Dietary modifications for the improvement of gut microbiota [39].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7821",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Criminology and Post-Mortem Studies - Analyzing Criminal Behaviour and Making Medical Decisions",title:"Criminology and Post-Mortem Studies",subtitle:"Analyzing Criminal Behaviour and Making Medical Decisions",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is not a handbook of criminology and forensic medicine but rather a tool that reviews socio-historical and scientific data and notes of methodology based on the different sciences aimed at the study of crime in all its many facets (sociology, jurisprudence, criminalistics, psychology, forensic neuroscience, and forensic medicine). The chapters deal with single aspects of the subject, such as juvenile delinquency, fraud, and the relationship between society, individual personality, and sexual criminal behavior. They then go into more detail, analyzing individual aspects of legal medicine in light of the evolution of the discipline between the 20th and 21st centuries, including infant and adult post-mortem examination and genetic DNA identification.",isbn:"978-1-83962-774-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-773-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-775-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77638",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"criminology-and-post-mortem-studies-analyzing-criminal-behaviour-and-making-medical-decisions",numberOfPages:226,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5077ee1b9a7f2a3030689f307bfb84aa",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo and Raluca Dumache",publishedDate:"October 20th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7821.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5130,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 17th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 8th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 6th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 25th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 24th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233998/images/system/233998.png",biography:"Sara Palermo has an MSc in clinical psychology and a PhD in experimental neuroscience. She is specialty chief editor of Frontiers in Psychology, Neuropsychology, and scientific director of the Italian National Institute of Philanthropy, Filantropolis. She is a member of the Italian Society of Neuropsychology, the Italian Association of Psychogeriatrics, the Italian Society of Neurology for Dementia, and the Society for Interdisciplinary Placebo Studies. She was a member of the European Innovation Partnership on Active and Healthy Ageing (EIP AHA), for which she was involved in Action Group A3: Action for Prevention of Functional Decline and Frailty. Dr Palermo works as a researcher at the Department of Psychology - University of Turin (Italy) and as Scientific Consultant at the Fondazione IRCCS, Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta (FINCB), Milan, Italy.",institutionString:"University of Turin, Italy & The Foundation of the Carlo Besta Neurological Institute IRCCS",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"179199",title:"Dr.",name:"Raluca",middleName:null,surname:"Dumache",slug:"raluca-dumache",fullName:"Raluca Dumache",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179199/images/system/179199.jfif",biography:"Dr. Raluca Dumache graduated from ‘’Victor Babes’’ University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania. She has an MD, MSc in biology and biotechnologies, and a Ph.D. in molecular genetics. She works in the field of forensic genetics at the Institute of Forensic Medicine, Timisoara, Romania, and as a lecturer teaching medical ethics and bioethics in the Department of Forensic Medicine, Bioethics, Deontology and Medical Law, ‘’Victor Babes’’ University of Medicine and Pharmacy.",institutionString:"Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timișoara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1018",title:"Forensic Pathology",slug:"forensic-pathology"}],chapters:[{id:"73122",title:"Delimitation of Unbeatable Fear in Facing the State of Necessity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93479",slug:"delimitation-of-unbeatable-fear-in-facing-the-state-of-necessity",totalDownloads:353,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the study of the limits of unbeatable fear in the state of necessity. Unbeatable fear remains one of the most complex exemptions to interpret, and it stands as a relevant issue both around sacrifice of persons and in cases of violence against women in Chile. Hence, our objective is not a mere analysis of unbeatable fear but rather its delimitation with respect to the state of necessity. The problem has its origin in specifying whether some of the requirements of unbeatable fear are part of the state of necessity. Therefore, the treatment of the nature of this kind of fear, as we have stated, is not peaceful in doctrine and creates insecurity in its interpretation. Therefore, the study of unbeatable fear deserves attention since it entails the analysis of fundamental concepts of the criminal law theory.",signatures:"Rodrigo Andrés Guerra Espinosa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73122",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73122",authors:[{id:"325877",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Guerra",slug:"rodrigo-guerra",fullName:"Rodrigo Guerra"}],corrections:null},{id:"74637",title:"An Analysis of Emotional and Psychological Issues among Males at the Correctional Institution in St. Vincent and the Grenadines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93526",slug:"an-analysis-of-emotional-and-psychological-issues-among-males-at-the-correctional-institution-in-st-",totalDownloads:365,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent findings suggest that emotional instability and psychological disorder rate in prison is three times higher than in the general population. Prisoners – especially males – are also at increased risk of all-cause victimization including violence and self-harm. This research sought to identify and analyze the emotions that incarcerated males at the Correctional Institutions in St. Vincent and the Grenadines have had and or were encountering, as well as the manner these emotions were being dealt with. It also sets out to ascertain some of the factors that were playing prominent roles in the lives of incarcerated males regarding those emotions. Up to date, there has been no research work done on males and their emotions in St. Vincent and the Grenadines nor any study regarding inmates in the correctional institution. The administration of a short questionnaire formed the quantitative collection instrument, which provided data from 150 inmates. The data analysis was performed via SPSS, and the findings point to a cross-section of relational factors that are relevant to males and their emotions (namely, abuse, crying, bonds, and suicidal thoughts). It was found that males are struggling emotionally with understanding their identity and are inadvertently pressured to adhere to societal directives by restricting their emotional expression.",signatures:"Nikolaos Stamatakis and Allan C. Burnett",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74637",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74637",authors:[{id:"324733",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolaos",surname:"Stamatakis",slug:"nikolaos-stamatakis",fullName:"Nikolaos Stamatakis"},{id:"324738",title:"Dr.",name:"Allan C.",surname:"Burnett",slug:"allan-c.-burnett",fullName:"Allan C. Burnett"}],corrections:null},{id:"76962",title:"Illegal Addictive Substances among Prison Inmates in the Czech Republic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97160",slug:"illegal-addictive-substances-among-prison-inmates-in-the-czech-republic",totalDownloads:177,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The paper describes illegal substance abuse by inmates in prisons in the Czech Republic and gives the readers information about the results of initial research on this hardly avoidable issue. The paper brings interesting findings in this field and describes new ways of prevention and treatment, which is dealt with by prison directorates not only in the Czech Republic.",signatures:"Petra Vrtalová, Martin Hrinko and David Palička",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76962",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76962",authors:[{id:"319598",title:"Prof.",name:"Martin",surname:"Hrinko",slug:"martin-hrinko",fullName:"Martin Hrinko"},{id:"319636",title:"MSc.",name:"David",surname:"Palička",slug:"david-palicka",fullName:"David Palička"},{id:"347110",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Petra",surname:"Vrtalová",slug:"petra-vrtalova",fullName:"Petra Vrtalová"}],corrections:null},{id:"74455",title:"Long Term Effects of Juvenile Correctional Confinement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94922",slug:"long-term-effects-of-juvenile-correctional-confinement",totalDownloads:511,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Justice-involved adolescents face significant roadblocks in the transition to adulthood when they navigate this period while simultaneously re-entering the community after a period of confinement. This study investigates how confinement disrupts psychosocial development across the transition to adulthood using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to compare psychological well-being and psychosocial development for youth confined before age 18, those arrested before age 18 but not confined, and those with no criminal justice involvement in adolescence. Findings show significantly lower levels of psychological well-being for confined youth compared to all other youth. Females who were confined during adolescence were especially low levels of psychological well-being in young adulthood. Subsequently, confined youth have lower levels of educational and employment attainment in young adulthood. Results suggest the need for juvenile facilities to incorporate programming that builds psychosocial skills and well-being.",signatures:"Gina Erickson and Shelly Schaefer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74455",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74455",authors:[{id:"324792",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Gina",surname:"Erickson",slug:"gina-erickson",fullName:"Gina Erickson"},{id:"329270",title:"Prof.",name:"Shelly",surname:"Schaefer",slug:"shelly-schaefer",fullName:"Shelly Schaefer"}],corrections:null},{id:"74266",title:"Juvenile Delinquency between Probation and Criminal Careers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94339",slug:"juvenile-delinquency-between-probation-and-criminal-careers",totalDownloads:395,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The focus of the criminological research is on probation and diversion measures applied in metropolitan judicial districts where juvenile deviance and criminal careers are frequent. Presidential Decree 448/1988 measures application in Naples judicial discrict reflects the “juvenile probation “ in juvenile ligislation, the problems of the local and urban organized crime context and the lack of penal welfare. The sources of analysis are an experimental sample of minors holders of the probation measure from Juvenile Court’s files, three other control sample holding diversion or conviction, the examination of the recidivism rate and criminal relaspe. Both database of the General Criminal Records and the Department of Prison Administration were consulted to monitor further sub-objectives and measures the recidivism rates. The results of the research highlight the risk assessment linked to the path of deviance according to the performance of the child recovery activities implemented by the host and penal communities. Evaluations acquires even more importance if observed after the entry into force of the Law of 28 April 2014 no. 67 introducing in the criminal code and criminal procedure, both the suspension of the trial and the provisions on non-punishment for particular tenuity of the fact (Legislative Decree 16 March 2015 n. 28).",signatures:"Giacomo Di Gennaro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74266",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74266",authors:[{id:"325593",title:"Prof.",name:"Giacomo",surname:"Di Gennaro",slug:"giacomo-di-gennaro",fullName:"Giacomo Di Gennaro"}],corrections:null},{id:"74205",title:"New Fraud Star Theory and Behavioral Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93455",slug:"new-fraud-star-theory-and-behavioral-sciences",totalDownloads:346,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this document is to establish the fraud star theory and the formulation of its microeconomic model, based on the behavioral sciences. The methodology is a practical exploration, first in the convergence of the fraud economy and the behavioral sciences, and based on these tools, the new theory of the Fraud Star is formulated, formulating its microeconomic model. This chapter is a new model of the fraud star theory and its microeconomic modeling. There are no limitations on the model. The practical implications are applying the new fraud star theory and calculating your income, in different scenarios. The social implications are knowing the income for the crime of fraud, according to the level of regulations, control, and effective punishment. The present work is original; there is no new theory of the fraud star, nor its microeconomic model, in the academic field, only in this work.",signatures:"Vicente Monteverde",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74205",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74205",authors:[{id:"324767",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vicente",surname:"Monteverde",slug:"vicente-monteverde",fullName:"Vicente Monteverde"}],corrections:null},{id:"73885",title:"Fraud in Letters of Credit under English Law: Issues and Cases (the Three Dimensions)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93555",slug:"fraud-in-letters-of-credit-under-english-law-issues-and-cases-the-three-dimensions-",totalDownloads:204,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"According to many cases, it has been demonstrated that sellers with bad intentions have manipulated letters of credit system in many ways, including fraud. Thus, many legal jurisdictions have recognized the fraud exception rule. In order to apply such exception, some conditions must be met. Among these conditions, the bank’s knowledge and a requirement of a clear evidence. Notably, the bank’s knowledge is crucial, meaning that the establishment of the sole exception will depend upon the status of the bank’s knowledge. Meaning that if the bank is aware of existing fraud, it is under a duty to refuse presentation. Otherwise, it should not. In turn, the establishment of clear evidence by the English courts is somewhat hard to achieve, consequently, such condition criticized often. Further, if the beneficiary himself commits the fraud, or has knowledge of the fraud, then the fraud exception rule will apply.1 This raises the question of whether the fraud exception should also bite where the fraud is committed by a third party but without the beneficiary’s knowledge. From these facts, this chapter will try to analysis the status of the bank’s knowledge and the hardship related to the clear evidence requirement in conjunction with the third-party fraud.",signatures:"Zaid Aladwan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73885",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73885",authors:[{id:"324758",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaid",surname:"Aladwan",slug:"zaid-aladwan",fullName:"Zaid Aladwan"}],corrections:null},{id:"73492",title:"Identifying Criminal Career Patterns of Sex Offenders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93972",slug:"identifying-criminal-career-patterns-of-sex-offenders",totalDownloads:600,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Intense social and political changes in the past decades led to changes in crime rates and the way the public perceives crime. Although there is a concern about crime in general, there seem to be some types of offences that cause more distress to the general public than others, for example, sexual offences. They seem to receive significant amounts of public condemnation and represent the focus of many punitive policies. In order to understand criminality as an individual and a social problem, researchers began to study crime through the concept of criminal career. One of the ways of getting insight into this type of offenders is by exploring their criminal career referring to a longitudinal series of offences committed by a person which has a noticeable series of offences. The study of the criminal career of sexual offenders has the potential to bring new information to experts and legislators, contribute to a greater understanding of the continuity of transgression from adolescence to adulthood and ensure better knowledge of the occurrence of sexual misconduct, how it begins, how it develops over time and how it ends.",signatures:"Dalibor Dolezal and Ena Jovanovic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73492",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73492",authors:[{id:"326012",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Dalibor",surname:"Dolezal",slug:"dalibor-dolezal",fullName:"Dalibor Dolezal"},{id:"326017",title:"MSc.",name:"Ena",surname:"Jovanovic",slug:"ena-jovanovic",fullName:"Ena Jovanovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"73978",title:"A Routine Activity Analysis of Selected Rape Cases during COVID-19 Lockdown in Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94299",slug:"a-routine-activity-analysis-of-selected-rape-cases-during-covid-19-lockdown-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:561,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Using five popular rape victimisation cases which occurred during COVID-19 lockdown in Nigeria, this paper shows how the mastery of routines of rape victims by sexual predators enhanced the success of rape victimisation. Elements of routine activity theory such as motivated offender, attractive targets and absence of capable guardianship is used to analyse each case to signpost and underscore the importance and centrality of active capable guardianship to dislodge and neutralise rape offenders’ routine mastery around attractive targets. The paper recommends mounting capable guardianship to checking growing menace of rape in Nigeria. Attractive target should eliminate risky routines and poisonous relationship which could enhance their chances of sexual violation.",signatures:"Oludayo Tade",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73978",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73978",authors:[{id:"316697",title:"Dr.",name:"Oludayo",surname:"Tade",slug:"oludayo-tade",fullName:"Oludayo Tade"}],corrections:null},{id:"78145",title:"Genetic DNA Identification from Bone Remains in Kinship Analysis Using Automate Extraction System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99587",slug:"genetic-dna-identification-from-bone-remains-in-kinship-analysis-using-automate-extraction-system",totalDownloads:176,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The first ever human identification through DNA analysis was done in the year 1987. Since then, this test has been used, not only in the ruling of civil and juridical cases, but also for human identification of missing persons and mass disaster victims. In this chapter we will present the usefulness of genetic DNA testing of skeletonized remains for human identification, by using automate DNA extraction from three different human bone types: tooth, femur and petrous pyramid. For each case, we obtained saliva samples on buccal swabs from relatives. After the bones were washed and cleaned, Bead Balls Mill Mix 20 (Tehtnica Domel, Slovenia), was used to obtain the bone powder. The DNA extraction from bone samples was performed on the automate Maxwell RSC 48 Instrument (Promega, USA), using the Maxwell FSC DNA IQ Casework Kit (Promega, USA). Power Quant System (Promega, USA) was used for DNA quantification of the samples. The DNA samples were amplified on a Pro Flex PCR System (Thermo Fischer, USA), using the Global Filer PCR Amplification Kit (Applied Biosystems, USA). PCR products were run on a 3500 Genetic Analyzer (Thermo Fischer, USA). Data analysis was performed by Gene Mapper 1.4. Considering that these cases involved DNA extraction from teeth, bones and old human remains, automate system was felt to be the best option to reduce handling errors and increase the possibilities of obtaining good quality DNA.",signatures:"Raluca Dumache, Talida Cut, Camelia Muresan, Veronica Ciocan, Emanuela Stan, Dorin Novacescu and Alexandra Enache",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78145",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78145",authors:[{id:"179199",title:"Dr.",name:"Raluca",surname:"Dumache",slug:"raluca-dumache",fullName:"Raluca Dumache"},{id:"181860",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra",surname:"Enache",slug:"alexandra-enache",fullName:"Alexandra Enache"},{id:"195502",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",surname:"Ciocan",slug:"veronica-ciocan",fullName:"Veronica Ciocan"},{id:"298285",title:"Dr.",name:"Camelia",surname:"Muresan",slug:"camelia-muresan",fullName:"Camelia Muresan"},{id:"346347",title:"Dr.",name:"Talida",surname:"Cut",slug:"talida-cut",fullName:"Talida Cut"},{id:"427761",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorin",surname:"Novacescu",slug:"dorin-novacescu",fullName:"Dorin Novacescu"},{id:"427762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandra",surname:"Mihailescu",slug:"alexandra-mihailescu",fullName:"Alexandra Mihailescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"72207",title:"Postmortem Examination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92184",slug:"postmortem-examination",totalDownloads:643,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter titled “Postmortem Examination” will highlight the importance of a postmortem examination, provide a basic overview of what a postmortem examination should involve, and guide the reader through the steps required to perform a complete autopsy. Subsections of special procedures as well as additional testing methods are included for those who are interested in extending their examinations to answer selected questions in selected scenarios. This chapter can act as a guideline to those who are unfamiliar with the process of an autopsy, or a review, and reinforcement to those who wish to build on top of their previous experience.",signatures:"Carol K. Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72207",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72207",authors:[{id:"317041",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol K.",surname:"Lee",slug:"carol-k.-lee",fullName:"Carol K. Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"72362",title:"Autopsy in Foetal Infant Deaths",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92673",slug:"autopsy-in-foetal-infant-deaths",totalDownloads:822,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Child autopsies are not more difficult than adult autopsies, but do require a number of extra techniques to be performed routinely. This chapter aims to cover the basic techniques required for foetal, perinatal, and infant post mortems. 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Everyone has yeasts like
Many patients are completely unsettled. These are very seriously ill patients such as cancer or AIDS patients whose defense is extremely weakened [2]. In their cases, the internal organs can fail due to a fungal attack. Fungal diseases and intestinal mycoses have actually increased in recent years. Gynecologists observe that more and more women suffer from vaginal mycoses.
The reasons for this increase are, for example, nutritional errors such as too much sugar and white flour products or nutritional deficiencies causing a dysregulated immune system [3]. However, treatments with cortisone and antibiotics and the increase in environmental pollutants are also contributing factors. All of these factors weaken our immune system and thus promote the spread of the fungi. If, for example, antibiotics have damaged the natural intestinal flora,
Unfortunately there are only nonspecific symptoms that can have many other causes. In the foreground are diarrhea and constipation—often alternating—flatulence, an abdominal distension, and abdominal pain. Affected people reported migraines, depression, liver diseases, and skin changes. But symptoms may or may not be due to
When referring to the intestinal yeasts, it is usually of
People with weakened immune systems are particularly at risk of contracting
The role of intestinal gut microbiota in health and disease is gaining more attention and is increasingly recognized [6]. The philosophy of alimentation might give us a clear start to see the patient as a whole again. It cannot only be drugs and medicine to treat the diseases [7].
In the normal human gastrointestinal tract microbiota,
Overgrowth of the intestine (over 1,000,000 fungi/g stool) is often accompanied by annoying gas, intestinal cramps, and/or diarrhea. If such symptoms occur in patients with a weakened immune system, overgrowth with
A
Symptoms such as fatigue general malaise and genitourinary and neuropsychiatric complaints and nonspecific gastrointestinal symptoms are reported.
The syndrome is considered to be caused by vaginal and intestinal fungal overgrowth, production of fungal toxins, inflammation, and invasion of mucous membranes. In such conditions, the usual therapy will consist of a rigorous long-term antifungal treatment and “yeast elimination” diet [20, 21, 22].
A nutritional imbalance demonstrated by diet analysis could lead to the development of further nutritional deficiencies for a prolonged period of time diet [19, 23].
Exercise has a strong impact in an athlete’s body. In fact, intense exercise, and particularly endurance exercise, requires an adaptive regulation of athletes’ body in order to fulfill the new physiological and biochemical demands. Under these stimuli, the muscle adapts by improving its metabolic, mechanical, contractile, and neuromuscular functions [24]. Glycogen storage decreases, mitochondrial biogenesis increases, and the balance of electrolytes varies [25]. Moreover, in response to the higher demand of oxygen and nutrients by the muscle, cardiac output, ventilation, and gas exchange increase, which finally results in an increased vascular dilatation. Exercise increases the risk of dehydration as a result of the increment of body temperature. In order to compensate for and reestablish the homeostatic equilibrium, the amount of glucocorticoids and adrenaline release should be higher [26, 27]. Furthermore, blood flow decreases in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys where metabolism activity increases.
Exercise also damages the muscle and highly influences systemic inflammation, intestinal permeability, and an increase in oxidative stress as well as immune response, all of them being related with delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) [28].
DOMS is a muscle pain or discomfort that begins after unaccustomed or high-intensity exercise [29]. Usually the peak of the pain appears 1–3 days after exercise and can last for 5–7 days postexercise [30]. DOMS is recognized as one of the most frequent and recurrent forms of sport injury affecting both athletic (including elite athletes) and nonathletic population. Its prevalence is higher when exercise activity increases (e.g., beginning of sporting season) or when a new type of activity is introduced. Duration and intensity of exercise also influence DOMS. Thereby, intense exercise is related to higher degrees of DOMS, immune system suppression, inflammation, and oxidative stress, while low-to-moderate exercise is related with enhancing the immune system and healthy lifestyle. Despite its high incidence, the mechanisms of DOMS remain uncertain, and there are no specific treatment strategies. DOMS can negatively affect several factors of athletic performance such as muscular pain, reduced joint range of motion, power reduction, altered muscle sequencing and recruitment patterns, and muscular strength [29]. Additionally, DOMS affects athletic performance by increasing the risk of other muscle injuries but also by making athletes more prone to suffer from opportunistic infections such as candidiasis. This may be mainly because of the underlying state of chronic inflammation due to exercise, altered immune system, and oxidative stress. Actually, infectious diseases and particularly fungal infections [31] have been identified as the most common and important health problems in athletes [32], especially in contact sports. Some studies found that among wrestlers, skin infections are a common cause of training and match disruption, thus directly affecting athletic performance [31]. Also it has been determined that
Diet and nutritional or dietary supplements have been identified as the main factor affecting gut microbiota (Table 1). In fact, it has been proven that dietetic changes can induce up to 57% of gut microbiota [35] variations in terms of composition and functioning in 24 hours [36, 37]. On the other hand, several studies have demonstrated the influence that gut microbiota have on essential processes affecting the individual’s health and performance (e.g., immune response and metabolism of nutrients) [34, 38]. Therefore, it could be assumed that diet and food supplements (also called nutritional or dietary supplements) may be a critical factor through which gut microbiota can be modulated in order to benefit athletes in their performance. Actually a recent study has identified several dietetic patterns which address this idea [39].
Nutrient | Dose | Effect |
---|---|---|
Carbohydrates | 7–12 g/kg/day (endurance athletes) | A fatigue reduction and an improved performance and mood can be achieved during an intense training by consuming high doses of carbohydrates ad libitum |
Proteins | 1.2–1.6 g/kg/day (elite athletes) | The infection incidents increase due to a protein deficiency by decreasing the T cell functions which affect the immunity system |
Fat | 15–30% of the diet/day | A reduction of the intestinal inflammation, bacterial translocation, and gastrointestinal stress can be achieved by fat diets with good amount of omega-3 and omega-6 However, a high-fat diet may reduce the total gut microbiota |
Fiber | 38 g/day man 25 g/day women | Lower level gut microbiota is associated with low-fiber diet and low antipathogenic bacteria and therefore will be an increase in gut inflammation and less sympathetic nervous system stimulation However, gastrointestinal stress may be caused by a high-fiber diet |
Probiotics | Highly variable depending on the strain, microbial composition, and metagenome Because of gut microbiota diversity in humans, there was not established a standard dose | Supplementing the diet with fermented food can stimulate the expansion of microorganism like |
Dietary modifications for the improvement of gut microbiota [39].
Most studies analyzing the impact of probiotics in athletic performance highlight their positive impact on the immune function, gut mucosa permeability, and oxidative stress resulting from intense exercise but also they increase the risk of respiratory diseases that are very common in athletes [40]. Thus, probiotics have been proven to improve athletes’ performance.
Up to now, there is no specific information on how diet and food supplements directly affect
Finally, evidence supports that also antibiotics influence gut microbiota composition. The use of antibiotics increases the risk of opportunistic candidiasis infections. Additionally, it has been also reported that antibiotics may cause fatigue and therefore negatively influence athletic performance [41]. Research done to analyze the relation between the total use of antibiotics (duration of antibiotic courses) and the degree of fatigue has shown that the longer the antibiotic courses, the higher the fatigue scores obtained [43, 44].
Lately studies evaluated the ergogenic effect of probiotic supplementation and their effect on physical exercises, trying to identify their mechanisms of action and on how could they influence the improvement of performance. Due to the fact that only few studies were performed and demonstrated the ergogenic effect of probiotics, further studies should investigate the subject for better understanding [45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52].
The term “elderly” comprises those individuals aged 60 and older, and they represent the fastest growing population group. In fact, in 2017 the global population of 60 years old and over totaled 962 million, and it is foreseen to reach 2.1 billion by 2050 [53]. Already by 2030 it is anticipated that nearly 35% of the European population will be over 60 and 11% over 80 years [53]. With age progression, deficiencies of physiological functions occur, making elderly more vulnerable to diseases and infections, particularly from fungal species [54]. Genus
Regarding the epidemiology, 90% of all
Aging-related physiological changes and other factors frequently affecting the elderly such as comorbidities, polypharmacy, and high colonization rate result in an extremely high mortality rate (from 36 to 63%) [59].
The oral cavity is considered a major physiological importance and experiences numerous alterations with aging process. The impaired functioning of the salivary gland alters the quality and quantity of saliva (hyposalivation). This impacts the equilibrium of the resident oral microbiota and also results in the decrease of defensive proteins (such as salivary peroxidases or myeloperoxidase) as well as other substances with antimicrobial activity (e.g., lysozymes), facilitating the development of oral candidiasis. Using removable dental prostheses and their deficient hygienization also contribute to oral candidiasis.
Further, oral candidiasis may lead to appetite decline, and this can limit the nutrient intake which can directly influence gut microbiota growth. Appetite decline can also be a consequence of other age-related physiological alterations (Table 2) [62]. The impaired masticatory efficiency produced by poor dental health and related pain, loss of teeth and muscle bulk, and lower sensitivity (including taste, smell, and sight) have a negative influence on appetite as food remains uninteresting [62, 63]. Oropharyngeal and esophageal motility diminished the risk of swallowing impairments (e.g., dysphagia) and prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux. Additionally, alterations in the secretion and peripheral action of the hormones that regulate the wish to eat, hunger, and satiation can also reduce appetite. Besides the reduction of appetite, the nutritional status of the elderly can be influenced by the changes in gastrointestinal motility which can lead to reduced digestion and absorption, among others. All those result in the changes in the availability of nutrients in the gut which influence the abundance of
Natural aging physiological alterations |
---|
Alterations in oral cavity (e.g. hyposalivation and impaired masticatory efficiency) |
Alterations in the secretion and peripheral action of the hormones that regulate the wish to eat, hunger, and satiation |
Changes in gastrointestinal motility |
Immunosenescence (alterations in immune system such as decreased phagocytosis and age-related involution of the thymus or altersinvolution) |
Changes in gut microbiota |
Altered metabolism of certain drugs |
Decreased renal function |
Decreased hepatic function |
Natural aging physiological alterations.
The immune system is also affected with aging (a process known as immunosenescence) [65]. Hence, there have been identified several altered immune parameters as well as adaptive and innate immunity influencing the development of chronic inflammatory status. Also the composition of gut microbiota varies with aging [66]. It decreases the number and variety of many protective commensal anaerobes such as lactobacilli and bifidobacteria. Beside this, phagocytosis is altered as a consequence of the functional insufficiency of monocytes and macrophages. On the other hand, “altersinvolution” (referring to age-related involution of the thymus) leads in a decline in circulating antigen-presenting cells (e.g., dendritic and T cells) [67]; T cells show altered cytokine production and lose their memory capacity as well as decrease the number of circulating B cells. Consequently, the immune system is compromised, and thus, there is a higher risk for the elderly to develop serious fungal infections, especially disseminated candidiasis. The source of this infection is often the gastrointestinal tract. The administration of broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents to these patients increases their risk of
Physiological changes associated with aging also affect the metabolism of many drugs [68]. As time passes, the hepatic capacity diminishes, affecting drug clearance. Specifically, the microsomal cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenase system is altered, and therefore, the drugs that undergo this pathway cannot be cleaned properly. Liver volume and blood flow also decline, impacting drug clearance. In addition renal size and volume are reduced. There are less glomeruli and juxtamedullary nephrons, resulting in a decrease in filtration area of the glomerular basement membrane and decreased permeability. Thus, the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is decreased [69]. Both liver and renal modifications impact the elderly’s pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics variables, thus making them at higher risk of adverse drug reactions and harmful drug interactions. Together with the above information, other common factors such as serious underlying diseases and comorbidities, the use of antibiotics and immunosuppressive drugs, living in care facilities, or being hospitalized increase the risk of the elderly suffering from
For frail elderly, severe surgeries, the use of central venous catheter, and parenteral nutrition are associated with candidemia related to biofilm formation and hence persistent colonization and infections [70]. Biofilm formation by an irreversible adhesion of a community of microorganisms which attached to each other on a surface, inert material, or living tissue, produce extracellular polymers that provide a structural matrix. The microorganism in this community behaves differently, showing more resistance to antibiotics and lower growth rates. Different
An important point is the amount of fungi found in the intestine. Antibiotic treatments are damaging the natural intestinal flora, and fungi such as
A dietary formula for 1 week lacking fiber reduced the populations of fungi [75]. Therefore, it is believed that the gastrointestinal environment can be restored by a proper defined nutrition diet formula [76, 77, 78].
Such diets are high in sugar and total carbohydrates which are correlated with increased methanogen
Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) have been shown to exert fungistatic effect. Anaerobic intestinal microbiota, such as lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as a member of normal flora, produces from dietary fibers via fermentation of beneficial metabolites, and the major end products are SCFAs. Not only for the intestinal microbiota, SCFAs represent an energy substrate but for host cells as well. Their important role in reducing the development of gastrointestinal disorders, among others, is well-known, preventing overgrowth of
The probiotic strain
In a clinical study performed in individuals with chronic intestinal
The yeasts metabolize a part of the carbohydrates from food, producing carbon dioxide and fusel alcohols. The gas causes an abdominal distension, bloating, and abdominal pain. Prolonged exposure to fusel alcohols for weeks and months can damage the liver. It was only this spring that a special toxin produced by the
Most of the usual antifungal diets are based on the elimination of sugar and other carbohydrates and can actually relieve bloating and other irritable bowel symptoms in some patients (with or without fungal overgrowth) [83, 84]. Practitioners of alternative medicine often claim that candidiasis—the most common cause of yeast infections (vaginal candidiasis) and oral thrush (oral candidiasis)—can be treated or prevented with diet and food supplements [11]. Despite a lack of clinical evidence,
The effect is probably based on a combination of different changes at the level of bacterial flora, the formation and transport mechanisms of intestinal gas, and the osmotic properties of the intestinal contents. The concept of the
The
A consistent antifungal diet of at least 5–6 weeks is also essential. It is important to deprive the yeast of their base food. Sugar, sweets, white flour products, and alcohol should be strictly avoided. Sweet fruit should also be avoided in the first 4 weeks. The focus is on a wholesome diet with lots of lettuce, vegetables, and whole grain products. The high-fiber diet not only strengthens the immune system but also presumably exerts a mechanical cleaning effect by sweeping the fungal nests out of the villi through its fibrous structure and at the same time stimulating the bowel movement [87, 88]. High-content phytochemicals with an antimicrobial effect make the whole-food diet the ideal antifungal diet—however, success is only permanent if there is a consequent change in diet.
Whole foods are the best way to prevent yeast infections. The yeasts will not find the right breeding ground in the organism of a healthy person. If there is already an infection, targeted therapy and a long-term change in eating habits to a healthy, natural diet are effective remedies.
In microbiological therapy, the focus is on strengthening the immune system [89]. Bacteria are extremely important for an intact immune system. An estimated 100 trillion bacteria live in the intestine, many of which are not yet known. It is now known that these bacteria have important functions for the immune system and are not simply there by accident. Experience after lengthy antibiotic administration speaks about, again and again, weaknesses in the body’s defenses which are observed because these active ingredients not only destroy unwanted but also desired bacteria. In our environment, which is enlivened by countless germs, the animals die of fatal infections after a few days because their defense system is practically inadequate. The contact with bacteria is very important for the development of the immune system. This effect is mimicked with microbiological therapy. The patients are given probiotics and auto-vaccines for 3–6 months. Probiotics are preparations from intestinal germs that regulate the immune system. Several studies suggested that certain
The use of probiotics in treating yeast infections is controversial. Although probiotics work by increasing bacteria beneficial to the vagina and gastrointestinal tract, their ability to prevent or treat candidiasis is a subject to debate. While many studies suggest that a daily probiotic can “slightly improve” imbalances that lead to yeast infections, others do not [96].
With these foods too, some of the bacteria will certainly live in the intestine. It is probably not possible to permanently colonize these bacteria in the intestine. However, a distinction must be made between probiotic medication and food. Special foods, such as yogurt preparations, cannot be used to inject as many bacteria as with medication. Patients would have to eat tons of yogurts in order to achieve a therapeutically effective number of bacteria. Then, however, they would have problems with the masses of animal protein again.
To permanently eliminate the yeast, a change in eating habits is crucial. The yeast must be deprived of their food base. It is very important to avoid sugar. In the acute diet phase of 4 weeks, patients even have to do without sweet fruits because
The complex carbohydrates and especially the fiber are digested in the lower intestinal sections. However, the yeasts mainly colonize the upper sections because they require oxygen. Only relatively few yeasts can survive in the colon. Only an insignificant part of the yeast uses the complex carbohydrates and fiber [99].
The die-off effects (
An antifungal diet always represents an individual nutritional concept, which in general is based on the results of laboratory analysis. In the case of a stronger fungal attack, an antifungal medication is recommended. The microbiological therapy is often useful, since the intestinal flora is usually affected; otherwise the fungi would not have been able to multiply.
Candidiasis affecting the whole organism is fatal in about 70% of cases. The problem is
Numerous microorganisms live in our intestines, especially
In people whose immune systems are weakened by disease or medication—the elderly population,
The
Nevertheless, it is recommended to carry out the diet under medical supervision, especially if there are problems with the intestinal flora.
This work has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 816303 (STANCE4HEALTH).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Oil palm (
The oil palm industry faces criticism due to a series of unsustainable practices (deforestation and consequent biodiversity loss, increased greenhouse gas emissions, and environmental and aquatic pollution), finding itself under pressure to adopt new and innovative procedures that could help this sector reverse this negative public perception [4]. Darkwah and Ong-Abdullah [5] highlighted some of these procedures, such as choice for intensification over extensification, adoption of precision agriculture technologies, support for smallholder farmers, sustainability certification, and circular economy.
Oil palm plantations are in areas with tropical forests in the equatorial belt, as they need high rainfall throughout the year [6]. In Brazil, for instance, there is an extensive area with favorable conditions for cultivating oil palm outside the Amazon rainforest; however, those areas experience long periods of drought when oil palm does not meet the physiological water requirement to maintain productivity [7], and, consequently, need to be artificially irrigated with proper management to avoid soil salinization. Approximately 30% of the irrigated land area in the World is affected by salt [8], which, to a certain extent, shows a link between drought and salinity stresses.
Studies have shown that the progression of abiotic stresses is limiting global agricultural production, with no sign of reversal shortly [9, 10, 11], making it necessary to develop crops that are resilient to different abiotic stresses, such as drought and salinity, ensuring food security. Therefore, it is currently a challenge for plant scientists to develop crops resistant or tolerant to these conditions, capable of withstanding climatic instabilities and environmental stresses, especially combinations of these stresses. So, the research community aiming to develop knowledge and technology to allow oil palm breeding programs in Brazil and elsewhere to breed for superior genotypes must consider that.
Plants respond to environmental stimuli in a complex and highly coordinated manner at biochemical, physiological, and molecular levels [11, 12, 13]. When exposed to stress, rapid and effective reprogramming at the molecular level is required to adapt to unfavorable conditions [12, 14, 15]. This reprogramming regulates the expression of stress-responsive genes, especially at transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels [14, 16, 17].
micro RNAs (miRNAs) are posttranscriptional and translational regulators frequently correlated with plant stress tolerance and modulating stress response [15, 18, 19]. miRNAs have enormous potential for crop improvement, being the focus of studies by scientists in recent years [18, 20, 21, 22].
Therefore, the main objectives of this review are to describe the R&D initiatives known to date on oil palm (
miRNAs are a class of endogenous, noncoding sRNAs transcribed from introns, exons, or intergenic regions [11]. They play a role in posttranscriptional RNA-mediated gene silencing and expression by complementary interaction with their mRNA target site [23, 24]. The biogenesis of plant miRNAs has been reported mainly in
Biogenesis of plant miRNAs. A miRNA gene is transcribed by RNA polymerase II, giving rise to a primary transcript (pri-miRNA), which is then capped and polyadenylated. DCL1 processes pri-miRNA, perhaps in two or more steps, and HEN1 methylate it to produce the miRNA/miRNA* duplex. HST transports the duplex to the cytosol, and the miRNA strand gets incorporated into RISC. The nuclear export of miRNAs may occur before or after RISC assembly. According to the degree of complementarity with the target site, miRISC will either cleave the mRNA or inhibit its translation.
Plant miRNAs range from 21 to 24 nucleotides in length [26]. Similar to protein-coding genes, miRNA genes (MIRs) are commonly transcribed by RNA polymerase II, forming a single-stranded precursor RNA called primary miRNAs (pri-miRNAs) that have imperfect self-complementary folding regions. Still in the nucleus, the 5′ m7G-cap and 3′ polyadenylation are added to promote better stability. Then the pri-miRNAs are converted into miRNA precursor sequences (pre-miRNA) by the action of DICER-LIKE 1 (DCL1) along with other associated proteins [15, 27].
The 3′ end of the initial miRNA/miRNA* duplex is methylated by the nuclear protein HUA ENHANCER 1 (HEN1), thus preventing untemplated 3′ polymerization that accelerates miRNA turnover [28]. The mature miRNA is then transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm by the HASTY protein (HST), then loaded onto AGONAUTE (AGO) proteins and incorporated into an RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), while often the star miRNA molecules (miRNA *) do undergo degradation. The AGO/miRISC complex search for RNA molecules through sequence complementarity, promoting posttranscriptional gene silencing through endonucleolytic cleavage or translation inhibition [25, 29]. The miRNA mechanisms of biogenesis and function are still unclear; however, studies have shown that they are involved in several cellular processes, including development, differentiation, division, and cell death [11, 26, 30].
An individual miRNA can regulate multiple transcripts, and a single transcript can be acted upon by several distinct miRNAs [11]. The miRNA can regulate the expression of its target gene using three strategies: (a) degradation of a target transcript through almost perfect complementarity; (b) inhibition of translation; or (c) DNA methylation. Regulation via degradation of the target transcript results in the degradation of intron sequences, and these cleaved sequences generate dsRNA molecules with the aid of RDR2 and then produce I-siRNA molecules of 21 and 22 nucleotides. Subsequently, the I-siRNA associated with the AGO-RISC complex directs the cleavage of the target mRNA sequence [31, 32].
Regarding the regulation via translation inhibition, only the roles of AGO1 and AGO10 have so far been understood [33, 34]. On the other hand, the miRNA-mediated inhibition mechanism remains unclear. At last, studies show that miRNAs in
Abiotic stress, such as deprivation or excess of water, high salinity, low or high temperature, heavy metals, and ultraviolet radiation, is a negative impact caused by nonliving factors on living organisms [35, 36]. They are primary stresses that arise in the plantations limiting seed germination, plant growth, and plant development; and, in some cases, resulting in the death of the plants.
Salinity and drought are two of the most prevalent abiotic stress worldwide, affecting plantations on all continents and resulting in the loss of billions of dollars annually. Plants have developed several mechanisms to combat drought stress, and several genes associated with the response of plants to this stress are known [12, 37]. One of these responses is the positive and/or negative regulation of several transcription factors (TF) related to numerous physiological and cellular functions [38].
The dehydration responsive elements (DREB) are TF related to the activation of genes responsive to drought stress tolerance, and its overexpression can result in tolerance to water deficit in plants. Similarly, the transcription factor MYB regulates negatively in plants during drought stress since it is related to stomata opening [11, 39]. However, the overexpression of other genes associated with drought stress in plants did not result in the expected drought tolerance, demonstrating the complexity of mechanisms responsible for plant tolerance to water stress [40].
Several research groups have identified and reported miRNAs responsive to water stress in several species, such as rice—
In the second class, the miRNAs are involved in the direct response to water stress, some of which are miR167, which is responsible for directing the auxin response factors ARF6 and ARF8 [46]; miR168, which targets the ARGONAUTE 1 (AGO1) mRNA [47]; and miR393 and miR394, which target F-box protein mRNAs that play roles in drought tolerance [45, 48, 49]. The last class contains miRNAs such as miR397 and miR408, which have hydrolase and oxidoreductase genes as their target gene [50, 51].
Zhou and colleagues [41] identified 30 miRNAs differentially expressed in rice under drought stress, 19 were new miRNAs. Regarding their expression, 14 were upregulated (miR159, miR169, miR171, miR319, miR395, miR474, miR845, miR851, miR854, miR896, miR901, miR903, miR1026, and miR1125) and 16 downregulated (miR156, miR159, miR170, miR171, miR172, miR319, miR396, miR397, miR408, miR529, miR896, miR1030, miR1035, miR1050, miR1088 and, miR1126). In soybean, upregulation of miRseq13, miR397ab, miR1513c, miR169-3p, and miR166-5p was observed in sensitive plants, while the same miRNAs were downregulated on tolerant crops [42].
When it comes to salinity stress, several genes are related to the plant’s stress response, including those involved in ion channel activation, signal transduction, and modification regulated by plant growth factors, especially the morphological architecture of the root [52]. In
According to Ding and colleagues, when analyzing corn variants tolerant and sensitive to salt stress, members of the miR396, miR167, miR164, and miR156 families downregulated, while miRNAs miR474, miR395, miR168, and miR162 upregulated in the tolerant ones [18]. In radish (
Recent studies allowed a better understanding of the mechanisms of action of miRNAs and their relationship in response to different abiotic stresses [38, 54, 55]. It is necessary to highlight that miRNAs are species-specific and present different expression levels when analyzed in distinct plant species or within a specific one under the same stress [15, 24].
Despite many advancements in the prediction and characterization of miRNAs in plants, there are only a few studies where researchers report the identification and characterization of miRNAs in oil palm, either under abiotic stress conditions or not. Currently, there are 10 published studies reporting miRNAs identification and characterization in oil palm [15, 30, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63]. Considering the great economic importance of oil palm, the number of miRNA studies reported on this oilseed crop is relatively low (Table 1).
Technology | Condition | miRNA | Species | Oil palm material | Publication |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Small RNA-seq | Normal | miR159a | Female flower | Somyong et al. [59] | |
3730 sequencing technology/Blast | Normal | miR2911, miR2916, miR156j, miR2914, miR2910, miR319f, miR167g, miR319e, miR845a, miR845b | Leaf | Low et al. [57] | |
Blast | Normal | miR156, miR157, miR159, miR160, miR164, miR166, miR167, miR168, miR169, miR171, miR172, miR319, miR390, miR393, miR394, miR395, miR396, miR397, miR398, miR399, miR528, miR529, miR530, miR535, miR815, miR1428, miR1432, miR2118, miR2275, miR5148, miR5179, miR5532, miR5801 | Genome | da Silva et al. [58] | |
Blast | Normal | miR156, miR157, miR159, miR160, miR854 | Genome | Nasaruddin et al. [30] | |
RNA-seq | Normal | miR5179 | Fruit | Gao et al. [61] | |
Small RNA-seq | Salt stress | miR156, miR391, miR395a, miR536, miR156, miR160, miR166, miR167, miR169, miR171, miR172, miR395, miR396, miR399, miR528, miR156, miR159, miR166, miR319, miR393, miR535, miR156, miR162, miR169, miR529, miR530, miR168, miR319, miR159. egumiR01, egumiR02, egumiR03, egumiR04, egumiR05, egumiR06, egumiR07, egumiR08, egumiR09, egumiR10, egumiR11,egumiR12, egumiR13, egumiR14, egumiR15, egumiR16, egumiR17, egumiR18, egumiR19, egumiR20, egumiR21, egumiR22, egumiR23, egumiR24, egumiR25, egumiR26, egumiR27. | Leaf | Salgado et al. [15] | |
Small RNA-seq | Normal | miR1432, miR160, miR163, miR166, miR168, miR172, miR1859, miR1873, miR2199, miR2654, miR396, miR4365, miR528, miR535, miR827, miR835, miR858, miR894, egumiR3, egumiR5, egumiR6, egumiR7, egumiR8, egumiR9, egumiR10, egumiR11, egumiR12, egumiR13, egumiR14, egumiR15. | Female Inflorescence | Ho et al. [60] | |
Small RNA-seq | Normal | miR156, miR160, miR164, miR172, miR444, miR5179, miR528, miR167, egumiR259, egumiR223, egumiR218, egumiR255, egumiR43, egumiR132, egumiR172, egumiR113, egumiR273, egumiR158, egumiR275, egumiR138, egumiR59, egumiR201, egumiR209, egumiR116, egumiR129, egumiR211, egumiR7, egumiR210, egumiR274. | Mesocarp | Zheng et al. [62] | |
Small RNA-seq | Normal | miR319, miRN1, miR168, miR482, miR2118, miR159, miR171, miR167, miR397, miR160, miR156, miR535, miR396, miR536, miR169, miR319, miR179, miR166, miR394, miR399, miR172, miR164, miRN4, miR390, miR393, miRN5, miRN6, miR162, miR827, miR398, miRN7, miR395, miRN8, miRN9, miRN10, miR408, miR528, miRN11. | Immature Inflorescence | Tregear et al. [63] | |
Blast | Normal | miR172 | Inflorescence | Mehrpooyan et al. [56] |
Summary of miRNA studies reported on oil palm.
Nasaruddin and colleagues found five potential miRNA encoding sequences in oil palm by a combined homology and structural analysis approach, having roles in regulating the auxin response, floral development, and basal transcription [30]. Mehrpooyan, Othman, and Harikrishna [56] identified in oil palm six paralogs of miR172, a regulator of the APETALA2 (AP2)-like family transcription factors. Their results suggested that the expression of different miR172 precursor paralogs is tissue-specific and showed that each of the two mature miR172 isoforms had different expression patterns during floral development.
Low and colleagues identified 14 miRNAs in contigs assembled from sequences generated from the hypomethylated or gene-rich regions in the genomes of both species from the
According to Somyong et al. [59], miRNA159 is related to the determination of females in oil palm trees, which is directly related to the higher production of oil palm trees, since palm oil with high number of female inflorescence and of clusters is most favorable. Noting that no expression of EgmiR159a was found in male flowers in their study, confirming its role in female sexual differentiation (Table 1). Ho and colleagues identified 15 oil palm-specific miRNA candidates when investigating microRNA expression in female inflorescence at two stages of floral [60].
In Gao et al. [61], the micro RNA EgmiR179 regulates the biosynthesis of metabolites through the negative regulation of its target gene NDT1, increasing oil content in palm oil [61]. Zheng and colleagues identified 452 microRNAs (miRNAs), including 170 conserved miRNAs and 282 new miRNAs, when gaining insights into the oil palm regulatory mechanisms of lipid and fatty acid metabolism. They found 37 fatty acid synthesis-related genes as putative miRNA-target genes and indicated that 22 conserved miRNAs and 14 new ones might be involved in fatty acid metabolism pathways. Tregear et al. [63] reported finding 30 previously unreported oil palm miRNA genes in a molecular study of the process of sexual differentiation in the immature inflorescence of oil palm.
Our research group reported prospecting and characterizing miRNAs in oil palm plants under salinity stress (Table 1) [15]. That was the first step in a study prospecting and characterizing miRNAs in oil palm plants under salinity [64] or drought stress and looking for insights on commonalities—miRNAs and putative miRNA-target genes—on the molecular response of young oil palm plants to these two abiotic stresses.
We did find 81 miRNAs—52 known ones and 29 new ones (Figure 2)—and 139 differentially expressed putative miRNA-target genes [15, 64]. In Salgado et al. [15], miR166, miR169, miR319, miR396, miR529, and egu-miR24sds showed altered expression profiles in young oil palm plants subjected to salt stress, both targeting TF, indicating a miRNA-dependent posttransitional regulation during the plant’s response to the environment.
Structure of the 29 new miRNAs identified in oil palm (
All miRNAs identification and characterization studies done so far in oil palm allowed the identification of 55 miRNA families or groups of miRNAs that derive from a common ancestor (Figure 3).
Families of miRNAs found in oil palm, and the amount of members per family.
In the last decade, due to the recent advances in high-throughput sequencing techniques, vis-à-vis the empowerment of bioinformatics tools, much progress has been made in characterizing and understanding miRNAs mechanism of action, and predicting their target genes [65, 66, 67, 68].
The possibility of the involvement of miRNAs in the regulation of genes directly related to the modulation of the impact of abiotic stress on plants has enabled researchers to take the next step by altering the expression levels of miRNAs, either by overexpression or knocking down strategies. This step attempts to gain further insights that could allow the development of distinct ways to generate superior genotypes harboring tolerance to those stresses, either by vertical or horizontal transfer of genes or even by genome editing [8].
According to Hajyzadeh et al. [69], the overexpression of miR408 in chickpea (
Transgenic lines of creeping grass (
Although the strategy of overexpression of miRNAs is dominant among the studies to obtain plants resistant to different stresses, the inhibition approach is also being promoted through the use of the short tandem target mimic (STTM) approach, causing loss of function [11]. Although there has been an increase in studies on the use of miRNAs to obtain plants resistant to multi-stress, there is still a long way to go.
According to Ferdous and colleagues, the overexpression of Hv-miR827 in barley (
miR319 is one of the oldest and most conserved miRNA families in plants, responsive to several stresses, including drought and salinity, based on high-throughput sequencing [76]. Studies have shown that its overexpression in transgenic creeping grass resulted in tolerance to salt and drought stresses; and it was linked to downregulation of at least four putative target genes of miR319 (AsPCF5, AsPCF6, AsPCF8, and AsTCP14) [77].
So far, no studies are known reporting on successfully horizontally transferring (or editing) miRNAs to or from oil palms aiming at achieving tolerance to abiotic stresses. Our research group prospected stress-responsive miRNAs and putative target genes that are good candidates for such endeavor [15, 64]. miRNAs and their putative target genes responsive to both stresses at once are the priority candidates for further studies.
Among putative target genes responsive to both stresses identified by our group in oil palm, there are some lncRNAs. Several studies have shown that lncRNAs play essential roles and different functions in the biological processes of plants. They can play a role as sRNA precursors to produce sRNAs, such as miRNAs and siRNAs. In response to different stresses, lncRNAs also play a role in the RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM) pathway [78, 79, 80].
Due to a series of unsustainable practices used by the oil palm industry, there is criticism pressuring it to adopt new and innovative procedures, including getting away from the tropical rain forests.
Predictably, primary stresses (abiotic and biotic) will arise once the industry establishes itself in those new areas for oil palm cultivation, forcing it to search for tools to deal in an economically sustainable way with them. Salinity and drought are on the top of such a list of primary abiotic stresses. Many studies report successful attempts to increase plants’ tolerance to such stresses by altering the expression levels of miRNAs, either by overexpression or knocking down strategies. Despite the great economic importance of oil palm, we found only 10 published studies reporting miRNAs identification and characterization in this oilseed crop. When considering abiotic stresses, the scenario is even worst; only one published study so far. In this sense, it is clear that further studies are necessary on the role of miRNAs - and their putative target genes - in oil palm’s response to abiotic stress. Besides that, as candidate genes become available from those studies, it will be necessary to validate their potential as tools to generate superior genotypes harboring tolerance to those stresses, either by vertical or horizontal transfer of genes or even by genome editing.
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The grant (01.13.0315.00 - DendêPalm Project) for this study was awarded by the Brazilian Innovation Agency—FINEP.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"306970",title:"Mr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Tamadon",slug:"amin-tamadon",fullName:"Amin Tamadon",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002oHR5wQAG/Profile_Picture_1623910304139",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bushehr University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón 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