\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8634",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Veterinary Medicine and Pharmaceuticals",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Pharmaceuticals",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Veterinary pharmaceuticals provide animals with the requisite, complete animal health care. The availability of safe and good quality medicines in the right amounts is needed in achieving optimum animal health care. The economic benefits of animal food products cannot be under-estimated. Veterinary pharmaceuticals are needed to meet the ever-growing demand of animal protein for the human population. However, their routine and unguarded use play significant roles in many public health issues, such as antimicrobial resistance. The practices, knowledge, and awareness needed on the use and application of veterinary pharmaceuticals amongst farmers, animal health professionals, microbiologists, and policy makers remain key in ensuring a safe and healthy food chain for all. In the field of veterinary medicine, canine practice is a challenge to veterinarians. In recent years, newer diagnostic methods and therapeutic protocols have been published on a regular basis. Along with the existing knowledge of important canine diseases like ascites, duodenal disorders, pericardial effusions, and canine mastitis, this book is supplemented with all the latest information. Discussion of duodenal disorders in dogs, including IBD and SIBO, is an important topic in day-to-day practice. Ascites and mastitis in dogs are also important topics and are discussed in this book. Each topic carries practical points for the diagnosis and management of important diseases of dogs. Hence, this book will be very useful for canine practitioners.",isbn:"978-1-78985-440-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-439-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-062-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79335",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-pharmaceuticals",numberOfPages:194,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"db391e7122c6eb34af53134b5cd50027",bookSignature:"Samuel Oppong Bekoe, Mani Saravanan, Reimmel Kwame Adosraku and P K Ramkumar",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8634.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13238,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:31,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:56,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:91,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 11th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 6th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 5th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 24th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 25th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"186990",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel Oppong",middleName:null,surname:"Bekoe",slug:"samuel-oppong-bekoe",fullName:"Samuel Oppong Bekoe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186990/images/system/186990.png",biography:"I have been a Lecturer (since 2005), and am currently a Senior Lecturer (since 2016) with the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, KNUST, Ghana. My research activities involve the quality assessment of pharmaceuticals, the monitoring and evaluation of antimicrobial resistance, the Safe Water for Good Health project, the development of analytical methods for the determination of pharmaceuticals in various matrices with the use of liquid chromatography with a range of detectors (MS, UV, etc.) and extraction procedures such as the solid phase extraction. I have been involved in the training and supervision of both undergraduate and postgraduate students. I have co-authored a number of publications from these research activities.",institutionString:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:{id:"201185",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani",middleName:null,surname:"Saravanan",slug:"mani-saravanan",fullName:"Mani Saravanan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201185/images/system/201185.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Mani Saravanan, B.V.Sc., M.V.Sc., Ph.D., is working as Assistant Professor in Veterinary Clinical Complex with the specialization in Veterinary Medicine. He is working on canine internal medicine especially on liver and intestinal disorders. Dr. Saravanan has completed his Ph.D research work on Biodynamic measures to evaluate ascites and its catalytic therapy in dogs. He has expertise in gastrointestinal endoscopy and abdominal ultrasound.",institutionString:"Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"261471",title:"Dr.",name:"Reimmel Kwame",middleName:null,surname:"Adosraku",slug:"reimmel-kwame-adosraku",fullName:"Reimmel Kwame Adosraku",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261471/images/12224_n.jpg",biography:"Reimmel Kwame Adosraku obtained his Bachelor of Pharmacy Degree from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) in 1980 and the Master’s in 1984. On completion of his programme he joined the faculty as a Lecturer that same year.In 1994, Prof. Adosraku was awarded a PhD Degree in Pharmaceutical Chemistry at the University of London School of Pharmacy, Brunswick Square, London, UK.\n\nHis work in academia has been extensive, with institutions both home and abroad. He has served as Head of the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry at the Faculty of Pharmacy for four terms. He serves on a number of Boards including Faculty of Science Board, Faculty of Pharmacy and the College of Health Sciences Board. Prof. Adosraku was a member of the Committee that assessed application for accreditation of Pharmacy School for two Universities in the country.\nOn the International front, he is an External Examiner in the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Sierra Leone, Freetown, Sierra Leone and a Member of the West African Health Organization (WAHO) Expert Committee evaluating Drug Quality Control Laboratories in West African countries (2010 – 2011). He offers professional consultancy services to various organizations in Ghana and abroad including BioResources International, USA and Ghana Standards Board. He also has several technical publications to his credit. Currently, he is an Associate Professor in Pharmaceutical Chemistry at KNUST.",institutionString:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"261443",title:"Dr.",name:"P K",middleName:null,surname:"Ramkumar",slug:"p-k-ramkumar",fullName:"P K Ramkumar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261443/images/system/261443.jpeg",biography:"Dr. P.K.Ramkumar, B.V.Sc., M.V.Sc., is working as Assistant Professor in Veterinary Clinical Complex with the specialization in Veterinary Medicine. He is working on canine gastro enterology. Dr. Ramkumar has completed his M.V.Sc. research work on infectious agents causing enteritis. He has expertise in Electrocardiography and abdominal ultrasound.",institutionString:"Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1193",title:"Animal Pharmacology",slug:"animal-pharmacology"}],chapters:[{id:"70025",title:"Prologue: Veterinary Pharmaceuticals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89902",slug:"prologue-veterinary-pharmaceuticals",totalDownloads:482,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Samuel Oppong Bekoe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70025",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70025",authors:[{id:"186990",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel Oppong",surname:"Bekoe",slug:"samuel-oppong-bekoe",fullName:"Samuel Oppong Bekoe"}],corrections:null},{id:"63964",title:"Antimicrobial Usage and Resistance in Dairy Cattle Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81365",slug:"antimicrobial-usage-and-resistance-in-dairy-cattle-production",totalDownloads:1022,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has been a public health threat globally, with millions of lives lost due to AMR infections each year. The cases of AMR continue to escalate and cause devastating effect to both humans and animals. AMR contributes to high morbidity and mortality of the livestock, which results in staggering economic losses to the livestock producers. The main factor for AMR to arise in this industry is mainly due to the eagerness of livestock producers to meet high demand by using antimicrobials to promote animal growth and disease prevention. From a public health perspective, AMR in dairy cattle can also jeopardize human population due to the potential dissemination of AMR pathogens to humans via consumption of infected dairy products or direct contact with infected dairy cattle. At the current rate of unrestricted antimicrobial usage, AMR will be expedited and soon we will run out of effective treatment for even the simplest infection. World Health Organization (WHO) has issued a set of guidelines for the use of medically important antimicrobials on animals to mitigate the adverse consequences of AMR on human. Thus, this chapter will explain antimicrobial usage in dairy cattle production and the recent approaches and challenges on AMR.",signatures:"Enli Loo, Kok Song Lai and Rozaihan Mansor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63964",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63964",authors:[{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai"},{id:"240934",title:"Dr.",name:"Rozaihan",surname:"Mansor",slug:"rozaihan-mansor",fullName:"Rozaihan Mansor"},{id:"264957",title:"Mr.",name:"Loo",surname:"Enli",slug:"loo-enli",fullName:"Loo Enli"}],corrections:null},{id:"64854",title:"Importance of Socio-Economic and Institutional Factors in the Use of Veterinary Services by the Smallholder Dairy Farmers in Punjab",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82310",slug:"importance-of-socio-economic-and-institutional-factors-in-the-use-of-veterinary-services-by-the-smal",totalDownloads:574,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study has shown the importance of identifying factors that determined the likelihood of using veterinary services in Punjab. Secondary data were used for analysis with the sample size of 1137 dairy households. Estimates of factors influencing the use of veterinary services are reasonably consistent with the farmer decision to use it. The proportional relationship between veterinary services available within the village and use of veterinary services revealed that, distance of veterinary service availability positively influenced the farmer decision to use the veterinary services. There was a positive relationship between herd size and use of veterinary services. More educated farmers are in a better position to use the veterinary services. The principal source of income from agricultural activities was positively influenced by the likelihood to use veterinary services in study area. The model from empirical point of view is very important to predict whether household will be using the veterinary services or not after incorporating the value of the explanatory variables.",signatures:"Shiv Raj Singh, Kamal Kumar Datta and Supern Singh Shekhawat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64854",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64854",authors:[{id:"260621",title:"Dr.",name:"Shiv Raj Singh",surname:"Rathore",slug:"shiv-raj-singh-rathore",fullName:"Shiv Raj Singh Rathore"},{id:"260625",title:"Dr.",name:"K.K.",surname:"Datta",slug:"k.k.-datta",fullName:"K.K. Datta"},{id:"260627",title:"Dr.",name:"S.S.",surname:"Shekhawat",slug:"s.s.-shekhawat",fullName:"S.S. Shekhawat"}],corrections:null},{id:"66512",title:"Veterinary Pharmaceuticals and Antimicrobial Resistance in Developing Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84888",slug:"veterinary-pharmaceuticals-and-antimicrobial-resistance-in-developing-countries",totalDownloads:1569,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Veterinary pharmaceuticals include a wide range of anti-infectives and additives in the use for animal health, nutrition, reproduction, and productivity. Antimicrobials are among the most extensively used drugs in developing countries largely due to large population of livestock and the burden of infectious diseases. The introduction of penicillin in 1943 and other antibiotics thereafter provided remedies for many infections in humans and animals, reducing mortality and productivity losses. Since then, a repertoire of antibiotics and antimicrobials has been introduced as chemotherapeutics and/or prophylaxis. This success notwithstanding, many pathogens of consequences are no longer susceptible owing to emergence of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) microorganisms. This has made treatment of infectious diseases less effective. Beside spontaneous emergence of mutant microorganisms, scientists are wary of AMR caused by intensive use of antibiotics in humans and animals, sometimes in subtherapeutic doses as preventive medicine. In developing countries, environmental exposure and persistent use of antibiotics in food animals may leave residues in the food chain. The consequences include development of AMR. In this chapter, we reviewed antimicrobial use in veterinary medicine and sequela in the emergence of AMR and described the imperative of antimicrobial stewardship in veterinary practice to combat AMR in developing countries.",signatures:"Meseko Clement, Makanju Olabisi, Ehizibolo David and Muraina Issa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66512",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66512",authors:[{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko"}],corrections:null},{id:"65176",title:"Veterinary Drug Residues in Meat and Meat Products: Occurrence, Detection and Implications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83616",slug:"veterinary-drug-residues-in-meat-and-meat-products-occurrence-detection-and-implications",totalDownloads:2968,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Application of veterinary drugs in livestock production is inevitable as they are essential for treatment of diseases, prevention of diseases, modification of physiological functions, improvement of growth and productivity as well as for ensuring food safety. However, recent reports have revealed that the use of veterinary drugs in large amounts and consistently could result in deposition of antimicrobial residues in muscle and organs of animal. Consumption of these residues in animal products may pose health risk to consumers including development of antibiotic resistance bacteria, allergy, reproductive disorder and hypersensitivity reaction. It is in line with this that this chapter seeks to examine the cause, occurrence, mode of detection, health implication and possible solution to veterinary drugs residues in meat and meat products.",signatures:"Andrew Bamidele Falowo and Oluwakamisi Festus Akimoladun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65176",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65176",authors:[{id:"271285",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Falowo",slug:"andrew-falowo",fullName:"Andrew Falowo"},{id:"288263",title:"Mr.",name:"Oluwakamisi Festus",surname:"Akimoladun",slug:"oluwakamisi-festus-akimoladun",fullName:"Oluwakamisi Festus Akimoladun"}],corrections:null},{id:"67293",title:"Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) and Its Treatment with Plant Extracts",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84938",slug:"foot-and-mouth-disease-virus-fmdv-and-its-treatment-with-plant-extracts",totalDownloads:1060,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a contagious viral infection which is caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). The disease appears in cloven-footed animals. Symptoms of the disease are abrupt manifestation of sores on the mouth, nose, feet, etc. Nowadays the control and treatment of FMDVare becoming a worldwide economic problem and challenge for the society. Currently, there is no particular treatment available for FMDV, as well as the limitations and disadvantages in the use of vaccines divert the focus of researchers toward natural sources like plant extracts which possess potential antiviral activity. Various researches documented in the literature demonstrated various plant extracts with antiviral potency against FMDV. In the current chapter, we discussed about FMDV and its possible treatment with plant extracts.",signatures:"Ishrat Younus, Sidra Maqbool, Sarah Jameel Khan, Humera Sarwar, Shagufta Nesar, Rida Fatima, Sidra Siddique and Moona Baig",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67293",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67293",authors:[{id:"243372",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishart",surname:"Younus",slug:"ishart-younus",fullName:"Ishart Younus"}],corrections:null},{id:"68546",title:"Prologue on DISEASES OF DOGS - for Practioners",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88479",slug:"prologue-on-diseases-of-dogs-for-practioners",totalDownloads:460,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mani Saravanan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68546",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68546",authors:[{id:"201185",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani",surname:"Saravanan",slug:"mani-saravanan",fullName:"Mani Saravanan"}],corrections:null},{id:"67372",title:"An Update on Canine Duodenal Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86049",slug:"an-update-on-canine-duodenal-disorders",totalDownloads:768,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Duodenal disorders are difficult to identify clinically because of the non-specific symptoms. They may or may not be identifiable through routine radiographic, ultrasonographic, or laboratory evaluation methods, because many diseases of duodenum primarily involve the mucosal surface. Duodenal ulcers, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) are the duodenal disorders. Duodenoscopy is an efficient way of identifying the abnormalities of mucosal irregularities, distortion, ulceration, neoplasia, and inflammation, and it is also useful for obtaining mucosal biopsy and duodenal juice for routine histopathological and bacteriological studies. This paper will provide more detail about the advanced diagnostic methods and therapeutic measures for various duodenal disorders.",signatures:"Mani Saravanan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67372",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67372",authors:[{id:"201185",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani",surname:"Saravanan",slug:"mani-saravanan",fullName:"Mani Saravanan"}],corrections:null},{id:"69693",title:"Overview of Canine Babesiosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82243",slug:"overview-of-canine-babesiosis",totalDownloads:1364,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Canine babesiosis is a tick-borne, protozoal, haemoparasitic disease that can cause varying degrees of haemolytic anaemia, splenomegaly, thrombocytopenia and fever. There are two hosts for the transmission of Babesia spp., viz. invertebrate (tick) and vertebrate host. Dogs are one among the many targets of Babesia spp., causing canine babesiosis, and now there are clinical evidences of possible vertical transmission too. Dogs of all ages can be affected with Babesia spp., but young puppies are more commonly affected. Considering advanced diagnostic techniques, for an early and specific detection of acute infections, an AgELISA that is potentially translatable to a rapid diagnostic test design is reported. Different molecular techniques used for identification and differentiation of the various species of Babesia are semi-nested PCR, reverse line blotting and PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. Treatment consists of three components: treatment with antiprotozoal agents to eliminate the parasite, blood transfusions to treat severe anaemia and supportive care for the complications and metabolic derangements. Blood lactate concentrations can serve as a prognostic indicator in severe or complicated canine babesiosis. For prevention apart from conventional measures, vaccines against Babesia species such as B. gibsoni are currently being developed.",signatures:"Poonam Vishwakarma and M.K. Nandini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69693",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69693",authors:[{id:"267230",title:"Dr.",name:"Poonam",surname:"Vishwakarma",slug:"poonam-vishwakarma",fullName:"Poonam Vishwakarma"},{id:"267243",title:"Dr.",name:"Nandini",surname:"M. K",slug:"nandini-m.-k",fullName:"Nandini M. K"}],corrections:null},{id:"66978",title:"Review on Ascites in Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84767",slug:"review-on-ascites-in-pets",totalDownloads:1223,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ascites is one of the major complications seen in various disease conditions in pets. Ascites is characterised by distension of the abdomen with accumulation of fluid of various colours and consistencies depending on the cause. The most common causes of ascites in pets include but not limited to the following health conditions: hypoproteinaemia, left-sided heart failure, congestive heart failure, cirrhosis, hepatic diseases, renal diseases, ancylostomosis and bacterial infection such as tuberculosis. Pathogenesis of ascites often emanate from portal hypertension, cirrhosis, hepatorenal syndrome, etc. Oftentimes the diagnosis of ascites could be cumbersome considering the myriad of diseases implicated in the condition. Standard diagnostic procedures include the following: physical examination, clinical examination, ultrasonography, computed tomography, serum ascites albumin gradient (SAAG), biochemical analysis such as triglyceride, urea and creatinine concentration, total protein, etc. Novel diagnostic procedures with possible clinical relevance include the following: leucocyte esterase reagent strip, platelet indices, tumour markers, etc. Diagnosis is made through standard diagnostic procedure, while special cases of idiopathic origin are detected through diagnostic laparotomy. Novel diagnostic procedures such as platelet indices, leucocyte esterase reagent strip and tumour markers would aid in easy diagnosis of ascites. Treatment of ascites is dependent on identification of the cause of ascites.",signatures:"Rosemary Ijeoma Ogechi Nwoha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66978",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66978",authors:[{id:"269467",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosemary",surname:"Nwoha",slug:"rosemary-nwoha",fullName:"Rosemary Nwoha"}],corrections:null},{id:"69431",title:"Pericardial Effusion in Dogs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89051",slug:"pericardial-effusion-in-dogs",totalDownloads:843,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pericardial disease in dogs is relatively uncommon, but its presence may be life-threatening. It is an incidental finding or manifestation of a systemic or cardiac disease. The spectrum of pericardial effusions ranges from mild asymptomatic effusions to cardiac tamponade. Pericardial effusion in dogs has an overall prevalence of 0.43% in general and occurs in approximately 7–10% of the dogs with clinical signs of cardiac disease. More commonly seen in dogs, the clinical signs of pericardial disease can be easily overlooked or mistaken for those of other disease processes. In patients with life-threatening pericardial effusion, which has led to cardiac tamponade, it is important to rapidly identify and treat the elevated intrapericardial pressure. Management is guided by the haemodynamic impact, size, presence of inflammation (i.e. pericarditis), associated medical conditions, and the aetiology whenever possible. In this chapter, pericardial effusion in dogs is emphasized.",signatures:"Gurram Sreeramamurthy Haritha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69431",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69431",authors:[{id:"285823",title:"Dr.",name:"Haritha",surname:"Yadav",slug:"haritha-yadav",fullName:"Haritha Yadav"}],corrections:null},{id:"67004",title:"How Reliable Are Laboratory Test When Diagnosing Bitch Mastitis?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86151",slug:"how-reliable-are-laboratory-test-when-diagnosing-bitch-mastitis-",totalDownloads:906,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Canine mastitis represents a major threat for both pups and nursing bitch. If left untreated, it can complicate with neonatal death, sepsis, and mastitis gangrenosa; for this reason quick and accurate diagnosis and treatment initiation are crucial health restoration. Even though mastitis is considered to be an emergency, most of the time it is overlooked. Henceforth, clinicians should be aware of the clinical importance of mastitis and that laboratory assays such as milk pH, cytology, and biochemistry (milk and serum) are of high utility. Furthermore, milk microbiology and susceptibility tests are still important since they bring additional information about the pathogenesis and the treatment possibilities.",signatures:"Iosif Vasiu, Roman Dąbrowski, Flaviu Alexandru Tăbăran, Raul Alexandru Pop, Flore Chirilă, Gheorghe Florinel Brudaşcă, Asta Tvarijonaviciute and Nicodim Iosif Fiţ",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67004",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67004",authors:[{id:"38782",title:"Dr.",name:"Roman",surname:"Dąbrowski",slug:"roman-dabrowski",fullName:"Roman Dąbrowski"},{id:"286303",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Iosif",surname:"Vasiu",slug:"iosif-vasiu",fullName:"Iosif Vasiu"},{id:"294897",title:"Prof.",name:"Flavius Alexandru",surname:"Tăbăran",slug:"flavius-alexandru-tabaran",fullName:"Flavius Alexandru Tăbăran"},{id:"294898",title:"Prof.",name:"Raul Alexandru",surname:"Pop",slug:"raul-alexandru-pop",fullName:"Raul Alexandru Pop"},{id:"294899",title:"Prof.",name:"Flore",surname:"Chirilă",slug:"flore-chirila",fullName:"Flore Chirilă"},{id:"294900",title:"Prof.",name:"Gheorghe Florinel",surname:"Brudaşcă",slug:"gheorghe-florinel-brudasca",fullName:"Gheorghe Florinel Brudaşcă"},{id:"294901",title:"Dr.",name:"Asta",surname:"Tvarijonaviciute",slug:"asta-tvarijonaviciute",fullName:"Asta Tvarijonaviciute"},{id:"294902",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicodim Iosif",surname:"Fiţ",slug:"nicodim-iosif-fit",fullName:"Nicodim Iosif Fiţ"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"761",title:"Pain Management",subtitle:"Current Issues and Opinions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0ae9f6b167596d2cdb07492d2ec14134",slug:"pain-management-current-issues-and-opinions",bookSignature:"Gabor B. 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The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"2c7ae61225c1e0133130f2c56894363a",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12253.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 30th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 29th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 17th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 16th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6418",title:"Hyperspectral Imaging in Agriculture, Food and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9005c36534a5dc065577a011aea13d4d",slug:"hyperspectral-imaging-in-agriculture-food-and-environment",bookSignature:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodríguez Fuentes and Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6418.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105774",title:"Prof.",name:"Alejandro Isabel",surname:"Luna Maldonado",slug:"alejandro-isabel-luna-maldonado",fullName:"Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10359",title:"Landraces",subtitle:"Traditional Variety and Natural Breed",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0600836fb2c422f7b624363d1e854f68",slug:"landraces-traditional-variety-and-natural-breed",bookSignature:"Amr Elkelish",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231337",title:"Dr.",name:"Amr",surname:"Elkelish",slug:"amr-elkelish",fullName:"Amr Elkelish"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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There are two types of paternal factors involved in problems of embryonic, fetal and offspring health: the genetic ones and the epigenetic ones. The terms “hard” and “soft” inheritance, first introduced in 1980 [1], are increasingly used to refer to the genetic and epigenetic inheritance, respectively [2, 3]. These terms reflect very nicely the nature of the two kinds of inheritance. The genetic inheritance, the hard one, is based on transmission of DNA sequences, and it is this type of inheritance which has been the main subject of human genetic studies for the past 60 years. On the other hand, a number of studies carried out over the past 20 years have revealed that phenotypes are affected by more complex layers of information besides DNA sequences. These factors, interposed between the DNA sequence of a gene and its phenotypic expression, are termed epigenetic marks and can be modified by environmental exposures [4].
\nThis chapter reviews the current knowledge about the factors affecting epigenetic marks in human gametes and embryos and about the ways how improper function of the male gametes during the process of fertilization can influence further embryonic and fetal development, with particular attention to possible adverse epigenetic effects related to the new micromanipulation-assisted fertilization technologies, intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) and round spermatid injection (ROSI).
\nHard hereditary elements are stable DNA sequences constituting specific genes that can only be modified by mutations or deletions. The system of soft hereditary elements is made up by a variety of molecules (epigenetic factors) that interact with each other and determine if, and to what extent, individual genes will be expressed at any given time of life. Early studies into epigenetic regulations in mammals largely focused on two constitutive events: genomic imprinting [5, 6] and X chromosome inactivation [7, 8]. However, later studies have pointed out that epigenetic regulation is a much more ample phenomenon than thought previously, involving a number of both imprinted and non-imprinted genes, and their role is particularly important in developmental processes, such as embryogenesis and organogenesis [9].
\nDNA methylation at the 5′ position of cytosin in CpG dinucleotides [2, 10] and histone acetylation are the two most widely known processes involved in epigenetic regulations. However, more recent studies have revealed other players in these complex processes, especially non-coding RNAs (siRNAs, microRNAs, and piRNAs) [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18], some of which have been detected in the germline [14, 15, 17, 18], as well as factors regulating higher-level organization of chromatin [19, 20]. Some of these elements can be modified by environmental factors leading to alternate gene expression [18, 19, 20].
\nIn spite of the ample knowledge about epigenetic mechanisms involved in gene expression control during the early embryogenesis fetal development and adult life [9], the environmental epigenetic inheritance through gametes was initially thought impossible because of the belief that all epigenetic marks, including DNA methylation, histone acetylation status and small RNAs, are completely erased and subsequently reset during germline reprogramming [21]. In mammals, these events take place both in the germline and in zygote immediately after fertilization [21, 22]. However, it is now known that this reset is not complete, and some parental imprinted loci can resist the global demethylation after fertilization, owing to the action of different mechanisms [23, 24, 25, 26]. These findings explain previous observations on transgenerational transmission of environmentally conditioned disorders. For instance, the incidence of effects of parental ionizing irradiation on genomic instability in the offspring is too high to be explained by radiation-induced mutations which occur at a substantially lower rate [27]. Epigenetic inheritance through gametes can also explain transgenerational transmission of obesity [28, 29], diabetes [30, 31], and some types of cancer [32, 33].
\nAll these data converge to suggest that epigenetic marks carried by the fertilizing spermatozoon are important for a variety of physiological and pathological processes that can affect offspring throughout life.
\nIt has been known since the early 2000 that human embryonic development is subject to paternal effects that can affect not only the early postfertilization events but also later phases of preimplantation and postimplantaion development [34, 35, 36]. Two types of paternal effects were distinguished: the early paternal effect and the late paternal effect [35]. The early paternal effect was reflected by an impairment of postfertilization development as early as the 1-cell zygote stage and subsequently was often associated with irregular cleavage divisions and blastomere fragmentation [34]. The late paternal effect was not detectable during the early cleavage stages, but became manifest after the 8-cell stage [35, 36]. Unlike the early paternal effect, the late paternal effect was often, though not always, associated with abnormally increased levels of DNA fragmentation in the father’s sperm [35]. Both types of paternal effect reduced the chance of pregnancy [36].
\nIn view of more recent data about sperm epigenetics, the meaning of these early observations can now be extended and reinterpreted. Since both the early and the late paternal effect were evaluated only in patients treated by intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), facilitating fertilization with spermatozoa carrying different morphological and functional abnormalities, which would not be capable of fertilizing oocytes by their proper means, the analysis of the resulting embryos can yield valuable information about the impact of sperm abnormalities and immaturity on fertilization and early development.
\nICSI has made it possible to achieve fertilization, embryonic and fetal development and childbirth by using spermatozoa with severe morphological and functional abnormalities. However, these abnormalities cannot be blamed for most of the negative paternal effects observed in ICSI-derived embryos. In fact, data have shown that fertilization with spermatozoa from certain individuals consistently leads to the formation of embryos with developmental abnormalities detectable as early as the 1-cell zygote stage [34]. Interestingly, these abnormalities almost always included abnormal pattern of the formation of nucleolar precursor bodies (NPBs) in the zygote pronuclei [34], as characterized previously [37]. The process of NPB assembly in human zygotes requires an early onset of RNA synthesis activity in the adjacent chromatin regions [38, 39]. The nature of the RNA molecules synthesized at this stage is unknown, but they are likely to be non-coding ones, since the first signs of embryonic gene expression can only be detected between the 4-cell and the 8-cell stage of the human preimplantation development [40, 41, 42]. These non-coding RNA species may be involved in the early epigenetic events that condition further embryonic development. Interestingly, the assembly of NPBs and the accompanying pronuclear RNA synthesis coincide with the assembly of microtubule organizing centers in human zygotes [43], and abnormalities of NPB assembly are associated with abnormal development of human preimplantation embryos [37, 44] and an increased risk of embryo aneuploidy [45].
\nSome conditions potentially responsible for sperm epigenetic abnormalities, such as advanced paternal age [46], tobacco smoking [47], and various lifestyle factors including dietary habits, physical activity or alcohol consumption [48], have been pointed out. However, a more comprehensive analysis of factors involved in these phenomena remains a big challenge for future research.
\nThe final stage of sperm maturation is achieved during sperm passage through the epididymis. However, spermatozoa recovered directly from the testis [49, 50] and even round spermatids [51, 52, 53, 54, 55] are able to fertilize human oocytes and generate normal offspring when incorporated into oocytes via ICSI and ROSI, respectively. Moreover, live offspring was born in mice after fertilization with secondary spermatocytes [56], and in humans after fertilization with round spermatids developed in vitro from germ cells of men with spermatogenic arrest at the primary spermatocyte stage [57, 58].
\nRecent reports on the postnatal development of 108 babies born after fertilization of oocytes by round spermatid injection (ROSI), 90 of them in Japan and 18 in Spain [59], did not show any significant differences as compared with naturally conceived babies in either physical or cognitive development during the first 2 years after birth, and none of them developed any of the syndromes associated with genomic imprinting defects [59]. Thus, the use of immature male germ cells for fertilization, in spite of the still relatively low success rates, does not appear to be associated with an increased risk of epigenetic abnormalities in the offspring.
\nAs discussed in the previous sections, human embryonic development appears to be particularly sensitive to epigenetic events taking place during an early phase of the fertilization process, referred to as oocyte activation. Oocyte activation has been extensively studied since the mid-1990s, especially in relation with the new technologies. Both ICSI and ROSI avoid the initial contact between the surfaces of the fertilizing spermatozoon and the oocyte preceding their fusion during natural fertilization. Yet, this contact activates a series of signal transduction events that participate in physiological oocyte activation [60, 61].
\nThese early signal transduction events are obviously by-passed when oocytes are fertilized by ICSI. This shortcut, however, does not prevent fertilization in most mammalian species. In fact, sperm-induced oocyte activation is driven by repeated rises of free cytosolic Ca2+ ions, referred to as calcium oscillations, mediated by periodic release and uptake of calcium by two types of calcium stores (basically endoplasmic reticulum), one opened by inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and the other by the very increase in free cytosolic calcium in its vicinity [62, 63]. In order to sustain the periodic calcium oscillations, the oocyte’s calcium stores have to be sensitized by a soluble factor released from the fertilizing spermatozoon, initially called “oscillin” and later identified as a special form of phospholipase C (PLC) referred to as PLCζ [64]. Even in the absence of the initial contact between the sperm and oocyte surfaces, the release of PLCζ from the injected spermatozoon to the oocyte cytoplasm, together with an early extracellular calcium influx produced by the ICSI procedure itself, is sufficient to sustain calcium oscillations needed for proper oocyte activation [65]. However, the temporal pattern of the oscillations after ICSI (Figure 1) is slightly different from that following sperm-oocyte fusion (Figure 2). The release of PLCζ from the spermatozoon to the oocyte cytoplasm marks the spatial pattern of the first calcium rise, which propagates in a wave-like manner from the sperm position site across the oocyte (Figure 3).
\nOscillations of free cytosolic Ca2+ concentration induced by sperm-oocyte fusion, recorded by confocal microscopy in a living human oocyte loaded with fluorescent calcium indicator Fluo-3 as described [
Oscillations of free cytosolic Ca2+ concentration after ICSI (arrow), recorded by confocal microscopy in a living human oocyte loaded with fluorescent calcium indicator Fluo-3 as described [
Spatial propagation of the first sperm-induced increase in free cytosolic Ca2+ concentration, recorded by confocal microscopy in a living human oocyte loaded with fluorescent calcium indicator Fluo-3 as described [
In spite of the fact that the slight difference in the temporal pattern of the first sperm-induced calcium rise does not appear to have any impact on zygote and embryo development, the frequency and duration of the ongoing calcium rises have been shown to affect embryo development in different mammalian species [66, 67, 68] including the human [69]. Recent findings have pointed out the possibility that inherent abnormalities of the sperm-born PLCζ, but also in the oocyte response mechanisms, including steps downstream of the calcium releasing machinery, may influence mitotic divisions and gene expression during subsequent development and have to be considered an additional epigenetic risk factors to be taken into consideration in relation with the current-assisted fertilization technologies [70].
\nSeveral studies have suggested that both IVF and ICSI may increase the risk of certain types of birth defects in general [71, 72, 73] and heart defects in particular [74, 75]. However, there does not appear to exist a significant difference between the children conceived by conventional IVF and by ICSI [76, 77]. During the early years of its use, ICSI was preferentially employed in cases of poor sperm quality, while conventional IVF was used in cases with normal or nearly normal sperm, and the lack of significant differences between the outcomes of conventional IVF and ICSI suggests that sperm quality, as reflected by spermogram, spermocytogram and other standard sperm evaluation methods, has little, if any, impact on the health of offspring. Hence, the trend toward a higher risk of birth defects after IVF and ICSI as compared with natural conception is likely to be related to different, largely sperm-independent factors, such as the underlying cause of infertility, higher maternal age or a higher incidence of twin pregnancies [75, 78].
\nEven though there is no strong correlation between the conventional sperm parameters and ICSI outcome, sperm abnormalities, especially morphological ones, were shown to be associated with different genetic and epigenetic abnormalities [79], such as increased sperm DNA fragmentation [80] or abnormal patterns of DNA methylation [81]. Morphological abnormalities of the human sperm head have been shown to be associated with different types of genetic abnormalities [79], increased sperm DNA fragmentation [80] and different potentially harmful epigenetic factors, such as abnormal patterns of DNA methylation [81] and the absence or defective function of the sperm-derived oocyte-activating factor [82]. These observations explain the findings of increased implantation and pregnancy rate and decreased miscarriage rate [83, 84, 85], as well as a significantly decreased risk of major birth defects [86, 87], with the use of high-magnification ICSI (IMSI) as compared with conventional ICSI, although some studies failed to confirm these differences [88, 89].
\nAs to fertilization by ICSI with immature (testicular) spermatozoa and by round spermatid injection (ROSI), the initial fears that incomplete or defective DNA methylation and chromatin configuration of these immature germ cells might cause syndromes related to genomic imprinting abnormalities [90] were not confirmed. In fact, no increase in the frequency of health problems caused by genomic imprinting abnormalities, such as Beckwith-Wiedemann, Prader-Willi, and Angelman syndromes, has been detected in children born after ICSI with testicular spermatozoa [91] and ROSI [59]. A recent study [92] has suggested that the supposed increase of imprinting errors, present in the sperm of infertile patients, does not have an obvious influence on assisted reproduction outcome or the imprinting of offspring, probably because the imprinting errors in sperm are selectively discarded or corrected during development [20, 93].
\nIn contrast to the reassuring clinical data concerning the potential epigenetic risk of using abnormal and immature male germ cells for fertilization, there is increasing concern about the possible transmission of epigenetic abnormalities and diseases acquired during the father’s life via his spermatozoa. This risk is difficult to evaluate with the use of currently available diagnostic methods because it is not necessarily associated either with sperm morphology or with its DNA integrity. It was actually demonstrated in humans that nutritional status and physical activity levels were associated with dynamic epigenetic changes in spermatozoa, including DNA methylation patterns and small RNA expression [94, 95, 96, 97]. This kind of acquired epigenetic changes in spermatozoa is suspected to mediate transgenerational epigenetic inheritance of neurological disorders [95] and susceptibility to diabetes [31] and obesity [96, 97], and this list does not appear to be definitive, since new evidence of environmentally driven sperm-borne epigenetic factors, which are capable of altering the phenotype of the next generation, is emerging on a large scale. Paternal aging [46] and smoking [47] were also shown to affect sperm DNA methylation patterns, with still ill-defined developmental and health consequences for the offspring.
\nAbnormal patterns of sperm DNA methylation, small RNA expression, and chromatin configuration can now be detected with a relative ease. However, many of these abnormalities lack clinical significance because they might be corrected during fertilization and postfertilization development. The mechanisms responsible for this repair are still largely hypothetical and poorly understood. However, they are very likely to exist because a recent publication, based on the analysis of 1280 IVF-related treatment cycles, did not show any influence of either male age or sperm parameters on clinical pregnancy and live birth outcomes [92], in spite of the existence of data suggesting that there are very clear consequences of aging in the sperm epigenome that can be directly detected in DNA methylation patterns [46]. Obviously, further studies are needed to assess whether any effects of male age and sperm parameters on the offspring health status can be detected later in life.
\nIn order to be able to distinguish between “benign” paternal epigenetic alterations that can be repaired spontaneously, on the one hand, and clinically relevant alterations that can cause negative effects on the embryonic, fetal and offspring health, studies are needed to relate DNA methylation status of specific genes and the expression pattern of specific small RNAs with specific developmental abnormalities. This work can be done by analyzing nucleic acids extracted directly from sperm cells or by using the “liquid biopsy” approach, based on the use of soluble nucleic acids isolated from blood plasma or seminal fluid. This latter approach is particularly interesting in azoospermic men so as to avoid the need for testicular biopsy to obtain a sample.
\nThe identification of the developmentally relevant sperm epigenetic abnormalities is a necessary pre-requisite to design possible therapeutic interventions. These may go from relatively simple to more complex ones. It has been shown in the mouse that several waves of microRNAs and tRNA fragments are shipped to sperm during post-testicular maturation in the epididymis [98]. If some pathogenic paternal epigenetic signals are conveyed to sperm essentially during epididymal passage, ICSI with spermatozoa retrieved surgically from the testis, the technique already used with success in men with elevated levels of sperm DNA fragmentation [99, 100], might be a relatively simple and immediately available solution. If this approach is not possible, other, more sophisticated technologies, such as injecting specific microRNA molecules, capable of repairing specific epigenetic defects, into the early zygote [98] or induction of DNA methylation of the genes of interest by a Dnmt3-type
Since the availability of cell micromanipulation technologies enabling fertilization of human oocytes by ICSI with immature (testicular) spermatozoa and by round spermatid injection (ROSI), the role of paternal factors on embryonic, fetal, and offspring health needed a profound revision. While genetic abnormalities contributed by injected spermatozoa or spermatids can be controlled by preimplantation genetic testing and usually lead to a miscarriage, sperm-borne epigenetic abnormalities are much more difficult to detect and may be at the origin of different health problems throughout the offspring life. The current knowledge of the origin, nature, and mechanism of action of these sperm-borne epigenetic factors is outlined in this chapter. Surprisingly, in spite of multiple types of sperm epigenetic abnormalities associated with defective spermatogenesis and male aging, the current clinical experience is reassuring. In fact, no significant increase in the prevalence of diseases attributable to abnormal genomic imprinting was detected in children conceived by testicular spermatozoa or spermatids, probably because of the existence of efficient repair mechanisms acting in postfertilization stages of development.
\nBy contrast, there is increasing evidence suggesting that transgenerational inheritance of paternally acquired epigenetic abnormalities via spermatozoa is more frequent than previously thought and can occur even in cases with normal conventional sperm parameters and during natural conception. The known pathologies transmitted in this way include neurological disorders, obesity, and diabetes, and their list is in continuous expansion. Future diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities applicable in these cases are discussed.
\nThe author declares no conflict of interest related to this chapter.
Now more than ever, society’s expectations for business are rising. According to McKinsey [1], nine out of ten Generation Z customers agree that businesses have a duty to solve environmental and social challenges. Younger people believe that organizations that are ecologically and socially conscious are better places to work, and the great majority believe that they would be more loyal to companies that share their values. As the need for social accountability grows, so do the responsibilities placed on leaders.
What is interesting, although not surprising, is that certain characteristics of leaders strengthen the company’s corporate social responsibility (CSR). Board gender diversity has been recognized as one of the most important drivers for environmental sustainability and it has attracted the attention of both researchers and policymakers. For instance, in 2004, Norway was the first nation to adopt a quota for female director, while other nations, such as Germany, France, Belgium, Iceland, and Italy followed suit and adopted mandatory female quota. Further, the United Nations (UN)‘s fifth Goal of Sustainability Development states that “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”.
Prior researchers claim that female directors are not the same as male executives when it comes to leadership [2]. Females are more collaborative and promote participatory decision making [3]. They were often regarded as using the approach to persuade followers to shift from self-interest to collective interest via shared concern for major objectives. Furthermore, female executives value universalism and kindness more than male executives, and less self-enhancement ideals like accomplishment and power [4]. Thus, gender diversity board is more likely to seek long-term strategy and is stakeholder-focused, which are critical to sustainability and successful CSR practices, and this probably is a reason why shareholders, legislators, and regulators possess a common interest in increasing gender diversity in the boardroom.
Despite the fact that both researchers and the general public have paid close attention to CSR and gender, the evidence in favor of female leaders leading to higher CSR remains mixed (for review paper see [5]). Several studies have indicated that female directors have a good impact on company sustainability and social responsibility, play an important role in ethically managing the firm’s sustainable operations, and support the adoption of ethical standards (for e.g. see [6, 7, 8]). While some scholars argue that female directors have no influence on sustainability [9, 10] or lowers involvement in sustainable development projects [11]. Hence, there is a need to understand this relationship and probe the likely factors and theory behind these inconsistent results. In this chapter, we focus on the role of female leaders, particularly female directors, on CSR and sustainability of the company. We argue that CSR is essential to today’s business and there are several theories to explain the reason behind this relationship. Nevertheless, theories are related and there are no sole to explain the relationship. Most of the theories based on the notion that women have greater moral and community attitudes than men. Furthermore, some determinants were not taken into account in previous research, resulting in inconsistency findings. In order to fill this void, we reviewed literature in both financial theories and social psychology theories, mapping their relevance to the relationship between CSR and female leaders. We noted, based on major theoretical perspectives that female directors lead to higher CSR performance and CSD. Future study in this topic is required to provide a greater understanding of the relationship especially under various economic conditions and multi-country studies to supplement the existing literatures.
We provide a brief review of the literature on CSR and gender diversity boards in the sections that follow, as well as why these two topics are important. The review will then move on to the theoretical perspectives that could be used to explain the relationship. Section 5 discusses the missing determinant that could explain the inconsistency in the impact of female directors on CSR. Following this, the chapter discusses the direction for future research. Lastly, we end with the conclusion remarks.
A heated debate has erupted among academics, consultants, and corporate executives, yielding numerous definitions of a more humane, ethical, and transparent way of doing business. In addition, customers and workers are increasingly demanding that the organizations they support make a major good influence on the world around them. Unsurprisingly, CSR quickly becomes a key component of a company’s standard operating procedure, with nearly 90% of S&P 500 companies publishing an annual sustainability report as a part of their CSR strategies.
The United Nations Industrial Development Organization defines CSR as a business management concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their operations and interactions with their stakeholders. CSR is commonly seen as a technique for a corporation to achieve a balance between economic, social, and environmental factors while meeting the expectations of various stakeholders. It is a form of self-regulation that reflects companies’ accountability and commitment in contributing to the well-being of communities and society through various social, environmental, and corporate governance measures. Local governments and some non-governmental organizations (NGOs) believe that public-private partnerships can revitalize neighborhoods. Various management disciplines, such as quality management, marketing, communication, finance, HRM, and reporting, have also recognized the value of CSR. Examples of CSR initiatives can range from donation efforts and involvement in the local community to diversity, inclusion, and transparency. While, CSD is aimed for both internal and external stakeholders who are informed about the company’s economic, environmental, and social actions [8].
Though CSR activities could incur as company’s expense, it could be a route for improving companies’ reputation, risk management, cost savings, access to financing, valuable resource, human resource management, and innovation capability (for review paper see [12, 13, 14]). Firms may also gain the long-term trust of employees, consumers, and society by recognizing social responsibility, which is the foundation for sustainable business strategies. Furthermore, in developed countries, CSR activities are regarded as a duty that companies are compelled to carry out in order to gain the confidence of capital markets and be included in a sustainable market index, such as the Dow Jones Sustainability (DJS) Index, the FTSE4 Good Index, or the Morgan Stanley Capital International ESG indices. At the same time, some companies choose to go beyond the legal requirements and proactively addressing CSR in their business models.
CSR practices and CSD not only contribute toward sustainability development but also help firms gain trust of stakeholders, including investors and community. More importantly, it increases stakeholder awareness of the company’s CSR operations and demonstrates their commitment to CSR. Previous research has demonstrated that firms may earn legitimacy by sharing verifiable social and environmental information [15], which they can then utilize as a strategy to adapt to social expectations [16]. Furthermore, CSD may provide positive signals to stakeholders that the activities of firms are appropriate and desirable [17].
From above, it is clear that benefits of CSR may not only satisfy their social and environmental commitments, but also get advantages for themselves. Furthermore, organizations may recognize their social and environmental influence on society by making decisions and initiating activities that embrace such a larger responsibility. Nevertheless, the advantages of CSR are not immediately quantified in dollars and are not always seen in the short term. As a result, it is doubtful that CSR concerns will be given a significant priority at the management level.
Nowadays, many firms try to nominate more women to their boards of directors in the pursuit of gender diversity, but there’s more to the story, and investors should be aware that although more women on boards signifies progress, it is also crucial to see more women in managerial roles.
Previous studies have shown that the presence of female director improves decision-making process, since it requires keeping multiple points of view and perspectives in mind, as well as assessing potential outcomes [18]. The diversity of the board can also enhance the board independence, consequently increased board diversity could lead to a better board monitoring function [19]. Furthermore, the recent finding suggests that firm with female directors could reduce male CEO overconfidence, especially in industries with high overconfidence prevalence [20].
Female directors tend to take into account the needs of a wide range of stakeholders [21]. This allows companies to attract a wider range of prospective customers and better penetrate various markets [22]. At the same time, female leaders are more likely to be participative, democratic, and communal in their leadership style, as well as more environmentally conscious. As a result, female directors are also often associated with improved corporate sustainability disclosure (CSD) [8] and CSR performance of companies (for e.g. see [6, 7]). Likewise, researchers found that greater gender diversity on a board of directors can lead to more transparent information disclosure [23], and higher reported earnings [24]. The presence of female director on board also gives a positive signal to stakeholders that the company cares about the societal diversity in their governance (for e.g. see [18, 25, 26]).
The literature also recognizes there are gender psychological differences in this professional setting. Female leaders are more likely to be risk-averse, have complicated moral reasoning abilities, empathy, compassion, kindness, and interpersonal sensitivity. Males are more ambitious, aggressive, autonomous, self-confident, adventurous, and competitive than females [27, 28, 29]. When it comes to leadership, female directors are also not the same as male leaders [2]. The presence of more female directors could stimulate more collaborative and participative communication among its members [4], which in turn promote participatory decision making [3].
The presence of women has an impact on financial performance as well. New ideas and views can evolve into new strategies, products, and services that increase the firm’s revenue and profit. For all of these reasons, several studies demonstrated a positive effect of gender diversity on business financial success (for a meta-analysis, see [2]).
Adams and Ferreira [19], on the other hand, argue that this relationship occurs exclusively in organizations with inferior corporate governance (as proxied by stronger takeover defenses). Besides, there is also evidence of a non-linear relationship between the number of female directors and financial performance; the presence of one or two “token” women on a board is associated with poorer firm performance, whereas the presence of three or more women (reaching a critical mass) is associated with improved firm outcome (for e.g. see [7, 21, 30]).
On the other side, gender diverse boards may result in greater decision-making costs in boards, as well as an increase in the possibility of disputes and board functions [19]. The diverse boards could suffer more conflicts of interests and slower decision making. Furthermore, some researchers have suggested that diversity might have a detrimental impact if employees do not value/believe in their varied work groups [31].
Overall, there seems to be some evidence to indicate that the presence of female directors could enhance firm corporate governance and participatory decision making, which turn into favorable firm outcomes such as financial performance. This could also imply that, in order to boost economic development and growth, equal participation of men and women in the labor force is supposed to ensure full utilization of available national resources. Nonetheless, in reality, males continue to dominate the majority of leadership positions across the world, and change is required.
Going back to the women’s liberation movement in the late 1960s and early 1970s, some CSR had already strayed into gender issues. Companies are increasingly addressing the issue of gender equality and incorporating it into their CSR programs. Gender inclusion in CSR can play a dynamic role in achieving gender equality in the workplace through activities, initiatives, strategies, and policies that provide female employees with equal access to job opportunities and equal treatment in the workplace. Likewise, gender equality is playing an increasingly important role at the firm level as a key factor in strengthening CSR strategies. Simultaneously, the involvement of women in leadership positions enhances CSR activity [4, 7]. From these evidences, it would seem that there is a link between the gender equality and CSR. As CSR performance are seen to be the consequence of board choices, a board’s characteristics and attributes can be crucial in achieving better CSR results. Thus, it is vital to comprehend the theories and empirical evidences behind the impact of female directors and CSR.
Literatures have offered various reasons to support the notion that board gender diversity enhances the CSR. One of the most frequently used theories to explain the relationship between diversity boards and CSR is agency theory. It is predicated on the notion that there is a separation of ownership and control, which results in expenses associated with resolving conflicts of interest between a principal (i.e. shareholders) and an agent (i.e. a manager). To migrate agency costs, the firm incorporates a range of corporate governance mechanisms, including law, incentives, shareholder rights, and monitoring [32]. And the board of directors is recognized as one of the most important aspects for monitoring managerial behavior and mitigating the firm’s agency problems. They are usually elected or appointed by shareholders and represent the company’s shareholders. The board is responsible for making important strategic decisions, providing leadership, monitoring and supervising top management on behalf of shareholders.
In agency theory literatures, researchers often try to emphasize on the link between board composition and firm value, investment and firm’s decisions. In recent years, researchers have increasingly focused their research on gender diversity. Based on social psychology theory, people often seek out people who have similar backgrounds, perspectives, and values, which are then reinforced in intragroup communication. The more we identify with our in-group, the more distant we feel from members of the out-group. Furthermore, when we strongly identify as an in-group member, we tend to elevate other members of the group. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as in-group favoritism or in-group bias, and it can be described as a privilege issue in which members are favored, while people in out-groups are discriminated against due to characteristics that they cannot change [33]. Sexual orientation, gender, ethnicity, race, religion, physical abilities, and age are examples of these characteristics. According to this viewpoint, researchers who believe in agency theory frequently assume male directors regard female directors as out-group members and may have a negative social bias regarding their appointment to board committee [34]. To put it another way, female directors are breaking away from the “old boys club” and presenting a more independent point of view [2, 19]. This could also imply that firms with a high proportion of female directors have less conflict of interest between shareholders and managers, and the board is more likely to make decisions that benefit the firm in the long run.
Other researchers employ stereotypes concept to explain why different genders of directors behave and make decision differently. Stereotyping is a cognitive process in which a characteristic is associated with a group [35]. It is not an abnormality in human social behaviors and values because it is simply human nature to form opinions about other people and their actions based on our understanding and expectations of ourselves. For instance, the literature on gender stereotype often associated female with complex moral reasoning ability, risk-averse, empathy, caring, kindness, and interpersonal sensitivity. Men, on the other hand, are said to have attribute with agentic qualities such as assertive, ambitious, aggressive, independent, self-confidence, daring and competitive [27, 28, 29, 36]. In this regard, men and women differ both psychologically and cognitively. Thus, female directors may result in a greater level of compassion and sensitivity to CSR and stakeholder concerns.
In short, if CSR generates long-term value for stakeholders without endangering people, the environment or the economy, and female directors have the potential to reduce agency costs, firms with a high level of gender diversity may be more likely to improve CSD and CSR performance for the long-term benefit of all stakeholders. [37].
Even though several researchers have used agency theory to explain the relationship between the gender diversity board and CSR, the theory appears to fall short of covering all aspects of this relationship. As previously stated, the agency cost theory employs social psychology concepts such as in-group bias and stereotype concept to support the logic underlying the possible positive relationship between female director and CSR. Likewise, Spitzeck [38] contends that the fact that companies are increasingly using CSR committees does not explain why they do so or how CSR governance structures might evolve, implying that the agency theory cannot fully explain the link between CSR and female directors. Similarly, Hussain [39] argued that no single theory fully accounts for all the hypothesized relationships.
Another important theory related to the arguments in favor of board gender diversity is the stakeholder theory. Though both agency and stakeholder theories advocate for the alignment of shareholder, stakeholder, and management interests, it is important to recognize that there are significant differences between the two theories. Unlike agency theory, stakeholder theory describes the composition of organizations as a group of different individual groups with diverse interests. These interests, when taken together, are a representation of the will of the firm. Business choices should take into account the interests of these collective groupings and also balance a multiplicity of stakeholders’ interests that can affect or are affected by the achievement of an organization’s objectives. Any disagreement between these groups reflects the loss of these interests. Therefore, the stakeholder engagement is crucially important for firms to justify the legitimacy of their operations [40]. Organizational legitimacy does not only ensure the inflow of capital, labor, and customers necessary for the company’s viability but also could reduce the likelihood of other disruptive actions [41].
Companies usually attempt to gain legitimacy by disclosing social and environmental verifiable data and information [15] and CSD is a strategy that businesses can use to respond to societal expectations [16] and gain legitimacy of the company’s activities in the eyes of stakeholders, who have a diverse expectation. It also signals to stakeholders that companies’ actions are appropriate and desirable [17]. In other words, CSD is part of the dialog between the company and its stakeholders as it provides information to stakeholders on the social and environmental impacts of corporate activities.
In recent year, CSR has become one of the major concerns for many companies and their managers. Gender equality and human rights are also two of the EU’s founding values and the United Nations’ guiding principles. Also, the corporate world’s efforts to re-premiumize have compelled many European countries to implement gender quotas on corporate boards. Consequently, CSR has become the center of interest for both internal and external stakeholders. Unsurprisingly, many firms would choose to reveal social and environmental verified facts and information in order to balance the interests of a variety of stakeholders.
According to stakeholder theory, female directors are more likely to assist the business in developing an orientation toward the interests of diverse stakeholders [42]. Female directors are more likely to oriented toward philanthropic causes and typically have experience in nonprofit industries, firm with greater gender diversity have been shown to give more to community service organizations and programs [43]. In a similar vein, female directors are more likely to enhance stakeholder management by providing firms with relevant knowledge to enhance their ability manage these interests [44]. For instance, examining a sample of FTSE 350 firms, Jizi [8] shows that female board representation has a positive impact on CSR engagement and reporting as well as on the development of ethical policies. Rather than fulfilling the traditional monitoring function to resolving conflicts of interest between management and shareholders, female directors are more likely to exercise their power in ways that benefit a broader variety of stakeholder interests.
Another strand of research has used upper echelon theory-UET [45, 46] to explain the relation between female directors and CSR. According to the upper echelon theory-UET [45, 46], each decision maker brings a cognitive base and values to a decision, creating a screen between the situation and his/her eventual perception of it [46]. Thus, the more these values are shared by top management, the more likely that the directors to have effective and efficient information-sharing, joint decision making, and collaboration in order to formulate and implement good strategies and other decisions, including those for developing effective firms’ environmental policy [47]. As mentioned earlier, female directors are said to possess a different set of psychological values and perceptions compared to their male counterparts. Female leaders are more likely to have a participative, democratic, and communal leadership style and more concerned about the environment. Accordingly, female directors may help boosting the firm’s value in terms of environmental protection.
Likewise, a gender difference perspective can be deeply embedded in gender socialization theory, which states that socialization encourages and rewards different behaviors in men and women: individualistic and competitive behaviors in men versus cooperative and altruistic behaviors in women (for e.g. see [48, 49]). These diverse public roles and expectations give rise to career paths and leadership styles that differ depending on the gender of the leaders. As a result, women in leadership roles tend to take more participative and relationship development approaches, and they are more likely to pursue long-term strategies and stakeholder focused outcomes, which are critical to successful CSR practices [50, 51].
Given the theoretical justifications provided above, it is evident that female directors play an essential role in implementing CSR into a company’s strategic objective. Nevertheless, no single theory fully explains for all the relationships. Indeed, the majority of ideas in favor of female directors are predicated on the premise of psychology idea that female directors have higher moral and communal attitudes than male directors. As a result, female directors are more concerned with CSR and are more likely to launch CSR initiatives. However, facts might not always imply truth. The board decision is much more about individual traits. For instance, in recent qualitative study has revealed that, while female directors are highly impacted by their psychological perceptions that are aligned with CSR, a number of hurdles have been discovered for female directors to properly participate [52]. It is also argued that female executives must act like men in order to succeed. Female directors, in contrast to the female stereotype for the population, are more risk-taking than their male counterparts [4]. Furthermore, the preceding theories do not include the environmental context, which could be the important determinant of the relationship. For instance, in some countries, a female director’s ability to influence on corporate strategy may be limited due to stereotyping challenges and culture. In short, the benefit of female director is prevalence in some extend, nonetheless the future investigations still needed.
In this stance, as part of corporate strategy, the board of directors play preliminary role in determining the socially responsible behavior of an organization [5, 53, 54], being relevant to this role of the fulfillment of social and environmental conscientiousness [55, 56].
A large and growing body of literature has investigated on the relationship between female director and CSR. However, the results are mixed (for review paper see [5]). Some studies argue that higher representation of female directors is associated with stronger CSR (for e.g. see [6, 7]), while others do not support such a relationship [10]. A possible reason for the mixed findings is that female directors may differ in personal experiences and backgrounds (e.g. political connection), and consequently exert differential impacts on CSR. Aside from that, companies’ attitudes toward social and environmental concerns are multidimensional and impacted by a variety of other company and country-specific factors. Thus, in the following section, we shall analyze the link between a female director and CSR in several contexts.
In Saudi Arabia and Vatican City, women cannot vote, while in Yemen a woman is considered only half a witness and cannot leave her house without her husband’s permission. Women encounter different types of prejudice depending on where they live. According to the World Economic Forum in 2018, there are no laws against sexual harassment in school in 123 nations, and there are no laws prohibiting it in the workplace in 59 countries. Husbands have the legal power to forbid their wives from working in 18 nations, while women are barred from starting a firm in four nations. Thus, certain cultures have stronger gender roles than others, which affects general and organizational behavior in that community [57]. Furthermore, countries that prioritize feminine traits prioritize gender equality, encourage sympathy for the weak, and elect women to multiple leadership positions. Culture can create stereotypes of roles associated with gender that can affect female’s access to board [58]. To that end, if a woman currently leads a country that embodies feminine cultural norms, then by definition there is society wide support for policies that would benefit the public good. In turn, the woman leader should have more flexibility in the policies she can enact. So, one may believe that regional effect could be a possible explanation for the heterogeneity relationship between female participation on boards and CSR. Consistence with this notion, Seckin-Halac et al. [59] suggested that the impact of the board gender diversity on CSR is more prevalent in high gender-egalitarian societies where women are more involved in decision making. Likewise, in a study of 463 firms from 23 countries, Ringov and Zollo [60] suggested that companies based in more masculine countries, exhibit lower levels of social and environmental performance. Similarly, the recent research by Tapver [61] argues that a country’s masculinity-femininity is a variable that determines the association between CSD and female representation, which has previously been overlooked in CSR reporting literature. Shoham et al. [57], on the other hand, empirically examined data from 71 nations and observed that the presence of even one female director on the board positively encourage firms to become much more proactive in environmental sustainability, regardless of the local culture. This result highlights how individual women in powerful positions can make an organization-wide difference.
When women started to work in factories during WWII, they dispelled the idea that they could not perform the same labor as men. Despite a trend toward more equality, several nations continue to exclude women from specific industries. Manufacturing, agriculture, transportation, mining, construction, energy, and water are all examples of this. Some restrictions on when women are permitted to work are based on general safety concerns, while others are based on outdated legislation. Nevertheless, women are less likely to take positions of leadership in industries where their ability to act autonomously is limited. In another word, industry could be another important determinant in explaining the heterogeneity relationship between female boards and CSR. Indeed, there have been studies that showed support for the effects of contextual factors, such as industries, and relationship between gender diversity and CSR. For instance, Ciocirlan and Pettersson [62] show that companies employing more women and having a stronger European presence are more concerned about the climate change. This result suggested a possible moderating effect of contextual factor, such as certain industry characters under which firms are operating, on the relationship between gender diversity and climate change. In the same vein, Li et al. [47], using a sample of nonfinancial firms listed in the United States, found that the pollution creation likelihood (PCL) can have a significant effect on the relationship between gender diversity and firms’ environmental policy. Specially, the positive impact of gender diversity on environmental concerns seems to be stronger when environmental pollution is greater. Even so, Kyaw et al. [37] discovered that while the effect of gender diversity boards on CSR scores is not heterogeneous across industries, it is highly heterogeneous across countries.
Family businesses are those where the founders or family descendants are not only majority shareholders but also manage or sit on the board [63]. This gives them a great power over the company’s management and its decisions, and close involvement in day-to-day activities, together with unlimited access to information, which allows them much closer control over management processes and employees than in the case of non-family businesses [63]. Thus, the family’s intention regarding certain corporate, social, or family issues will shape business behavior and, as a result, affect business outcome. Some scholars have argued that family businesses are more likely to engage in social activities proactively because doing so preserves and enhances their nonfinancial preferences and socioemotional wealth (SEW) [64]. In another word, family managers and board members are usually more averse to the loss of SEW than to financial loss, an outlook that can significantly affect the strategic decisions taken by the firm (for meta-analysis see [65]). Consequently, directors from family businesses may be more committed to CSR and/or long-term sustainable projects, as these mechanisms are believed to facilitate the company’s subsequent transfer to future generations. Furthermore, these policy decisions improve the company’s image and reputation, which is an important aspect given the company is viewed as an extension and a mirror image of the family, and therefore as reflecting the fundamental values of the family members [66].
For female directors to have a real impact on a company’s decision making, they need to be perceived as equal, legitimate board members [67]. For example, in a family firm, women are believed to have immaterial qualities that facilitate family relationships and thus a more informal management style. So, in family business setting, it is reasonable to assume that these qualities will enhance role played by female directors. This notion is support by García-Sánchez et al. [68], who showed that the presence of women on the boards of family businesses encourages the adoption of CSR practices in the Latin American environment. Similarly, Cruz et al. [69] argued that positive relation between firm’s corporate social performance and the presence of women on family firm boards is primarily due to the presence of outsider nonfamily and insider family women directors.
While, some may argue that CSD and the strength of internal corporate governance, particularly the gender diversity board, are substitutes. Family businesses are less prone to information asymmetry [63], which leads to less opportunistic behavior [70]. As a result, control mechanisms such as voluntary information disclosure, such as CSR information, may not be necessary. Furthermore, female directors in family businesses are more likely to be affiliated to the management through family ties rather than their professional experience and knowledge, and therefore their independence is constrained [71]. Additionally, it has been reported that female directors who work in family businesses receive less consideration than their male relatives and that their work is usually underestimated [72]. Consistent with this logic, Rodríguez-Ariza et al. [73] argue that the role of female directors in promoting CSR practices could vary according to the nature of company ownership. Specifically, they suggest that female directors tend to act in accordance with family interests, putting aside their own skills, opinions, and ideas and strengthening or weakening their social responsibility orientation in accordance with the wishes of the family.
Similarly, prior research suggests that the impact of female directors on CSR may differ depending on ownership structure. Because concentrated ownership is an effective monitoring mechanism in and of itself, the need for transparency through high-quality auditing and assurance engagement is less of an issue in such firms. Buertey’s [74] empirical evidence backs up this claim. They discovered that concentrated ownership has a significant moderating effect on the relationship between board gender diversity and CSR assurance. Likewise, firms with a high level of state ownership constitutes a strong pressure on corporate executives to implement CSR, which weakens the power of female directors’ personal ideologies and preferences over CSR [75].
Prior literature often assume that female directors are more socially oriented than their male counterparts, thereby turning the boardroom to be more socially oriented [44]. Wang et al. [75] argued that female directors may differ in social orientation due to their past experience and that political connection is an important personal factor that shapes an individual’s social orientation. Government exists to promote social welfare and stability. This ideology is likely to permeate an individual’s values, making a politically connected person highly socially oriented. Therefore, they argued that the impact of politically connected female directors on CSR should further differ across situations. Specifically, they found the politically connected female directors are more socially oriented than politically disconnected female directors and consequently have a stronger positive effect on CSR.
Similarly, some researchers focus on characteristics of directors. For instance, del Mar Alonso-Almeida et al. [76] examined the differences in attitudes toward the various dimensions of CSR, with a focus on the perspectives of women in top management positions in Spain. Although they were unable to find a link between professional background and CSR, they did discover a link between women’s educational level and CSR awareness. Whereas some may argue that personalities, abilities, network, and business expertise can influence women’s views about CSR. Ramon-Llorens [77] classified female directors into three main categories namely, industry experts, advisors, and community leaders, and found that companies characterized by female directors with technical expertise are effective at pursuing CSD strategies. Whereas, female directors with political and social connections reduce CSR transparency. These findings underline the fact that gender diversity could have a two-sided character, with diverse behavior among female directors based on their expertise and backgrounds.
When women attained 20% of the Senate vote, they went after the Pentagon to modify the military’s sexual-assault procedure. When they reached 25% of Hollywood producers, they were able to bring down Harvey Weinstein and his casting-couch culture. When they reached one-third of the White House press corps, Fox News’ Roger Ailes, NPR’s Michael Oreskes, and other chronic harassers in the media were called out. Things start to alter somewhere around that range, when women make up 20–30% of a given institution. According to critical mass theory based on Kanter [78]‘s work, only when a company’s board of directors reaches a critical mass or threshold, women will be able to provide unique perspectives, ability, and skills and hence positively influence group culture and performance. Some of empirical results also show that an absolute number of at least three female directors participate on board is necessary before significant power can be exercised over board activities and significantly affect the dynamics and processes inside the board [21, 30]. Besides, unless a critical mass of at least three women is present on a board, female presence on boards appears to have little impact on governance performance [30]. Along the same line, Post et al., [7] demonstrated that boards with three or more female directors demonstrate more firm environmental corporate social responsibility (ECSR), as measured by Kinder, Lydenberg, Domini (KLD) ratings in the environmental strength’s areas, because individuals in the associated groups have more information about and favorable attitudes toward environmental issues than male directors. Likewise, Liu [79] discovered that female CEOs are related with lower environmental lawsuits only in enterprises with low female board participation; in firms run by male CEOs, a larger association between the number of female directors and lower litigation frequency is detected. Using both qualitative and quantitative data on multination dataset, Shoham et al. [57] observed that when the board has at least three women directors, the probability that the organization reports its attitudes and behavior regarding environmental sustainability is about two times higher than an organization with fewer than three women on the board. In addition, there is evidence that the presence of a critical mass of female directors resulted in enhanced CSD by corporations in a sample of nonfinancial organizations listed in Spain [80].
Nonetheless, some say that variety is not only about the numbers but also about the relative power and prestige of social groupings that extends to their members [81]. For instance, Board A, with four female and six male directors, and Board B, with four male and six female directors, are regarded identical, as indicated by an index of dissimilarity. However, because female and male directors have differing access to firm information, as a result, Boards A and B are most likely extremely distinct and will make very different judgments. Hence, though the critical mass may be important for female directors to have influence on the board, the relative and prestige of female directors’ influence on the board is also important.
There is clearly a pressing need for research that could help to explain the inconsistent findings observed across previous studies of the relationship between female directors and CSR, especially under various economic conditions and multi-country studies to supplement the existing literatures.
People seek to find any positive narrative to latch onto during times of crisis in order to offer some feeling of normalcy to their odd reality. As COVID-19 has grown internationally, we have been able to compare how various leaders have handled the problem—and their actions appear to be a solid link in how things have turned out for those nations run by women at the moment. Various media, such as the New York Times, Forbes, Vox, the Harvard Business Review, Stanford Medicine, and NBC News, published articles supporting this narrative, suggesting that countries led by women have fared better than those led by men in pandemic management. For instance, San Francisco’s mayor London Breed, the first black women to ever hold that office, took action days before governor of California and the mayor of Los Angles (both men). Similarly, New Zealand’s Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern has been praised for prompt in implementing restrictive measures early on, resulting in limited contagion and a much shorter lockdown than neighboring countries. A recent release article also suggest female-led governments were more effective and rapid at flattening the epidemic’s curve, with peaks in daily deaths roughly six times lower than in countries ruled by men. However, one may argue this narrative is based on sample section bias. Therefore, this could be a good opportunity for researchers to investigate the impact of COVID on the relationship between gender equality and sustainability, particularly CSR. For instance, how do gender equality friendly policy affect firm’s CSR during COVID? In addition, the researcher may explore the association between female directors’ qualities, such as education, social network, and political connections, and CSR before and after the pandemic.
Gender, on the other hand, is much more than biological differences between men and women. It refers to men’s and women’s socially created features, such as standards, attitudes, and roles that society believes appropriate for men and women. It varies from society to society and may be change overtime. Thus, it would be interesting to invest more on how gender rather than sex (i.e. male or female) impact the CSR decision.
Despite the fact that the majority of prior literatures employed quantitative methods, more rigorous qualitative investigations might be an alternate technique to acquire a deeper understanding of the relationship. Furthermore, the qualitative method may validate the female-CSR literature’s fundamental assumption that female directors have greater moral and communal attitudes than male directors.
Lastly, a previous research has theorized about the impact of female director on CSR, mostly based on a literature on gender variations in moral and community attitudes. Yet, it is also possible that other variation such as reputation and network could play a moderate role in the effects of female directors on CSR.
The recent crisis highlighted not just the inherent issues with quick-return investments, but also underscored the importance of a long-term investment perspective. Growing business pressure, along with corporations’ desire to do better in terms of ethical and CSR, has propelled the topic to the top of board agendas.
Prior research suggests the presence of gender-inclusive leadership is associated with higher levels of charitable giving and increased CSR, as well as growth in other aspects of CSR, such as environmental CSR. Female leaders are more likely to be participatory, democratic, and communal in their leadership style, as well as more concerned about the environment. As a result, female directors may contribute to the firm’s value in terms of environmental protection. Simultaneously, board gender diversity sends a favorable signal to stakeholders that the firm values social diversity in its governance (for e.g. see [18, 25, 26]). In addition, board diversity is likely to improve stakeholder management by influencing organizational goals, emphasizing the interests of a diverse range of stakeholders and providing organizations with appropriate expertise to help them manage these interests [44]. In short, the presence of female director enhances CSR.
Nevertheless, some researchers do not support such a relationship [10]. A potential explanation for this inconsistent viewpoint is that not all female directors produce a homogeneous effect among the CSR dimensions. Female directors’ influence on CSR may also be affected by culture [59, 60], industries [47, 62], ownership structure [68, 69, 73] and director’s specific characters [75, 76]. Lastly, some researchers also suggest that at least three female directors must participate on board is necessary before sufficient authority may be exerted over board activities and significantly alter board dynamics and procedures [21, 30].
In short, the chapter emphasizes the importance of gender equality, particularly in positions of female leadership. Active participation and decision making by women in the business world is critical for firms’ long-term success and CSR, which is the primary driver of sustainability. The hurdles to women’s participation in leadership roles and board membership remain. The benefits of female directors are more prevalence when abilities, skills, and viewpoints of women are welcomed and valued in the boardroom. Nonetheless, while it is critical for corporations to increase gender equality by nominating more female directors, policymakers, and organizations must also consider the quality of potential female board members as well as the environmental context in which businesses operate.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. 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He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. 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Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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