016 to June 2017: Adjunct Assistant Professor, Zewail City of Science and Technology - University of Science and Technology - Zewail City, Egypt.\n•\tSeptember 2012 to June 2016: Assistant Professor, University of Bahrain, Computer Engineering Department, Kingdom of Bahrain.\n•\tOctober 2010 to July 2012: Assistant Professor, Umm Al-Qura University, Computer Science Department, Makkah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.\n•\tJanuary 2005 to May 2010: Teaching Assistant, College of Engineering – Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Louisiana at Lafayette (ULL), Lafayette, LA, USA.\n•\tJanuary 2001 to January 2005.Teaching Assistant, Mansoura University, Electronics and Communications Department, Egypt.\nCourses taught\n•\tMicroprocessors, Computer Design and Implementation \n•\tDigital Logic Design Circuits\n•\tDesign and Analysis of Algorithms\n•\tElectromagnetic Waves\n•\tSignals and Systems\n•\tDigital communication system\n•\tElectrical Circuits I/II\t•\tVLSI design of embedded systems\n•\tComputer Architecture and Organization \n•\tElectronics I/II/III \n•\tDigital Signal Processing\n•\tProgramming Languages\n•\tImage Processing and Computer Vision\n•\tTroubleshooting\n•\tRobotic Design and Implementation\n•\tAn Introduction to Cybersecurity\nPending Grant\n\n•\tSouthern University Partnership for Research and Education in Materials Excellence (SUPREME), National Science Foundation (NSF) (2021 – 2027), (Role: Co-PI) ($3,992,932).\n•\tCAREER: Improving Student Learning in Machine Learning and Internet of Things Applications and Technologies Utilizing Modern Learning, National Science Foundation (NSF) (2022 – 2027), (Role: PI) (738,985).\n\nAwarded Grant\n\n•\tUsing Sensor Networks and Machine Learning to Characterize Agricultural Responses to Stimuli – Funded by US Federal Government (2021 – 2023), BAA ID#: CGR-2020-0001-P1. (Role: Co-PI) ($ 350,000) \n•\tHigh-Fidelity Fatigue, Drowsiness, and Drunk Drivers Detection (FD4) System, - Funded by Louisiana Transportation Research Center (LTRC) (2021 – 2022), (Role: PI) ($ 30,000)\n•\tSupervised Undergraduate Research Experiences (SURE) Competition, BOARD OF REGENTS, Baton Rouge 2020-2021. (Role: Supervise undergraduate student; LaBreya Brumfield). ($5,000) \n•\tSupervised Undergraduate Research Experiences (SURE) Competition, BOARD OF REGENTS, Baton Rouge 2020-2021. (Role: Supervise undergraduate student; Dailynn Thomas). ($5,000)\n•\tEnhancing Computer Engineering and Big Data Education (CEBDE) at Southern University and A&M College, Microsoft Impact2020 (2020 – 2021). (Role: Co-PI) ($ 200,000).\n•\tEnhancing Additive Manufacturing Education with Cybersecurity and Virtual Reality – Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (2019 – 2024), Award Id: 1915520. (Role: Senior Investigator) ($ 851,877) \n•\tTargeted Infusion Project: A Computer Engineering Research Lab (CERL) at Southern University and A&M College (SUBR) – Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (2019 – 2021), Award Id: 1912397. (Role: PI) ($ 396,190) \n•\tEvaluation of Counting Device for Pedestrians and Bicyclists - Funded by Louisiana Transportation Research Center (LTRC) (2018 – 2019), Award Id: LTRC 19-1SA. (Role: PI) ($ 85,792)\n•\tAutomatic Recognition of Arabic handwriting in Historical Manuscripts - Funded by the King Abdul-Aziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) (2014 - 2015). (Role: Co-PI) ($ 379,337)\n•\tFast and Smart Security Cameras for Video Surveillance systems in Hajj Rites – Funded by The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Institute of Hajj researches – KSA (2014-2015). (Role: PI) ($ 35,000)\n•\tASIC Design of a Low Complexity High-Speed H.265/HEVC for Wireless Transmission Video Surveillance System - Funded by University of Bahrain (2014 -2015). (Role: PI) ($ 13,297)\n•\tFast video surveillance system for Hajj rites security - Funded by the Transportation and Crowd Management Center of Research Excellence (2014 - 2015). (Role: PI) ($ 26,595)\n•\tUS-Bahrain Cooperative Research with Central Michigan University: Intelligent Video Surveillance Systems for Hajj — Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (2013 – 2014), Award Id: 1341126. (Role: Co-PI) ($ 36,649)\n•\tFast Video Surveillance system for the roadway security monitoring — Funded by University of Bahrain (2012 -2013). (Role: PI) ($ 13,297)\n•\tDesktop and Mobil-phone Secure Backup System hosted on a Storage Cloud — Funded by the Center of Research for Hajj and Omrah – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) (2011 - 2012). (Role: Co-PI) ($ 132,978)\n\nMaster and Ph.D. Students Supervision\n•\tOpeyemi P. Ojajuni “Fostering 21st-Century Skills and Computational Skills in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Students Using the Internet of Things (IoT) Technology” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, Expecting graduation on (2023).\n•\tSunday Bezaleel Anwansedo “Using Mobile-Based Application for Healthcare Management In Sub-Sahara Africa: A Case Study of Covid-19 Vaccine Distribution” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2021).\n•\tSurya Veera Reddy Sirigireddy “Predicting Material Composition by Analyzing Color in Copper Silver Gold Alloys” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2021).\n•\tAkodu Moruf Olagunju “The application of Machine learning algorithms in healthcare classification: Prostate Cancer as a case study” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2021).\n•\tWillson Junior Meli Ngong “Video-Based Automated Pedestrians Counting Algorithms for Smart Cities” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2020).\n•\tAli H Al Majed “Smart Detection Algorithms Under Different Weather Conditions” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2020).\n•\tRaja Naga Rahul Paramkusam “Synthesis and Analytical Characterization of Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide for Gas Sensing Applications” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2019).\n•\tDe’Shon Swafford “Fabrication of Zinc Oxide Varistor used in Gas Sensing Application” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2019).\n•\tYeshak A. Dabels “Miniaturization of Chemical Identification bY Magnetoelastic Sensing (ChIMES) Technology” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2018).\n•\tMohamed Nabil Hammad “High-Speed On-Chip Motion Estimation Co-Processor for H.265/HEVC Standard,” University of Bahrain, Computer Engineering Department, (2016).\n\nPublications\nJournal Papers\n1.\tMahmoud Darwich, Yasser Ismail, Talal Darwich, and Magdy Bayoumi” Cost Minimization of Cloud Services for On-Demand Video Streaming” Accepted to be published in SN Computer Science Springer Journal, June 2021.\n2.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Hammad, Mahmoud Darwichand, and Wael Elmedany “Homeland Security Video Surveillance System Utilizing the Internet of Things (IoT) for Smart Cities” IET Computers & Digital Technique journal, Volume 15, Issue 4, Pages: 241-319, 04 April 2021.\n3.\tWillson Meli, Fred Lacy, and Yasser Ismail “Video-Based Automated Pedestrians Counting Algorithms for Smart Cities” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), 2020.\n4.\tAli Al Majed, Fred Lacy, and Yasser Ismail “Smart Detection Under Different Weather Conditions” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), 2020.\n5.\tYeshak Dabels, Yasser Ismail, and Fred Lacy “CHIMES: Chemical Identification by Magneto Elastic Sensing” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), vol. 9, issue 4, July 2020.\n6.\tOpeyemi Ojajuni, Yasser Ismail and Albertha Lawson, “Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attack Detection and Mitigation for Internet of Things (IoT)” International Journal of Technology Diffusion (IJTD), 2020.\n7.\tChase Richardson, Ali Ghawwas, Yasser Ismail, Raynaud Henton, and Jiecai luo, " Multiple Smart Phones Inductive Charging Station System " International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), vol. 7, issue. 6, November 2018.\n8.\tSamar Ali, Ashraf Badawi, and Yasser Ismail, “Adaptive Multi-connection Scalable Video Coding for Wireless Area Networks,” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), vol. 7, issue. 3, May 2018.\n9.\tYasser Ismail, “6-DOF Robotic Arm Using Haptic Feedback Wired and Wireless Platforms,” International Journal of Computing Network Technology (IJCNT), vol. 4, issue. 2, May 2016.\n10.\tYasser Ismail, “FPGA Implementation of Fast and Efficient CODEC for H.264/AVC Real-Time Video Applications,” International Journal of Technology Diffusion (IJTD) - USA, vol. 7, issue. 1, March 2016.\n11.\tYasser Ismail, “A cost-effective Programmable SoC for H.265/HEVC Full Search Motion Estimation using Xilinx ZYNQ-7 ZC706 FPGA,” International Journal of Computing Network Technology (IJCNT), vol. 4, issue. 1, January 2016.\n12.\tYasser Ismail, Ahmed Abdelgawad, Sherif El-etriby, “High-speed on-chip multiple cosine transform generator,” Journal of Real-Time Image Processing, Springer, ISSN: 1861-8200, DOI 10.1007/s11554-015-0528-0, (print version), and ISSN: 1861-8219 (electronic version), September 2nd, 2015.\n13.\tYasser Ismail, “A complete Verification of a Full Search Motion Estimation Engine,” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, 2015. Int. J. Dig. Sys. 4, No. 4, pp. 221-232, Oct. 2015. \n14.\tYasser Ismail, “High-Speed Transform Coding on Chip for Wireless Video Surveillance Systems,” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, 2015. Int. J. Dig. Sys. 4, No. 2, pp. 81-89, Apr. – 2015. \n15.\tYasser Ismail, Wael El-Medany, Hessa Al-Junaid, and Ahmed Abdelgawad, “High-Performance Architecture for Real-time HDTV Broadcasting”, Journal of Real-Time Image Processing, Springer, Volume 11, Issue 4, pp 633–644, ISSN: 1861-8200 (print version), and ISSN: 1861-8219 (electronic version), May 27, 2014.\n16.\tYasser Ismail, “A Fast Diamond Motion Estimation Search Algorithm for Real-Time Video Applications”, International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, Dig. Sys. 3, No. 2, pp. 101-110, May 1st, 2014.\n17.\tYasser Ismail, “A Novel Lattice Architecture for High-Speed Discrete MultiTone (DMT) Modulation”, International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, Dig. Sys. 2, No. 2, pp. 11-18, April 2013.\n18.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “Fast Motion Estimation Algorithm Using Dynamic Models for H.264 Video Coding,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology (TCSVT), Volume 22, Issue 1, pp. 28 – 42, January 2012.\n19.\tSumeer Goel, Yasser Ismail, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " High-speed Motion Estimation Architecture for Real-time Video Transmission," Oxford Journals - The Computer Journal (2012) 55(1): 35-46 first published online April 29, 2011.\n20.\tYasser Ismail, Mohsen Shaaban, Jason McNeely, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “An Efficient Adaptive High-Speed Manipulation Architecture for Fast Variable Padding Frequency Domain Motion Estimation,” IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems. Volume: PP, Issue: 99, pp. 1 – 10, 2010. \n21.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy Bayoumi, “Fast Variable Padding Motion Estimation Using Smart Zero Motion Prejudgment technique for Pixel and Frequency Domains,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology (TCSVT), Volume 19, Issue 5, pp. 609 – 626, May 2009.\nProject Reports\nYasser Ismail “Evaluation of Counting Device for Pedestrians and Bicyclists”, Final report (2019-2020) published by – March 2021. https://www.ltrc.lsu.edu/pubs_annual_reports.html#\n\nBooks\n1.\tYasser Ismail, et al., " Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications" IntechOpen, ISBN: 978-1-78984-096-4, Website: https://www.intechopen.com/books/internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications, 2019.\n2.\tYasser Ismail and M. Bayoumi, "Smart Algorithms and Architectures for Real-Time Video Transmission," VDM Verlag, Saarbrucken, ISBN-NR.: 978-3-639-34323-6, Germany, 2011.\nBook Chapter\n1.\tBook title: Smart Algorithms and Architectures for Real-Time Video Transmission\nChapter title: Introductory Chapter: Internet of Things (IoT) Importance and Its Applications\nAuthors: Yasser Ismail\n2.\tBook title: The Future of Television - Convergence of Content and Technology \nChapter title: High-Efficient Video Transmission for HDTV Broadcasting\nAuthors: Yasser Ismail\n3.\tBook title: Search Algorithms (ISBN 980-953-307-672-5)\nChapter title: Fast Motion Estimation System Using Dynamic Models for H.264/AVC Video Coding \nAuthors: Yasser Ismail\n4.\tBook title: Search Algorithms and Applications (ISBN 978-953-307-483-2)\nChapter title: Enhanced Efficient Diamond Search Algorithm for Fast Block Motion Estimation\nAuthors: Yasser Ismail and Magdy A. Bayoumi\nConference papers\n1.\tMahmoud Darwich, Yasser Ismail, Talal Darwich, and Magdy Bayoumi “Improving Hierarchy Storage for Video Streaming in Cloud” IEEE Virtual World Forum on Internet of Things, New Orleans, 2021.\n2.\tM. Hammad, W. Elmedany and Y. Ismail, "Design and Simulation of AES S-Box Towards Data Security in Video Surveillance Using IP Core Generator," 2021 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing, and Technologies (3ICT), 2021, pp. 469-476, doi: 10.1109/3ICT53449.2021.9581825.\n3.\tM. Hammad, W. El-medany and Y. Ismail, "Intrusion Detection System using Feature Selection With Clustering and Classification Machine Learning Algorithms on the UNSW-NB15 dataset," the 2020 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing and Technologies (3ICT), 2020, pp. 1-6, doi: 10.1109/3ICT51146.2020.9312002.\n4.\tMahmoud Darwich, Yasser Ismail, Talal Darwich, and Magdy Bayoumi “Cost-Efficient Storage for On-Demand Video Streaming on Cloud” IEEE Virtual World Forum on Internet of Things, New Orleans, 2020.\n5.\tOpeyemi Ojajuni, Yasser Ismail, and Albertha Lawson “Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attack Detection and Mitigation for Internet of Things (IoT),” 76th Joint Meeting of BKX and NIS, Beta Kappa Chi and National Institute of Science, March 28-30, 2019 - Atlanta, GA. \n6.\tY. Ismail, M. Hammad, and W. El-Medany, "Homeland Security Video Surveillance System for Smart Cities," 2018 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing, and Technologies (3ICT), 2018, pp. 1-4, doi: 10.1109/3ICT.2018.8855732.\n7.\tMd Anam Mahmud, Ahmed Abdelgawad, Kumar Yelamarthi, and Yasser A. Ismail, " Signal Processing Techniques for IoT-based Structural Health Monitoring," 29th International Conference on Microelectronics (ICM), pp: 1-5, Beirut, Lebanon, 10-13 Dec. 2017. \n8.\tA. Abdelgawad, Y. Ismail, K. Yelamarthi, "Moving Target Tracking using a Mobile Robot," IEEE International Symposium on Monitoring & Surveillance Research, June 2015.\n9.\tYasser Ismail, Wael El-Medany, Hessa Al-Junaid, and Ahmed Abdelgawad “Fast Co-Processor for Real-Time Video Transmission,” Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems, ICECS, Abu Dhabi, UAE, pp. 945 – 949, December 8-11, 2013.\n10.\tWael El-Medany and Yasser Ismail “Mobile Learning Laboratory for Hardware Courses,” IEEE International Conference on e-Learning "Best Practices in Management, Design and Development of e-Courses: Standards of Excellence and Creativity", pp.51,54, 7-9 May 2013\n11.\tYasser Ismail and Sherif El-etriby “Fast diamond search algorithm for real-time video coding," Proc. of the IEEE Workshop ICNC, Maui, Hawaii, USA, pp. 729 – 733, 30 January 2012.\n12.\tYasser Ismail, Sherif El-etriby, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " Frequency Domain: Efficient and High-Speed Technology For Video Transmission," Proc. of the IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems (SIPS), Beirut, Lebanon, pp. 278 – 282, October 2011.\n13.\tYasser Ismail and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " Efficient high-speed lattice-CORDIC IFFT architecture for DMT transmitter," Proc. of the IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems (SIPS), San Francisco, CA, USA, pp. 151 - 155, October 6-8, 2010.\n14.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “A Fast-Discrete Transform Architecture for Frequency Domain Motion Estimation,” IEEE Int. Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), San Francisco Bay Area, California, U.S.A, pp. 1249 – 1252, September 26-29, 2010.\n15.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " An efficient area manipulation architecture for frequency domain encoding process,” IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2010), Paris, France, pp. 2638 – 2641, 2010.\n16.\tYasser Ismail, Mohsen Shaaban, Jason McNeely, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “An Efficient Manipulation architecture for Real-Time Video Coding in Frequency Domain,” IEEE Int. Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), Cairo, Egypt, PP. 3281 – 3284, November 7-11, 2009.\n17.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “Enhanced Efficient Diamond Search Algorithm for Fast Block Motion Estimation,” IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2009), Taipei International Convention Center, Taiwan, pp. 3198 – 3201, 24 - 27 May 2009.\n18.\tJason McNeely, Yasser Ismail, Magdy A. Bayoumi, and Peiyi Zhao, “Power Analysis of The Huffman Decoding Tree,” Proc. of the IEEE Int. Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), San Diego, California, U.S.A, pp. 1416 – 1419, October 12–15, 2008.\n19.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, Magdy Bayoumi, "A Generalized Fast Motion Estimation Algorithm using External and Internal Stop Search Techniques for H.264 Video Coding Standard," IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2008), Seattle, Washington, pp. 3574 – 3577, May 18-21, 2008.\n20.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, "An Adaptive Block Size Phase Correlation Motion Estimation Using Smart Multireference Frames Selection in Frequency Domain," Proc. of IEEE Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, Pacific Grove, California, pp. 239 – 242, November 4-7, 2007.\n21.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, "adaptive techniques for a fast Frequency Domain Motion Estimation," Proc. of IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems (SIPS), Shanghai, China, pp. 331-336, October 17-19, 2007.\n22.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, "A Fast Block-Based Motion Estimation Using Early Stop Search Techniques for H.264/AVC Standard," Proc. of the 48th IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Montreal, Canada, pp. 397 – 400, Aug 5-8, 2007.\n23.\tYasser Ismail, M. Shaaban, and M. Bayoumi, "An Adaptive Block Size Phase Correlation Motion Estimation Using Adaptive Early Search Termination Technique," IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS), New Orleans, pp.3423–3426, May 2007.\n24.\tJ.Luis Tecpanecatl-Xihuitl, Ruth M. Aguilar-Ponce, Yasser Ismail, and Magdy A. Bayoumi “Efficient Mutliplierless Polyphase FIR Filter based on New Distributed Arithmetic Architecture,” Proc. of IEEE Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, Pacific Grove, California, pp. 958 – 962, November 4-7, 2007.\n25.\tS. Goel, Yasser Ismail, P. Devulapalli, J. McNeely, and M. Bayoumi, “An Efficient Data Reuse Motion Estimation Engine,” Proc. of IEEE Signal Processing Systems Design and Implementation, 2006, SIPS, Banff. Canada, pp.383-386, Oct. 2006.\n26.\tS. Goel, Yasser Ismail, and M. Bayoumi, "Adaptive search window size algorithm for fast motion estimation in H.264/AVC standard," Proc. of the 48th IEEE Intl. Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Ohio, pp. 1557-1560, Aug. 2005. \nCourses developed at Southern University and A&M College\n•\tELEN 435: Image processing and Computer Vision. (Credit, 3 hours) (Lecture, 3 hours). This course is intended to teach students the concepts of visual information, feature extraction, Image enhancement in the spatial domain, Image enhancement in the frequency domain, Image restoration, Color image processing, Image compression, Morphological image processing, Image segmentation, and image representation.\n•\tELEN 464: Mechatronics. (Credit, 3 hours) (Lecture, 3 Hours) – Covers computer control of electromechanical systems, automatic data acquisition. Computerized instrumentation and testing. The embedded computer might be a combination of microprocessors, microcontrollers, personal computers, and /or programmable controllers. Students are required to test to design, assemble, and test actual systems.\n•\tMEEN 4xx: Additive Manufacturing Security & Security Framework. This course is designed for the purpose of the NSF Award Id: 1912397. It will provide students with the knowledge of Additive Manufacturing applications and how to make them more secure. Virtual Reality simulations will be used to demonstrate possible risks from cyberattacks and their consequences. \nProfessional development\n•\tProposing a Computer Engineering (CE) minor program under the Electrical Engineering (EE) program at Southern University.\n•\tABET accreditation of the Electrical Engineering (EE) program at Southern University (Fall 2021): I participated in many activities and committees to successfully get the EE program accredited.\n•\tABET accreditation of the Computer Engineering (CE) program at University of Bahrain (2016): I participated in many activities and committees to successfully get the CE program accredited.\n•\tSummer Fellow in the ONR sponsored Summer Faculty Research Program at the Naval Surface Warfare Center – Carderock Division, West Bethesda, MD, USA, 20817, June 1 – August 8, 2021.\n•\tNSF Panel Reviewer: Serve as a reviewer for NSF Panels 2019 – present. \n•\tSuccessfully passed eleven (11) weeks Machine Learning online course on Coursera website. https://www.coursera.org/learn/machine-learning/home/welcome, 2021.\n•\tSession chair at the IEEE 7th World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT 2021), 26 – 31 July 2021, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. \n•\tExternal Assessment Moderator for the CE Department at University of Bahrain (UoB), December 2020.\n•\tSession chair at the IEEE 6th World Forum on Internet of Things, 5-9 April 2020, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. \n•\tSession chair at the 63rd IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, 2018, 2019, and 2020. \n•\tMember in the Organizing Committee of the Gulf States Math Alliance Conference held at Southern University and A&M College, February 14-16, 2020.\n•\tTrack chair at the IEEE Green Technologies Conference, April 3-6, 2019, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA.\n•\tCertificate from Quality Matters (QM) of Independent Applying the QM Rubric (APPQMR), September 20, 2019. \n•\tSupervisor of the IEEE student chapter group at Southern University and A&M College 2018 – Current.\n•\tEditorial Board Member for Frontiers of Mechatronical Engineering FME, EnPress Publisher Editorial - USA, 2018 – current.\n•\tServe on the technical program committee for MobiApps 2016 (Mobile Applications, Vienna, Austria 2016).\n•\tInvited to serve as a lead guest editor for a special issue in mobile information systems – Hindawi publishing corporation September 2016.\n•\tMember of Bahrain Society of academics 2014 – 2016. \n•\tSession chair at ICECS 2013, Abu Dhabi – UAE.\n•\tAn active member in the IEEE student chapter at the University of Louisiana (2006-2009).\n•\tMember of the Organizing Committee of ISCAS 2007 symposium, New Orleans, LA.\nSynergistic Activities \n\n•\tSchool and College Service:\no\tServe as a commencement Assistant University Marshal for the College of Sciences and Engineering (CSE) 2018 - Current\no\tElectrical Engineering Department committee member (member)\no\tThe Electrical Engineering Department assessment committee (member) Spring-2018\no\tThe IEEE Student Advisory Committee (member) Spring-2018\no\tThe Electrical Engineering Department Recruiting/Outreach Committee (Chair) Spring-2018\no\tThe Engineers Week Committee (Chair) Spring-2018\no\tThe Electrical Engineering Department Arduino Club (Chair) Fall-2018 - Current\n•\tJournal Reviewer:\no\tJournal of Real-Time Image Processing (JRTIP), Springer\no\tIEEE Transaction on Circuit and System for Video Technology (TCSVT)\no\tIEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems \no\tIEEE Transactions on Image Processing\no\tInternational Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS)\no\tInternational Journal of Technology Diffusion (IJTD)\n•\tTechnical Conference Reviewer:\no\tSCS: University of Bahrain "Smart Cities Symposium" 22-23 April 2018\no\tISCAS: IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems\no\tICASSP: IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing\no\tICIP: IEEE International Conference on Image Processing\no\tSIPS: IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems\no\tGCCCE: IEEE-GCC Conference and Exhibition\no\tICECS: IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems\no\tMWSCAS: IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems\n•\tConference Organizer\no\tThe IEEE 6th World Forum on the Internet of Things (IoT) - WF-IoT 2020, New Orleans, USA, June 2nd – June 16th, Chair of Edge and Fog Computing session.\no\tThe 63rd IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, August 9 -12, 2020, , MA, USA \no\tThe Gulf States Math Alliance Conference held at Southern University and A&M College, February 14-16, 2020\no\t62nd IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Dallas, TX, USA, Aug. 4-7, 2019, Chair of Control Systems, Mechatronics, and Robotics session. \no\tThe IEEE Green Technologies Conference, 3-6 April, Lafayette, LA, 2019\no\tThe 9th International Conference on Ambient Systems, Networks and Technologies (ANT 2018), Porto, Portugal May 8-11, 2018\no\tM.Sc./Ph.D. students forum Chair: IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Windsor, ON, Canada August 5th-8th, 2018\no\tServe on the technical program committee for DPNoC\'17 (International Workshop on Design and Performance of Networks on Chip 2017). August 15-18, 2016, Montreal, Quebec, Canada\no\tOrganizing Committee for IEEE ICECS 2013, Abu Dhabi, UAE\no\t Organizing Committee for IEEE ISCAS 2007, New Orleans, LA, USA\n•\tCollaborators & Other Affiliations\no\tAshok Srivastava, Louisiana State University, USA\no\tJesmin Khan, Tuskegee University, USA\no\tMagdy Bayoum, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA\no\tAhmed Abdelgawad, Central Michigan University, USA\no\tJason McNeely, University of Alaska Fairbanks, USA\no\tAhmed Khattab, Cairo University, Egypt\no\tWael El-Medany, Bahrain University, Bahrain\no\tMahmoud Darwich, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, USA',institutionString:"Southern University and Agricultural and Mechanical College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Southern University and Agricultural and Mechanical College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453624",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Scerbe",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453624/images/20399_n.jpg",email:"martina.s@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7602",title:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"55ad7d0965cba5aebe448cb43766c45e",slug:"internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications",bookSignature:"Yasser Ismail",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7602.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasser",surname:"Ismail",slug:"yasser-ismail",fullName:"Yasser Ismail"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"67212",title:"Arthroscopic Anatomy of the Knee Joint and Portals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81678",slug:"arthroscopic-anatomy-of-the-knee-joint-and-portals",body:'The anatomical definition of the knee is determined by the fact that the knee connects the upper and lower leg, made up of the knee joint, the patelofemoral joint, and the proximal tibiofibular joint, and the soft tissues surrounding them. In the frontal plane of the femur and tibia, an angle of 174° is made, which makes the physiological valgus of the knee. In women, valgus and recurvatum are slightly higher. The borders of the joint are on the buttock, the line that passes at 2–3 cm above the base of the patella, and on the lower leg, the circular line that passes directly below the tibial tubercle [1].
Anatomically speaking, the knee consists of bone and soft tissue structures, which built four topographic regions. In clinical knee arthroscopy, the following division proved to be very useful: the medial part consists of a medial femoral condyle, medial tibial plateau, medial meniscus, and medial part of the capsule and ligaments. The lateral part consists of a lateral femoral condyle, lateral tibial plateau, lateral meniscus, and lateral ligaments and capsules, including arch complex (lig. arcuatum). The central part or central pivot is composed of an intercondylar notch, which comprises crossed ligaments, anterior and posterior intercondylar field of the tibia (lower part of the attachment of crossed ligaments of the knee), and intercondylar eminences and tubercles. The femoropatelar part consists of a femoropatelar joint, an infrapatellar fat tissue, a patellar ligament, and a quadriceps tendon and normally presents medial and lateral patellar plicas and suprapatellar recess [2, 3].
Outside, superficially through the articular capsule, the horizontal part of the m. vastus medialis (m. vastus medialis obliquus) is provided. The attachment of the pes anserinus (m. sartorisu, m. gracilis, m. semitendinosus) extends from the back and down in the upper two-thirds of the tibia. The medial patellar retinaculum extends from the upper two-thirds of the medial part of the patella and is attached to the outside of the medial femoral condyle. Medial longitudinal patellar retinaculum originates from a wide base between the patella, the medial vastus, and the upper attachment of the medial collateral ligament and descends to the upper part of the tibia where it is attached behind the pes anserinus and in front and above the attachment of the medial collateral ligament. Both retinacula cover the anterior part of the joint, and their fibers come from the medial vastus and quadriceps tendon, which allows them to function as dynamic stabilizers. The individual fibers of the medial longitudinal retinaculum are drowned in the medial collateral ligament, and the other is joined to the tendon of the pes anserinus and extends to the popliteal fascia. Deep fibers extend beyond the superficial fascia to the medial collateral ligament and semimembranosus. Retinacula controls the movements of the patella toward the femur (limits the lateral deviation) and equalizes the pressure of the lateral and medial joint surface of the patella and the internal rotation of the tibia (via m. vastus medialis obliquus and patellar ligament). The pes anserinus-conjoined tendon, by its superficial position, acts as a ligament-muscle protector of the medial side of the joint in flexion and extension. Functionally, it represents an active duplicative of the medial collateral ligament [2, 3].
In the middle third, the dominant structure is the medial collateral ligament as a deep tensioner under the tendon of the pes anserinus. It extends sloping down and backward from the lateral femoral condyle to the upper tibia. It consists of two thin layers, structurally different. The deep layer consists mainly of femoro-meniscal and menisco-tibial fibers. The superficial layer is structurally separate from the medial meniscus and has nothing to do with it, except in the back part where the superficial and deep layer joins and builds a posterior oblique ligament, which is attached to the posterior horn of the medial meniscus. The fibers are further arranged to “divide” the ligament into the triangles so that they are tilted selectively toward the position of the knee. This reduces the change in force, e.g., the longest fibers are tight in flexion and the shortest in the extension. In moderate flexion of the knee, all the fibers are loose and allow rotatory knee movements.
The upper third of the ligament is attached to the femur, and the lower for the tibia. During the flexion that begins with the rolling of the femoral condyle, the front fibers move backward through the femoral and tibial surfaces. That’s why the ligament must be freely movable in these places (as well as through the medial meniscus) to glide over the bones and must not have a deep-coated attachment.
The superficial fibers are connected in the posterior part with the deep fibers (and built posterior oblique ligament) and with fibers of m. semimembranosus, and therefore the superficial fibers of the ligaments are dynamized by this muscle, especially in the position of flexion. The attachment of the remainder of the fiber to the fascia and tendon of the adductor magnus contributes to the further dynamization of the ligament. The relationship of the m. vastus medialis to the medial patellar retinaculum has already been described. A passive, firm bone attachment is present in the deeper parts of the ligament. Superficial fibers are largely dynamically bound to muscles, so passive instability can be compensated by a good muscular function, and the fibers can adequately adapt to great demands and work [2, 3, 4].
The posterior medial third of the knee—the “semimembranosus angle”—represents a functionally important part. It is separated from the medial collateral ligament in spite of the topographical close relationship. The structurally and functionally key element of this angle is the lig. posterior obliquus, which extends between the tendons of adductor magnus and semimembranosus. The main active rear stabilizer is semimembranosus muscle, which stabilizes the knee posteriorly. Semimembranosus muscle is attached to the posteromedial angle by five separate finger extensions. The first two, which go directly to the lig. obliquus posterior and climb straight through the posterior capsule as lig. popliteus obliquus, make semimembranosus an active stabilizer of the posteromedial angle. The attachments are arranged so that at least one is taut in every position of the flexion and directs the traction in the appropriate direction to give the angle of flexion. The finer are the backward fibers that flow from the m. vastus medialis. At maximal extension, the angle of semimembranosus is below the maximum tension due to the associated posteromedial sliding of the medial femoral condyle. In extension, semimembranosus helps in stabilization of the entire medial side. In 90° flexion, it has an additional role in the transmission of tension to the free capsule-ligament fibers and stabilizes the knee to prevent external rotation [2, 4].
The structural element of the medial compartment, from the anterior to the posterior third, is medial meniscus. It has a crescent shape, it is narrower in the front, and it extends to the rear. The free edge is facing the knee joint, and the rim is attached to the articular capsule. In the anterior third, it is relatively narrow, it is attached to the tibial plateau with a fibrous bundle that extends the meniscus anteriorly, and there is also a medial part that secures the anterolateral part of the meniscus to the anterior intercondylar area. The anterior horns of the medial and lateral meniscus are connected by the fibrous bridge that makes the transversal knee ligament. The medial patello-meniscal ligament extends from the anterior edge of the medial meniscus to the patella. In the middle third, the meniscus is still narrow. At the outer edge, there are femoral-meniscal and tibial-meniscal fibers (coronary ligament) but without an attachment to the medial collateral ligament. In the posterior third, the meniscus is spreading to the posterior horn. The femoro-meniscal fibers and the coronary ligament join to the posterior oblique ligament and fix the last horn of the meniscus for the ligament. The fibers at the lower part of the posterior horn link the meniscus for the posterior intercondylar area. The horn must be firmly attached to the coronary and anteromedial collateral ligament in order to participate in anteroposterior stabilization and perform the essential role of a stress-transfer gearbox (“brakes” that limit the frontal movement of the tibia and the last displacement of the femur). This function is only possible if the femoro-meniscal part of the posterior oblique ligament and the posterior horn of the medial meniscus are intact (femoral condyle can “settle down”), and the semimembranosus attachment is not damaged (to maintain rotatory stability). ACL works synergistically with the posterior oblique ligament, by both of them tightening during the front translation of the tibia. Approximately 80% of ACL ruptures are associated with lesions of medial ligaments (the posterior oblique ligament, medial collateral ligament) [5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
The outer compartment has relatively weak passive stabilizers. Active stabilizers are dominant and those are: iliotibial tract (m. tensor fasciae latae and m. gluteus maximus), m. biceps femoris, and m. popliteus. The relative dominance of dynamic structures is in correlation with a higher degree of displacement during flexion (m. biceps femoris, m. popliteus, and m. tensor fasciae latae). In the lateral part, three subregions are described.
Similar to the medial part, characteristic are lateral superficial and longitudinal patellar retinacula. The attachment of the lateral longitudinal retinaculum is somewhat different from the medial, due to the more limited extension of m. vastus lateralis, as well as due to the presence of an iliotibial band outside the retinaculum. A part of the fibers of the iliotibial band ends at the lateral femoral condyle, the part extends to the patella, and the main part goes to Gerdy’s tubercle. Lateral patellar retinaculum is attached to the iliotibial band with multiple fibers, and from there it extends to the patella. The lateral longitudinal retinaculum fibers originate from three different sites, patella, m. vastus lateralis, and iliotibial band, and some extend (to the lateral femoral epicondyle or tibia—Gerdy’s tubercle) from the lateral iliotibial band. The lateral longitudinal patellar retinaculum is attached to the medial portion of Gerdy’s tubercle and adjacent proximal to tibia parts.
Both lateral retinacula are dynamically linked to m. vastus lateralis, tensor fasciae latae (iliotibial tract), and gluteus maximus muscle (iliotibial tract). The main role of lateral retinaculum is to maintain the femoro-patellar sliding (by preventing the medial deviation of the patella) and the equalization of the pressure between the lateral and the medial half of the patella.
Due to its position and attachment, the iliotibial tract acts as a “lateral femoro-tibial collateral ligament” and plays an important role in the function of the femoro-tibial joint. Its dynamic parts end up on the lateral femoral condyle (Kaplan’s complex fibers at the Krakow spot) and proximal tibia (Gerdy’s tubercle). The passive fibers are placed forward and deeper and establish a firm connection between the lateral condyle and Gerdy’s tubercle, so they are often distinguished as an “anterolateral femoro-tibial ligament.”
The iliotibial band synergistically works with two groups of muscles. In the position from 0 to 40° of flexion, it moves forward with respect to the axis of rotation and thus supports the extensor muscles. By increasing the flexion, it slides backward through the lateral epicondyle (behind the axis of flexion) and becomes synergistic to the flexor muscle group when the flexion exceeds 40° (the launch of the iliotibial band via the femoral epicondyle plays an important role in the existence of the pivot shift). The iliotibial band functionally helps in anterolateral rotatory stability by fixing the knee toward the lateral opening (stress varus). It also stabilizes the lateral tibial plateau, preventing sliding forward with rotary movements.
In the deep layer of the front and middle third, there is a joint capsule. It consists of a synovial coat, and, in the absence of reinforcement by the ligament fibers, it is very stretchable. Only the lateral patello-meniscal ligament fibers pass from the outer edge of the meniscus to the patella and are sometimes incorporated into the capsule. The ligament serves as a receptor for the reflex stabilization of femoro-patellar and femoro-tibial movements, analogously to the medial menisco-patellar ligament. The anterior part of the deep articular capsule is freely movable in relation to the iliotibial band. It is covered with fatty tissue that is absorbed into the infrapatellar fat tissue. It is firmly attached to the edge of the lateral meniscus. The fibers of the transferal ligament of the knee pass from the anterior horn of the lateral meniscus to the opposite side [2, 3].
Structurally and functionally, the middle and posterior thirds are closely related. Most elements show hierarchical arrangement from the front to the rear or vice versa.
The most superficial in this area is the wide tendon of biceps femoris muscle. It extends downward and forward in the outer part of the last third and connects on the head of the fibula with two arms: the back, the greater part, and the front (middle attachment of the biceps tendon together with the fibular collateral ligament). Trauma is a common cause of bone tendon avulsion, and also high muscular strain can cause dislocation of the fibular head. The biceps femoris tendon is attached to the tibia by the extensions that pass over and below the lateral collateral ligament. Biceps femoris muscle is an important stabilizer of varus angulation in extended knee and internal rotation in flexion (more specifically, the short head of biceps femoris muscle is the main antagonist of the popliteal muscle and thus the internal rotation). In addition to being an important external rotator, biceps femoris muscle is also a flexor, due to the position behind the axis of flexion.
The lateral collateral ligament descends back and forth from the femoral condyle to the fibula’s head. It is smaller than the medial collateral ligament but can be identified as a separate structure. It contributes to passive stabilization of the outside of the knee, and synergist is to the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL). Deep and completely separated from the lateral collateral ligament is the popliteal muscle tendon, which starts from the lateral femoral condyle and descends backward where it connects with the body of the popliteal muscle in the last third of the lateral section. The articular capsule is very thin and is not firmly attached to other structural collagen elements. It is noticeable that there is no anatomical connection with the lateral meniscus, whose edge is freely moving in the middle third of the outer compartment [2, 3].
In the posterior part of the lateral side dominates, structurally and functionally, the popliteal muscle. More superficial are the fibers of the oblique popliteal ligament. The fibers end up on the fabella or, if this does not exist, extend outer and upward to the attachment of the lateral head of the gastrocnemius muscle. In this way, the fabella and the oblique popliteal ligament are bound structurally and functionally to the lateral tendon of gastrocnemius muscle. In this area, the deep part of the muscle tendon strengthens the joint capsule. Distally, the fabella joint capsule and the tendon of gastrocnemius muscle are separated. On the distal part of the fabella, the arch ligament (which is a tendon extension from popliteal muscle) and a fabello-fibular ligament are attached (Vallois). These extensions emphasize the role of the fabella as the point where stress is transmitted (although it is present in only about 20% of the population).
The arch ligament extends from the posterior part of the tibia and the head of the fibula to the middle of the joint capsule. Some fibers are projecting to the fabella, but it also receives fibers from m. popliteus (the beginning of the tendon is branching) and allows the muscle to tighten the ligament to the fabella. The deep part of the ligament is attached to the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus with the tendons of the popliteal muscle, so popliteal muscle actively pulls the meniscus during flexion until the femoral condyle is rotated backward.
The popliteal muscle is originated from the posteromedial tibial surface and is initially parallel to the arch ligament. After giving extensions for the arch ligament and the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus, the muscle continues laterally forward and upward. In a deep layer, the tendon passes behind the arch ligament; enters the popliteal aperture; then goes over the outer part of the upper tibia, below the lateral collateral ligament; and is attached to the lateral femoral condyle. The tendon has the thickness of the pencil. Besides attachments to the arch ligament, the lateral meniscus, and the femur, there are also deep direct tendon attachments for the posterior joint capsule. Popliteal muscle also acts as an internal rotator of the tibia in flexion.
The posterior part of the capsule is reinforced with fibers which are sometimes referred to as the posterolateral collateral ligament. The fibers enter the capsule as a ligament, and they are almost parallel with the popliteal tendon and are attached to the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus and to the tibia. The most important active stabilizer of the posterolateral angle is the popliteal muscle with its deep attachments.
The posterior part of the lateral meniscus is directly linked to the posterior capsule, the popliteal tendon, and the arch popliteal ligament (most common site of avulsions and ruptures). Popliteal muscle actively pulls and puts the lateral meniscus under the lateral femoral condyle during flexion and prevents the meniscus from incarceration under the condyle. The popliteal aperture gives more space that is necessary for the lateral meniscus for its high mobility (thus reducing the incidence of rupture in this area). In the popliteal aperture, the tendon is completely separated from the meniscus. The posterior horn of the meniscus is tied to the central part of the joint. The posterior menisco-femoral ligament (Wrisberg) attaches the meniscus to the posterior intercondylar area of the tibia, while the anterior menisco-femoral ligament (Humphry) attaches the front part of the posterior horn to the posterior part of an anterior intercondylar area.
There is a symmetrical, functionally connected triad of elements of the posteromedial and posterolateral parts of the joint. On the medial side, there are the posterior horn of the medial meniscus, the posterior oblique ligament, and the semimembranosus muscle and on the lateral side posterior horn of the lateral meniscus, arch complex, and popliteal muscle. Further symmetry is observed in relation to the synergistic function. The internal posteromedial elements are in functional correlation with ACL (combined lesion in 80% of cases) and posterolateral angle with PCL (again, combined lesions in 80% of cases) [2, 3].
The dominant structures of the central pivot are cruciate ligaments, anterior (ACL) and posterior (PCL). Both ligaments together form a line of femoral condyles and kinematic laws of joint movements. The anterior third of the central pivot, bounded by the intercondylar area of the tibia and the intercondylar groove of the femur, is the site of the attachment of the anterior horns of medial and lateral meniscus and the transverse ligament of the knee. Between them, the relatively wide space of the intercondylar area is occupied by a tibial attachment of the ACL. With the extended knee, the ACL extends vertically over the intercondylar groove to the attachment back on the lateral femoral condyle. In hyperextension it retracts under the vault of the groove in the intercondylar notch called “Grant’s groove.” At this point the ligament can be twisted or even ruptured if it is too tight on the groove. Grant’s groove is a measure of the width of the ACL. In the knee flexion, the ACL comes in a horizontal position and is closely related to the PCL at the point where they cross, directly above the vascular pedicle.
ACL stabilizes the tibia toward the frontal translation relative to the femur. The elements of the posteromedial angle of semimembranosus and anterolateral femoro-tibial ligament also act synergistically. Approximately one-third of the capacity of the anterior stabilization is due to ACL, and the remaining are of two structural elements (the isolated rupture of the ACL leaves two-thirds of the capacity intact). The structure of the ligament is such that it almost never transmits load through the entire surface; individual fibers are loaded selectively during a particular movement or in a particular position of the joint. Anteromedial fibers are most affected when the knee is almost extended, posterolateral fibers when the knee is flexed in a higher degree, and intermediate fibers stabilize the internal rotation, during which the fibers of the ligaments rotate.
ACL vascularization comes from the branches of the middle geniculate artery. This blood vessel connects the ACL and PCL at the crossing point. The artery enters the ACL from the subcortical web, but does not feed the whole ligament but only the sites of attachment.
Both cruciate ligaments have a common frontal synovial sheath. In spite of the intra-articular position, both ligaments are extrasynovial. The common synovia originates from the crossed “central pivot,” and it is vascularized by the branches of the middle geniculate artery.
PCL is better vascularized; it receives four branches of the middle geniculate artery that are arranged throughout the entire length of the ligament. Its origin from a wide area on the medial part of the medial femoral condyle passes downward and backward and is attached to the posterior intercondylar area of the tibia on a small surface. During knee extension it is relatively flat and rises during knee flexion, but it does not have the risk of collapsing under the front edge of the intercondylar groove. After achieving vertical position during flexion, the PCL becomes the central point of the knee rotation and has a significant stabilization effect. The only synergistic effect in the flexion has a quadriceps femoris muscle. In the knee extension, because of PCL-like orientation, the posterior oblique ligament and posteromedial capsule are acting synergistically, and they rupture together in the trauma. Like the ACL, the PCL consists of three strands of fibers that are loaded depending on the position of the joint. Posteromedial fibers tighten in the extension and limit hyperextension (their attachment is furthest on the intercondylar area). The central and anterolateral bundles are tense at medium and full flexion (their attachment is on the outside of the posterior intercondylar area, near the lateral meniscus). In addition to other functions, the PCL is the posterior translation stopper, although in the case of internal rotation, this role can be partly taken by the Humphry and Wrisberg menisco-femoral ligaments that are tightened in that position (and therefore may mask the posterior instability in the position of the internal rotation of the knee). On the medial side, PCL is connected by fibers with the posterior horn of the medial meniscus.
Intercondylar eminence of the tibia is the basic axis of rotation of the knees in small and middle flexion. It is covered with a thick, strong layer of cartilage and is located between the medial surfaces of the femoral condyles, which are also covered with cartilage. The posterior part of the meniscal cartilage, which differs in hardness, thickness, and resistance, can act as a duplication of intercondylar eminence. The axial role of eminence in moderate flexion is important for guiding an articular surface in varus, valgus, or rotatory loads and for the absorption of compressive forces, especially since the peripheral joint structures in this position is loosened.
Cruciate ligaments can protect the joint from varus and valgus stress by assuming the role of “inner” collateral ligaments for a particular femoral condyle in case the collateral ligaments are ruptured. The next important role of cruciate ligaments is in the mechanism of terminal locking of the knee. This automatic terminal rotation is caused by the position of the cruciate ligaments and the unequal length of the femoral condyles. The lateral femoral condyle, due to its smaller length, is first placed on the tibial plateau and ends its rolling, while the longer medial condyle continues rolling [2, 3, 8, 10, 11].
The central structure of the patellofemoral joint is patella, a sesamoid bone which, although mobile, is a fixed point for the attachment of ligaments and tendons. Analogue to the fabella in the posterolateral corner of the flexor side, the patella is a key point for forces transmitted from multiple directions: longitudinal traction forces across the quadriceps tendon and patellar ligament and transverse traction forces through the menisco-patellar ligaments and transverse retinacula. Accordingly, the function of the patella depends entirely on the action of quadriceps femoris muscle. The upper part of the patella (base) has grown in the quadriceps tendon, extra-articular, and has no joint surface. Intra-articular space extends from the tip of the patella to the quadriceps tendon, along the front side of the femur, forming a suprapatellar recess. The lower, articular surface of the patella does not fit smoothly on the trochlea all over its surface in flexion or extension. The medial part of the patella is covered with a thin layer of cartilage, and the joint surface is incorrectly curved and does not fully attach to the medial part of the trochlea; this occasionally creates a free space between the hinged surfaces in which the synovia retract, which contributes to a more uniform distribution of loads. The outer part of the patella corresponds to the outer part of the trochlea. In the extension of the knee, the patella is completely attached to the femoral joint surface. In full flexion, the lower part of the patella lies in front of the condylar part of the femorotibial joint. Sulcus terminalis separates the femoral patellar surface, with relatively high edges, especially laterally, from the area of the femorotibial joint. The distal part of the patella, as well as the upper end, grew into the ligament tissue—the patellar ligament. Posteriorly, there is a well-vascular infrapatellar fat tissue (Hoffa). It is held in place by the patellar ligaments, bilateral longitudinal retinaculum, and infrapatellar synovial plaque (odd structure centrally positioned and posteriorly up to the roof of the intercondylar groove). Movement of the patella is consistent with a fine control mechanism in which medial and lateral patello-meniscal ligaments play an important role (receptor function). This explains the identical clinical picture of medial patellar chondropathy and the lesion of the medial meniscus.
The function of the patello-femoral joint is completely dependent on the function of quadriceps. The action of the muscle causes sliding of the patella through the trochlea. This action exerts a greater pressure on the lateral part of the condyle than on the medial, since the main vector of the quadriceps force is lateral (Q angle). This causes a slight posterior movement of the lateral femoral condyle associated with the internal rotation of the tibia. Vastus medialis muscle and vastus medialis obliquus muscles are antagonists of these forces and take the patella medially. The large contact pressure of the patella on the lateral femoral condyle occurs in conjunction with angulation and external rotation, and vastus obliquus muscle is again an antagonist. Conversely, the patellar pressure on the medial femoral condyle increases during angulation in the internal rotation, and vastus lateralis muscle performs an antagonistic traction role. In the neutral rotation position, the lateral and medial vastus muscle acts equally as an agonist and antagonist, resulting in constant pressure changes on different contact surfaces in the medial, lateral, proximal, and distal directions. The normal mobility of the patella is based on a separate action of the different parts of quadriceps. A small disorder in this complex functional sequence leads rapidly to the decompensation of a finely balanced system. This particularly applies to the medial joint surface, where even moderate disorder rapidly leads to abnormalities in nutrition and diffusion [2, 3].
Menisci represented a pair of the C-shaped and wedge cartilages interposed between the femur and tibia in the knee joint.
Menisci play an important role in the distribution of loads, shock absorption, joint stability, and lubrication of joint surfaces. Histologically, they are built from three different types of tissue. At the cross section, the outer part consists of a thick connective tissue that contains nerve endings and is abundantly bled. The middle part is predominantly fibrocartilaginous with fibers of different tensions. The central tissue is predominantly hyaline and contains fewer fibers and blood vessels than the more superficial fibrous tissue. The inner part of the meniscus consists of a pure hyaline cartilage that is avascular and without innervation.
Special importance is attributed to the meniscus architecture. The external parts are partially integrated into the capsuloligamentar system. Some fiber bundles are arranged in arches whose base is directed toward the inside of the joint. In the outer third, the fibers are parallel and in the inner part are more radial. The chemical structure also varies, in the fibrous connective tissue of the outer third, pre-type collagen type I and type III; there are also types V and VI. Elastin and proteoglycans are less represented but functionally relevant. Hyaline cartilage in the inner part consists of collagen type II and proteoglycan. Shorter-chain collagens (type V, IX, XI), as well as different matrix proteins (tenascin and chain proteins), are less represented.
The middle third is histologically and chemically distinct, with a defined topographic difference that causes changes from superficial to deep parts of the meniscus [7, 9, 12, 13].
The structure of the articular capsule shows significant local variations. In some places it has grown into a periarticular ligament system and forms a very strong, mechanically stable layer. In other places, the capsule makes only a thin synovial membrane with surrounding fat and fibrous tissue.
Synovia (synovial membrane, also known as stratum synoviale) consists of two morphologically different tissues. The first (intima) is a superficial cell layer that includes an articulate cavity. By its characteristics, it is epithelial, with a thickness of three to four cells. Between the cells are frequent jaws that open in a subintimal layer of loose connective tissue, which contains abundance of lymph and blood capillaries and numerous scattered fat cells.
Cells of synovial intima do not form a continuous basal membrane that separates the epithelial from the subepithelial connective tissue. Morphologically, three types of cells are distinguished: type A (or type M for “macrophages similar”) whose cytoplasm contains a developed Golgi apparatus, a lot of vacuoles, and lysosomal bubbles but a scarcely rough endoplasmic reticulum and long cell prolongation.
Type B (or F of “fibroblasts similar”) contains abundant coarse endoplasmic reticulum but a little vacuum, lysosomal bubbles, and Golgi’s lamellas. Cellular attachments are poorly developed. Mixed cell type (sometimes called AB) is also described. Synoviale cells are responsible for the formation of hyaluronic acid, glycosaminoglycan, and some glycoproteins of synovial fluid. Thanks to numerous vesicles, they have the ability of phagocytosis of particles from synovial fluid—this is attributed mainly to M cells. A significant portion of the synovial fluid protein passes from the subintimendous connective tissue directly through the intercellular channels into the synovial fluid. Most proteins are micromolecular plasma proteins that can diffuse through the walls of the capillary from the blood plasma into the intercellular space of the subintimal connective tissue. Free nerve endings were not found in the subintimal region, although there are fibers of the autonomic nervous system that undergo the advent of blood vessels. In deeper layers away from the intima, the number of collagen fibers (stratum fibrosum) increases, in which articular capsules give the characteristics of the ligaments and supply the capsule with numerous nerve fibers, for the transmission of pain, along with blood vessels. This layer establishes numerous structural contacts with periarticular ligaments and creates strong enhancements in some parts of the capsule [7].
A patient scheduled for knee arthroscopy is placed on the operative table with the leg planned for arthroscopy placed on the leg holder and opposite leg on side holder (Figures 1 and 2). Arthroscopy could be done in general, regional, or local anesthesia, with or without tourniquet. Landmarks for arthroscopy are the patella, patellar ligament, and upper edge of the tibial plateau. The basic portals are anterolateral and anteromedial, and auxiliary portals are suprapatellar medial and lateral, central, posteromedial, and posterolateral (Figure 3). Knee arthroscopy starts by making anterolateral portal [2, 3]. The entry point is localized by palpation. The thumb is placed to the soft tissue groove in triangle that is formed by lateral border of patellar ligament, upper lateral part of the tibial plateau, and tip of the patella. Knee is flexed. Above the thumb and near the patellar ligament, we place a 1.2 gauge needle (Figure 4). With the tip of the needle, we try to reach a lateral tibial plateau. After pulling the needle out, the skin incision is made at the point that is marked by the needle. Making 0.5–1 cm horizontal incision is a good way to avoid cutting the meniscus. Incision is pointed in 45° angle to the frontal plane. After the incision is made, Kellys clamp is introduced through it in the same direction (Figure 5). After touching the medial condyle, the clamp is turned parallel to the condyles and pushed medially, while it can be palpated under the skin on medial side (Figure 6). While pulling the clamp back, soft tissue is spreading with Kelly’s clamp in a manner to open and close it. The next step is introducing the 4 mm scope in the same manner. Then, slightly extend the knee and hold it in valgus (Figure 7). When the medial meniscus is in the field of view, the anteromedial portal is prepared. The entry point should be close to the patellar tendon on the medial border (Figure 8). The needle is introduced again from the medial side. We could make a pressure to the skin by the finger looking inside the joint by scope to determine the appropriate entry point. After the needle is visualized in the joint, the skin incision is made. By the visual control, the knife is then used to make the skin incision and to avoid damage of the cartilage or meniscus. Through the anteromedial portal, the probe is introduced in the joint (Figure 9).
Knee arthroscopy preparation: Placing the patient on the operative table – frontal view.
Knee arthroscopy preparation: Placing the patient on the operative table – side view.
Basic portals and auxiliary portals are marked on the knee.
1.2 gauge needle is placed near the patellar ligament.
Kelly’s clamp introduced through the horizontal incision (45° angle to the frontal plane).
The clamp is turned parallel to the condyles and pushed medially.
While pulling the clamp back, soft tissue is spread with Kelly’s clamp; then, the 4 mm scope is introduced in the same manner.
Anteromedial portal is prepared. The entry point should be close to the patellar tendon on the medial border.
Through the anteromedial portal, the probe is introduced in the joint.
Examination begins with the suprapatellar recess, then medial compartment, intercondylar notch, and lateral compartment. For placing scope in the suprapatellar recess, the knee has to be extended, and the patella is free to be moved. The main structure in the recess is the so-called suprapatellar plication, which is a white band of connective tissue, sometimes separating the recess in two compartments, and can cause the symptoms like pain and snapping. The synovium is orange and red colored and we can see small blood vessels (Figure 10). Recess is often placed where we could find loose bodies (Figure 11). After examining recess, slightly pull the camera to see the femoral trochlea. The cartilage is white, shiny, and smooth. By rotating the optical for 90°, we can see articular surface of the patella, with the same characteristics (Figure 12). Then, slide with the scope medially. At that point we can see cartilage border of the medial femoral condyle and the soft tissue that covers the medial epicondyle. By flexing the knee, the medial collateral ligament can be identified. Sliding down in the field of vision appears the menisco-capsular junction, well vascularized, and we can clearly identify the medial meniscus as white semilunar structure with the inner edge free. Above is the visualized part of the medial femoral condyle, and beneath is the medial tibial plateau. Healthy meniscus is white, smooth, with sharp inner edge, and in full length connected to the capsule (Figure 13). Placing the scope beneath the femoral condyle, we should see the attachment of the posterior horn of the medial meniscus (Figure 14). The knee should be positioned in semiflexion and valgus. By extending and flexing the knee, we could examine the whole cartilage of the medial femoral condyle, and next is the intercondylar notch. The main structure is the ACL; it is represented like a white, pale band that arises from the anterior intercondylar area and goes upward and backward to the attachment on the posterior part of the lateral femoral condyle. The course of the ligament is best viewed by flexing the knee (Figure 15). Moving the scope near the central position and pushing it slightly, we can identify the femoral site insertion. PCL is covered by synovial sheet and is not routinely visible until the synovium is removed by a power shaver. Placing the scope beneath ACL and medial femoral condyle and pushing the scope slightly posteriorly, we can identify posterior horn of the medial meniscus and posterior joint capsule. For better visualization the posteromedial portal is used. In the front part, we can see the anterior attachments of both menisci and transvers knee ligament. For examination of the lateral compartment, we must place the knee in the “figure of four” position. Attachments of anterior and posterior horns of the lateral meniscus are near each other. The inner edge is similar to the medial meniscus. In the central third, there is no menisco-capsular junction, and when we lift up the meniscus, the popliteal tendon is visible in the popliteal aperture (Figure 16). Ligaments of Wrisberg and Humphry are sometimes visible.
The synovium is orange and red colored and we can see small blood vessels.
Recess is often placed where we could find loose bodies.
The cartilage is white, shiny, and smooth. By rotating the optical for 90°, we can see articular surface of the patella, with the same characteristics.
Healthy meniscus (white, smooth, with sharp inner edge).
The attachment of the posterior horn of the medial meniscus.
Course of the ligament (best viewed by flexing the knee).
Lifting up the meniscus, the popliteal tendon is visible in the popliteal aperture.
Knee arthroscopy is one of the most performed procedures in orthopedic surgery. Nowadays, it is mostly a therapeutic procedure, only in rare cases is diagnostic. Knowing arthroscopic anatomy is essential. The ability to recognize normal shape and appearance of the knee joint structures is the first step in long learning curve for further arthroscopy surgeon.
Marine biota has a diversified metabolism, possessing worldwide most complex and unexplored organisms, and maybe the richest source of important compounds, bioactive molecules, that could lead in benefits for distinct areas in human life [1]. In this way, exploring these microorganisms in the context of their biochemistry is an important step, not only for drug discovery, or nutraceuticals, but also to understand their evolution. This affirmative comes from a question never totally elucidated about the molecular origin, and its association with algae sterol metabolism, named as “sterolomic”. This approach could present important information’s about the cell membrane, without them does not exist cellular protection and organization [2].
Cellular membrane composition is major composed by phospholipids, and between sterols cholesterol, in terms of animal cell organization, however, plants possess phytosterols replacing cholesterol, and the most interesting information in the microalgae metabolic system is associated with the capability of some strains producing both classes of sterols. In this chapter, we are going to synthesize aspects about algae principal sterols metabolic pathways, and the ways that they can be manipulated to produce specific compounds.
The literature brings information’s about diverse algae sterolomic profile, so in this chapter let us begin with the most curious and strong algae, considered the earliest life forms in the world, the prokaryotes microalgae (cyanobacteria). These strains are also known as blue-green algae, they are widely distributed in the world, due to their robustness. Cyanobacteria are considered by biologists a variation from bacteria and eucaryotic strains, which could lead in a production of sterols related with vegetal, and also animal kingdom [3].
Cyanobacteria for this reason, can occur in marine environments with a huge salt variation, in cold waters as Antarctic system, and hot waters, could also proliferate in desert sand and rocks, providing a major response from their metabolic systems modifications according to the natural evolution. These cyanobacteria can produce different metabolites according to the habitat that they are living, for this reason, merging the information’s we can understand that they can present many metabolic pathways leading to different end-sterols products. Their resistance comes from their plasmatic membrane associated mostly with structures named hopanoids, that are very similar to sterols, and are responsible for the flexibility of cyanobacteria cellular membrane [4].
The major discussion on the literature is the unknown ability of these organisms producing sterols. Many years ago, some researches described the possibility to exist only hopanoids in their structure, in fact, with the advance in tandem mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance analysis associated with new extraction techniques it was discovered the presence of sterols in their membrane. Thus, metabolism involved in sterols biosynthesis by cyanobacteria are not totally elucidated.
In the history context, the first works showing sterols production in cyanobacteria were in a filamentous cyanobacteria named as
In the ninety’s the researchers Sallal, Nimer, and Radwan [6] studied other cyanobacteria strains, and verified that after dark incubation, sterols concentration increased. In in agreement to this study, Fagundes et al. [7] showed higher concentrations of sterols (β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and cholesterol), for
Eukaryotic microalgae are reported in the literature as the most prominent strains for sterols production, and they are important to make feasible membrane cell permeability, and maintain structural protection [8, 9]. In this sense, the study of sterols biosynthesis started in eukaryotic cells, standing out in numerous hypothesis, and one of them is related to life adaptation on earth, showing that these molecules were produced in this cell as a protective response to reactive species of oxygen [10]. The first study in eukaryotic microalgae was in 1960 with
In summary algae strain choice directly reflects in their potential for commercial application, for this reason, the knowledge of algal productivity, and the biotechnological treatment applied for each alga is important. So, understand the metabolic pathways for the full comprehension of sterols, and their intermediary metabolites formed provides important information for future culture modifications enhancing specific compounds [14]. For this, depending on the triterpenoid produced they can be applied for medical proposes, which is a great alternative since in the last decade we have the challenge for the isolation of new compounds, in front of many problems associated nowadays with diseases’ outbreaks. Algae possess a diverse metabolic system; their sterol composition is interesting due to the fact that they show in their composition unconventional structural variations [15]. The main structure consist of a tetracyclic, with a fused-ring skeleton, with the presence of a hydroxyl group at the carbon 3 (head group- 3β), and biochemical modifications at the carbon C24 (in sterol side chain), besides modifications found in the tetracyclic nuclei, and also their side chain with different alkylation’s patterns [15].
Nowadays, there are studies focusing on unconventional sterols bioactivity like the sterols isolated from
Industrial initiative for algae biomass application started in 20 centuries with the investment in many programs for algae research. The principal countries producing algae biomass and their products are shown in the Figure 1. Their major focus are on biofuels, or commercializing the biomass powder, and in terms of fine-chemicals the market is based on pigments, being only two sterols commercially produced from algae, fucosterol and desmosterol [17]. With this in mind, is important highlight that sterols are important bioactive metabolites that are normally isolated from non-renewable source, comprehend the metabolic sterols pathways and the ways to modify their production, presenting algae as a new source of sterols to the world, could lead to a sustainable sterols production.
Principal countries with important algae biotechnology companies’ and their products. DHA - docosahexaenoic acid.
Sterols biosynthesis started by two main pathways the mevalonic acid (MVA), and by the 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate/2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate (MEP), recently discovered [18], also known as non-mevalonate pathway. The objective of these two pathways is produce an isoprenoid structure, a molecule of 5 carbons isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP), and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), that are considered the sterol building block. MVA pathway occurs in cytosol, when MEP in the plastids, however the pathways activation are different according to the algae classification, being that some algae with the presence of both pathways’ biochemical machinery MEP and MVA and others with only one of them active [19].
Understand the pathways involved for sterols production in algae is difficult, due to a huge phylogenetic heterogeneity found in strains. Since today still have research’s showing for the first time the active pathway in some algae, like the observed by Scodelaro Bilbao et al. [20] studying
The prokaryotic cell, are known for possess MEP as the active isoprenoid producer, and for the ancestor reason, probably they were responsible for introducing this metabolism in eukaryotic strains. The MEP pathway is described as the major used for sterols production in algae, being green algae (
Algae sterols different pathways, a: Mevalonic acid pathway, and B: Non-mevalonic acid pathway(methylerythritol 4-phosphate): HMG-CoA: Beta-Hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl-coenzyme a, ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, GPP: Geranyl pyrophosphate, FPP: Farnesyl pyrophosphate, e:1: Lanosterol synthase, e:2: Sterol 14alpha-demethylase, e:3: Methylsterol monooxygenase, e:4: Sterol-4alpha-carboxylate 3-dehydrogenase, e:5: 3-keto steroid reductase, e:6: Methylsterol monooxygenase, e:7: Cholestenol Delta-isomerase, e:8: Cholestenol delta-isomerase, e:9: Delta7-sterol 5-desaturase, e:10: Delta7-sterol C5 desaturase, e:11: 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase, e:12: Delta-24-sterol reductase, e:13: 24-sterol reductase, e:14: 3-beta-hydroxysteroid 3-dehydrogenase, e:15: Cycloeucalenol cycloisomerase, e:16: Sterol 14alpha-demethylase, e:17: Delta14-sterol reductase, e:18: Cholestenol Delta-isomerase, e:19: 24-methylenesterol C-methyltransferase, e:20: 4-alpha-monomethylsterol monooxygenase, e:21: 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase, e:22: Farnesyl-diphosphate farnesyltransferase, e:23: Delta24(24(1))-sterol reductase, e:24: 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase, e:25: Delta24-sterol reductase, e:26: 3-beta-hydroxysteroid 3-dehydrogenase, e:27: 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase, e:28: Delta24-sterol reductase, e:29: Sterol 22-desaturase, e:30: 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase,e:31: Delta7-sterol 5-desaturase, e:32: Sterol 22-desaturase, e:33: Delta-24(24(1))-sterol reductase.
The pathways are divided in two segments, the first one can be observed at the Figure 2A, which represents the transformation of DMAPP and IPP to squalene, this step consists in the MVA, and MEP. MVA pathway occurs in the cell cytosol until a condensation of two molecules of acetyl-CoA with the catalysis of acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, after occurs other condensation forming 3-(
In terms of MEP pathway, the first step is a thiamin diphosphate-dependent condensation between D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and pyruvate forming 1-Deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate by the enzyme 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXS), following an isomerization to 2-
In the literature, there are numerous data, in which sometimes contrast about the biosynthesis of the isoprene units. MEP pathway was detected for the first time in bacteria, however further evidence has shown that in eukaryotes which performs photosynthesis found compounds from this metabolic pathway [24]. Normally a cyanobacteria which possess a metabolic system similar to bacteria produce phytosterols by MEP pathway, and also other authors describe that photosynthetic eukaryotic strain produce phytosterols only from MEP pathway [25]. On the other hand, MVA pathway normally is used for the production of cholesterol in animals, and also the green macroalgae sterols, in last case it occurs due to their metabolic similarity with higher plants, differently occurred with green microalgae from Chlorophyceae as described by Volkman [8, 9].
Geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) is formed by the isoprenoids DMAPP and IPP, and through the diverse condensations leading to a presqualene compound, followed by the formation of squalene trough farnesyl-diphosphate farnesyltransferase, and trough squalene monooxygenase, or an alternative squalene epoxidase newly discovered [26]. These two pathways transform squalene into squalene 2,3-epoxide which is the lanosterol or cycloartenol intermediary, formed when squalene is oxidized by the enzyme squalene monooxygenase.
The following stages for different sterols isolated in algae are presented at the Figure 2B, being considered the anaerobic postsqualene pathway step. The biosynthesis occurs through cycloartenol pathway, however some strains produce cholesterol by lanosterol pathway. In the case of ergosterol the same pathway is activated for other microorganisms, but it is different for algae, starting their pathway by cycloartenol as observed in a study performed with
Algae sterols can be easily manipulated to enhance their concentration, however, only few studies show the culture manipulation for this objective. In the algae metabolism commonly, the major changes occur when algae are cultured by nutrient limitation/modification. Photosynthetic system modifications consists in changing light intensity, and carbon dioxide amount, in terms of heterotrophic culture the exogenous carbon source can be considered the most important influence in sterols biosynthesis activation, salinity can be other factor important to sterol enhancer in algae [14].
For this reason, algae culture nutrient changes for phytosterols production have been mostly reported as phosphorous and nitrogen concentration. In relation to nitrogen, Zhang, Sachs, & Marchetti [30] analyzed freshwater and marine algae and they showed a reduction of 20% in sterols production when observed a nitrogen limitation for
In the same line, the authors Chen et al. [34], verify for the strains
The effect of salt stress showed that the concentration of total free sterols increased with higher levels of NaCl in
Other factor of influence in sterols composition is the UV–C radiation doses, Ahmed and Schenk [40] proved that for
The authors Pereira et al. [42], also showed that light intensities of 30, 60, 140, 230, and 490 mmol photons m−2 s−1 were tested for two Chlorophyceae
Genetically modify strains to produce sterols are gaining attention, but also is a new strategy to turn these metabolic rich systems a source of sterols. According to D’Adamo et al. [43], they introduced in
Algae sterols are a new segment for being studied, they are different according to the strain, and their environment, due to the fact that external factors affect the cellular membrane, as so, the sterol concentration. In this chapter, the most important sterols end-pathway products described are: Fucosterol, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, ergosterol, cholesterol, chondrillasterol, and desmosterol. Still today there are research’s discovering pathways for algae, due to the fact that algae are spread through the world, and can be isolated in simple access places or complex ones, being responsible for the metabolic variations. The studies involving algae sterols are ascending for industrial application, so, understand their origin is an important factor for future prospective.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
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\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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