Calculated bit rate from power obtained by characteristic diffusion length and effective diffusion length for two different Ku band filters.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6972",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Soybean for Human Consumption and Animal Feed",title:"Soybean for Human Consumption and Animal Feed",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Soybean is the main oilseed crop worldwide, a staple crop for protein-rich food and feed as well as a significant source of nutraceutical compounds with many different medical benefits. Soybean for Human Consumption and Animal Feed highlights the state of research in soybean nutritional attributes as well as science-based approaches defining the future of soybean for human consumption and animal feed. Over seven chapters, this book presents a comprehensive picture of the potential of soybean for human and animal diets and health as well as quality stock for pharmaceutical and functional food industries with an emphasis on the importance of genetic improvement of soybean germplasm in enhancing healthy and safe properties of final soy products.",isbn:"978-1-83881-019-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-018-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-020-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73719",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"soybean-for-human-consumption-and-animal-feed",numberOfPages:160,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4bc6f95dc8630c9a8be84bb46286c445",bookSignature:"Aleksandra Sudarić",publishedDate:"December 2nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6972.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5221,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:47,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 5th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 25th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 23rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 13th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 12th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"21485",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sudarić",slug:"aleksandra-sudaric",fullName:"Aleksandra Sudarić",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/21485/images/system/21485.jpg",biography:"Dr. Aleksandra Sudarić was born in Osijek, Croatia. She received an MSc in Plant Genetics and Breeding in 1996 from the University of Zagreb and a PhD in Plant Breeding in 1999 from the University of Osijek. Dr. Sudarić is a senior research scientist at the Agricultural Institute Osijek (Croatia), Department for Breeding and Genetics of Industrial Plants where she studies the breeding and seed production of soybean. She is presently coordinator of the soybean breeding program at the Institute. In addition, she completed the training for application of DNA-based marker technology at the University of Guelph in Guelph (Canada). Her main research interests are in the genetic improvement of quantity and quality characteristics of soybean and soybean adaptation to mega-environments. Dr. Sudarić has authored more than 100 papers (scientific, professional, and popular), several book chapters, books, and manuscripts about soybean as well as developed twenty-six soybean varieties.",institutionString:"Agricultural Institute Osijek",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Agricultural Institute Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"36",title:"Food Science",slug:"food-science"}],chapters:[{id:"73415",title:"Introductory Chapter: Soybean - Quality and Utilization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93942",slug:"introductory-chapter-soybean-quality-and-utilization",totalDownloads:525,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Aleksandra Sudarić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73415",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73415",authors:[{id:"21485",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",surname:"Sudarić",slug:"aleksandra-sudaric",fullName:"Aleksandra Sudarić"}],corrections:null},{id:"69396",title:"Soybean Amino Acids in Health, Genetics, and Evaluation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89497",slug:"soybean-amino-acids-in-health-genetics-and-evaluation",totalDownloads:1340,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Soybean is an important source of protein and amino acids for humans and livestock because of its well-balanced amino acid profile. This chapter outlines the strengths and weaknesses of soybean as a complete amino acid source as well as the relative importance of individual amino acids. Special attention is paid to the sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine. Breeding and genetic engineering efforts are summarized to highlight previous accomplishments in amino acid improvement and potential avenues for future research. Agronomic properties and processing methods that affect amino acid levels in soybean food and feed are also explained. A brief introduction into current amino acid evaluation techniques is provided. By understanding the complexities of amino acids in soybean, protein quality for humans and livestock can be maximized.",signatures:"William Monte Singer, Bo Zhang, M.A. Rouf Mian and Haibo Huang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69396",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69396",authors:[{id:"308970",title:"Mr.",name:"William",surname:"Singer",slug:"william-singer",fullName:"William Singer"},{id:"309005",title:"Dr.",name:"Bo",surname:"Zhang",slug:"bo-zhang",fullName:"Bo Zhang"},{id:"310776",title:"Dr.",name:"M.A. Rouf",surname:"Mian",slug:"m.a.-rouf-mian",fullName:"M.A. Rouf Mian"},{id:"310777",title:"Dr.",name:"Haibo",surname:"Huang",slug:"haibo-huang",fullName:"Haibo Huang"}],corrections:null},{id:"69807",title:"Improving Seed Quality of Soybean Suitable for Growing in Europe",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89922",slug:"improving-seed-quality-of-soybean-suitable-for-growing-in-europe",totalDownloads:990,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The potential of soybean for food, feed, and pharmaceutical industry arises from the composition of its seed. Since European countries import 95% of the annual demand for soybean grains, meal, and oil, causing an enormous trade deficit, the governments in Europe had started to introduce additional incentives to stimulate soybean cropping. To rebalance the sources of soybean supply in the future, production must be followed by continuous research to create varieties that would make European soybean more appealing to the processing industry and profitable enough to satisfy European farmers. This chapter is giving an overview of the European soybean seed quality research and an insight into soybean seed quality progress made at the Agricultural Institute Osijek, Croatia. The studies presented are mainly considering maturity groups suitable for growing in almost all European regions. The most important traits of soybean seed quality discussed are protein content and amino acid composition, oil content and fatty acid composition, soluble sugars, and isoflavones. Defining quality traits facilitates the parental selection in breeding programs aiming to improve the added value properties of final soybean products and enables the exchange of materials between different breeding and research institutions to introduce diversity, which is a prerequisite for genetic advance.",signatures:"Aleksandra Sudarić, Maja Matoša Kočar, Tomislav Duvnjak, Zvonimir Zdunić and Antonela Markulj Kulundžić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69807",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69807",authors:[{id:"21485",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",surname:"Sudarić",slug:"aleksandra-sudaric",fullName:"Aleksandra Sudarić"},{id:"311324",title:"Dr.",name:"Maja",surname:"Matoša Kočar",slug:"maja-matosa-kocar",fullName:"Maja Matoša Kočar"},{id:"311331",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomislav",surname:"Duvnjak",slug:"tomislav-duvnjak",fullName:"Tomislav Duvnjak"},{id:"311332",title:"Dr.",name:"Zvonimir",surname:"Zdunić",slug:"zvonimir-zdunic",fullName:"Zvonimir Zdunić"},{id:"311333",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonela",surname:"Markulj Kulundžić",slug:"antonela-markulj-kulundzic",fullName:"Antonela Markulj Kulundžić"}],corrections:null},{id:"72688",title:"Respiratory Health Risks from Exposure to Dust from Soybean and Its Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92839",slug:"respiratory-health-risks-from-exposure-to-dust-from-soybean-and-its-products",totalDownloads:755,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Soybean and its processed forms have become an increasingly important part of agriculture, where they are widely used as an animal feedstuff and in an extensive range of human food products. This entails transportation from producer countries, largely the USA and South America, to importer destinations such as the EU and China. Soya is recognised as a dietary allergen, containing a number of identified allergenic proteins. Inhaled soya dust generated by occupational activities also causes respiratory health problems. Reports of “asthma epidemics” in harbour cities identified ill health in the community but were related to occupational activities of unloading/loading bulk soya without appropriate dust control measures. Inhaled allergens in already-sensitised individuals can cause a range of allergic symptoms in the eyes, nose, and respiratory tract, including occupational asthma (OA). Soybean dust can also cause health problems related to lung irritancy. Endotoxin and fungal contamination associated with soya are also potential respiratory hazards. This chapter reviews published data on ill health and symptoms from airborne exposure to allergens in dust from soybean and derivative products and the levels of exposure to dust and major allergens from a range of occupational activities. Other potential health hazards associated with soybean, such as endotoxin and fungal contamination, are also highlighted.",signatures:"Howard J. Mason",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72688",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72688",authors:[{id:"317237",title:"Dr.",name:"Howard",surname:"Mason",slug:"howard-mason",fullName:"Howard Mason"}],corrections:null},{id:"72429",title:"The Potential Impacts of Soy Protein on Fish Gut Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92695",slug:"the-potential-impacts-of-soy-protein-on-fish-gut-health",totalDownloads:592,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Soy protein is the major source of protein as fishmeal replacement in fish feed because of its worldwide availability and low price. However, the presence of high carbohydrate content along with saponins, lectins, and phytates can have a negative impact on fish gut health. Based on the literature and our lab studies, dietary soybean meal can cause a dose-dependent type of distal intestine inflammation called enteritis in commercial fish species including salmonids. This leads to reduced absorptive capacity, increased mucus secretion, hyperpermeability, and leucocyte infiltration in the lamina propria and submucosa, also inducing the pro-inflammatory cytokine genes expression, including Il-1β, Il-8, and Tnf-α. In addition, dietary soy may alter the composition and population of the gut microbiota via providing nutrients and energy that preferentially support the growth of some gut bacteria. This chapter summarizes the current knowledge of the effects of soy protein on the enteritis and gut microbiota.",signatures:"Vikas Kumar, Md. Sakhawat Hossain, Janice A. Ragaza and Marina Rubio Benito",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72429",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72429",authors:[{id:"310392",title:"Prof.",name:"Vikas",surname:"Kumar",slug:"vikas-kumar",fullName:"Vikas Kumar"},{id:"310393",title:"MSc.",name:"Marina",surname:"Benito",slug:"marina-benito",fullName:"Marina Benito"},{id:"318034",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Sakhawat",surname:"Hossain",slug:"md.-sakhawat-hossain",fullName:"Md. Sakhawat Hossain"},{id:"318035",title:"Dr.",name:"Janice",surname:"Ragaza",slug:"janice-ragaza",fullName:"Janice Ragaza"}],corrections:null},{id:"68701",title:"Nondestructive Evaluation of Inoculation Effects of AMF and Bradyrhizobium japonicum on Soybean under Drought Stress From Reflectance Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88673",slug:"nondestructive-evaluation-of-inoculation-effects-of-amf-and-em-bradyrhizobium-japonicum-em-on-soybea",totalDownloads:574,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Precise estimation of leaf chlorophyll content (LCC) and leaf water content (LWC) of soybean, using remote sensing technology, provides a new avenue for the nondestructive evaluation of inoculation effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and Bradyrhizobium japonicum (BJ) on soybean growth condition. In this study, a series of pot experiments were conducted in the greenhouse, soybean inoculated with Glomus intraradices (G.i, one of AMF species), G.i and BJ, and non-inoculation were planted under drought stress (DS) and normal irrigation (NI) conditions. Leaf spectra and LCC and LWC were measured on the 28th and 56th days after inoculation. Two new simple ratio (SR) indices, derived from the first derivative spectral reflectance at λ1 nm (Dλ1) and the raw spectral reflectance at λ2 nm (Rλ2), were developed to estimate LCC and LWC. The results indicate that under DS, plants inoculated with G.i had higher LCC and LWC than the non-inoculated plants, followed by the counterparts co-inoculated with G.i and BJ. Linear estimation models, established by the D650/Rred edge and D1680/R680, achieved great improved accuracy for quantifying LCC and LWC of soybean under inoculation and drought stress treatments, with determination of coefficient of 0.63 and 0.76, respectively.",signatures:"Weiping Kong, Yinli Bi, Wenjiang Huang, Lingli Tang, Chuanrong Li and Lingling Ma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68701",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68701",authors:[{id:"247987",title:"Prof.",name:"Wenjiang",surname:"Huang",slug:"wenjiang-huang",fullName:"Wenjiang Huang"},{id:"250651",title:"Dr.",name:"Weiping",surname:"Kong",slug:"weiping-kong",fullName:"Weiping Kong"},{id:"308543",title:"Dr.",name:"Yinli",surname:"Bi",slug:"yinli-bi",fullName:"Yinli Bi"}],corrections:null},{id:"73649",title:"Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) Production in the Cameroonian Cotton Basin between the Dynamics of Structuring an Agricultural Value Chain and Sustainability Issues",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93981",slug:"soybean-em-glycine-max-em-em-l-em-em-merr-em-production-in-the-cameroonian-cotton-basin-between-the-",totalDownloads:448,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over the past ten years, the Cameroonian cotton front, in the Sudano-Sahelian region, has experienced dynamics in soybean production, resulting in significant changes in agro-systems. From a simple hut culture not referenced in regional agricultural statistics, since 2010, soybean ranks 2nd in legumes cultivated after peanuts, followed by cowpea and voandzou, yet culturally and economically more adopted by the populations. The rapid development of cultivated areas from 6,705 ha in 2008 to 15,020 ha in 2018 is indicative of the enthusiasm shown by farmers for this speculation which, despite the almost lack of supervision on the part of public authorities, now structures a real value chain with challenges for improving farmers’ incomes, in a space where more than 80% of working people live from agricultural activities. The objective of this research is therefore to analyse the sustainability challenges of a productive and market dynamics built around speculation subject to strong demands of international competitiveness. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61194",title:"Mathematical Analysis of Electrical Breakdown Effects in Waveguides",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76973",slug:"mathematical-analysis-of-electrical-breakdown-effects-in-waveguides",body:'\nTraffic capacity in a high-frequency scenario where waveguides are involved is generally limited by two main factors: bandwidth and input power [1]. In cases where the atmospheric pressure is a factor, such as satellite communications, the maximum input power of the signal is determined by several factors, among which are the geometry of the device, the collision frequency of the molecules and free electrons and the intrinsic characteristics of the propagating medium itself, that is, air or nitrogen [2].
\nWaveguides are conductor hollow tubes, generally consisting of a circular, elliptical, or rectangular cross-section. The cross-section dimensions are chosen by designers in such a way that electromagnetic waves propagate inside the guide. A waveguide can have several shapes and sizes, and frequently its performance is a function of the radiofrequency (RF) routing signals; this means that the way the wave is propagating inside the guide. Rectangular waveguides are the most commonly used; this is because they are easily fabricated, they have a very broad bandwidth and they present low losses within their operating frequencies [3].
\nRectangular waveguides operate only in certain frequency bands, depending on the cross-section dimensions. Waveguide geometry determines the highest operating wavelength, this means, higher waveguide sizes operate at lower frequencies.
\nWaveguide filters are responsible of eliminating unwanted radiations and interferences in a communication scheme. These devices are also hollow conductor tubes, made generally of aluminium, with the difference that inside them are distance variations or obstructions that generate the wanted filtering effect. Figure 1 shows different types of waveguide filters.
\n(a) Coupled iris filter, (b) corrugated waveguide filter, (c) waffle iron filter, (d) posts filter, and (e) guarded waveguide filter.
The reason waveguide filters are analysed in terms of breakdown power is because this device is with the shortest cross-section of all the communications system, reaching even distances of 1 mm. In these sections, electric field density can be so high that it leads to electrical breakdown, rendering the components useless. Figure 2 shows a low-pass corrugated filter after breakdown has occurred [4].
\nLow-pass corrugated filter after breakdown has occurred, as reported in [
The continuous miniaturization tendency in electronic devices and the increasing demand of services lead to higher component integration. In a transponder system, passive components are allocated, such as filters and waveguides, where, due to the used power, high densities of electric field are reached, presenting mainly the corona and multipactor effects [5]. High-performance RF filters are widely used in communications systems, where it is necessary to know its capabilities for input power handling. Since increasing the power levels is the simpler way to impulse the reach of the system and its capability for data transmission, the design for the high-power operation filters must consider the next effects: electrical breakdown by ionization (corona effect), multipactor effect and passive intermodulation interferences (PIM).
\nMultipactor is a breakdown mechanism in vacuum, in which a resonant increase of free-electron space charge develops between two surfaces. The applied field intensity is such that the electrons collide at ultra-high speeds against the walls of the device, causing the continuous release of secondary electrons in the medium and leading to a breakdown. However, this is not the critical stage for design implications.
\nIonization breakdown is a phenomenon that occurs in gases where the normally low electron density increases in a way similar to an avalanche, turning the isolating gas into conducting plasma; this happens at higher pressures than multipactor. In satellite communications, breakdown analysis must be considered for the components located on Earth and for the ones destined for space operations, since the RF components that are designed to operate in space must be tested frequently on Earth at their highest power and are fully operational during the launching stage for telemetry purposes. This is the reason the analysis is made for low-pressure applications.
\nWaveguide breakdown analysis follows the next three stages: breakdown threshold determination, circuit and field analysis to determine the maximum voltage or field values and comparison of the experimental worst case with breakdown threshold.
\nAir ionization is caused because of the electrons’ impact against air molecules. These electrons are accelerated by an RF field. If the energy level (provided by the RF field) is enough to cause ionization of neutral molecules, and the free electron total created by ionization exceeds the total losses of electrons due to attachment and recombination, the exponential growth of the electron density generates electron plasma and, eventually, leads to breakdown.
\nIn low pressures, particles have a higher mean free path. Eventually, the mean free path increases until it reaches
This chapter covers the ionization breakdown in atmospheric air analysis; the equations that describe this consider different processes, such as the ionization, attachment and collision frequencies. Also, the analysis considers as variables the atmospheric pressure and electric field intensity, considering contaminant-free dry air as the propagating medium. Nevertheless, due to the breakdown variability, the design of filters and waveguides is a controversial topic for designers, who consider a wide tolerance range from 0 dB to 3 dB according to minimum breakdown power [4, 5].
\nCorona breakdown is the process when electron plasma is created due to the ionization of the gas in areas where the electrical fields are high. Electrical fields in filters and waveguides can lead to corona effects at relatively low pressures (from 1 to 100 Torr), which, in atmospheric terms, are reached in the ionosphere (from 80 to 800 km). This phenomenon cannot occur in vacuum conditions, since it is necessary for the presence of a gas to ionize [4].
\nThere are different processes that can generate ions; these are by electronic impact, field effect, photo-ionization and thermos-ionization. For the analysis of filters and waveguides, the most relevant is by electronic impact, being directly proportional to the collision frequency between electrons and molecules. The equation that describes the time evolution of free-electron generation is [4, 6, 7, 8]:
\nwhere \n
For the corona effect analysis and from the pre-breakdown stage point of view, the recombination term is discarded, since it is only relevant once the electron density is high enough, which only occurs when the electrical discharge has already begun. Also, the convective term has to be discarded, since a stationary medium is assumed inside the waveguide devices, that is, there is no relevant movement of the gas molecules. Additionally, the diffusion coefficient is considered as space independent, since it is electric field independent [4]. The simplified equation is:
\nBreakdown criteria are based on the fact that the electron density grows very fast once there are more freed electrons than captured. Considering a scenario where there is no diffusion, and a homogeneous field, due to the similar geometry among the parallel walls of the filter and waveguides. Then, Eq. (2) results in:
\nand solving the derivative results in:
\nWhen \n
As a consequence, the general equation to solve the breakdown threshold stage is:
\nSolving the Laplacian term from Eq. (6), and considering a Cartesian coordinate system, since the devices analysed are rectangular waveguides and filters, the equation leads to:
\nwhere \n
Establishing the solution as the product of two functions:
\nSubstituting (9) in (8), knowing that the equation components are independent between them, it results in:
and dividing by (9) we get:
\nThis equation can be solved by proposing exponential solutions. Due to the independency among terms, the first term can be solved proposing a negative constant as a result:
\nAn exponential solution for (12) is proposed and derived twice:
\nSubstituting (13) and (14) in (12), we get:
\nIt can be determined that:
\nSo, the general equation for \n
By Euler, Eq. (17) can be rewritten as:
\nConsidering the next border conditions, since there are no free electrons on the walls of the waveguide:
\nwhere \n
The only possibility for a non-trivial solution is: \n
This analysis considers the first harmonic. Then, Eq. (8) results in:
\nwhere \n
This proves that diffusion processes are entirely dependent on the geometry. If one of the dimensions is much bigger than the other, as in a parallel plates experiment, the characteristic diffusion length is \n
Nevertheless, a more realistic approach implies the presence of non-homogeneous fields, which renders the ionization frequency also non-homogeneous, and, consequently, the free electron density is also affected. To characterize diffusion losses in these situations, the concept of effective diffusion length is described by Ulf Jordan et al. [9].
\nFor homogeneous values of \n
The inhomogeneity of these parameters occurs because of the inhomogeneity of the microwave electric field, which implies that \n
Ulf Jordan et al. [9] determined that the diffusion length in the presence of non-homogeneous fields also depends on the atmospheric pressure, as shown in Eq. (23). This equation was obtained using computational methods:
\nwhere
\n\n\n
Consequently, as the pressure increases, the effective diffusion length decreases, and the calculated breakdown thresholds are the same as the ones obtained by using the characteristic diffusion length.
\nWhen a microwave field is applied, the energy transfer depends on the field’s frequency and the environmental conditions (atmospheric pressure and humidity). An effective electric field is defined as [8]:
\nwhere \n
\n\n
The diffusion coefficient in air is determined by [8]:
\nThe ionization frequency can be obtained by [6]:
\nwith
\n\n\n
\n\n
The three-body attachment is field independent and is obtained as follows [4]:
\nFor electrostatic homogeneous fields:
\nwhere \n
\n\n
\n\n
Commonly, the analytical results obtained by using the characteristic diffusion length are considerably lower than the experimental results at the critical pressure; this minimum power breakdown is known as Paschen minimum. Figure 3 shows the experimental values obtained by Carlos et al. [4] compared to the analytical results using the characteristic diffusion length, for a low-pass Ku band filter at 12.5 GHz. The experimental and analytical results differ by 16%.
\nLow-pass Ku band filter operating at 12.5 GHz [
The results shown imply that it is necessary to consider the inhomogeneity of the electric fields, not due to geometry but due to the diffusion process that occurs at low pressures [12]. Then, instead of using the characteristic diffusion length, the effective diffusion length is used. Figure 4 shows the experimental and analytical results using the characteristic diffusion length compared to the analytical results using the effective diffusion length for the same low-pass filter.
\nExperimental and analytical results using
Figure 5 shows another result comparison but for a corrugated waveguide filter operating at 12.2 GHz.
\nExperimental and analytical results using
Figures 4 and 5 show a slight increase in breakdown power, proving that the effective diffusion length from Eq. (23) is a more suitable equation for the cases of waveguide devices where the field inhomogeneity is greater.
\nThese results can be explained because microwave breakdown in an RF device is manifested by an avalanche-like growth in time of the free-electron density in the gas filling the device. The difference between these power threshold results resides not only in their operating frequency but in their geometries and the number of irregularities the filter contains. A bigger amount of irregularities, or irises (steps that help in the filtering process), contributes to generating more inhomogeneity on the electric field.
\nFigure 6 shows the transversal configuration and measures of each filter [4].
\nTransversal configuration of waveguide filters. (a) Operating at 12.2 GHz. (b) Operating at 12.5 GHz [
For the analysis of each filter, the minimum length located in the middle is considered.
\nThe filter operating at 12.5 GHz is affected by the electric field inhomogeneity more than the other because of its high number of irises. Predicting mathematically the breakdown threshold of a device with high amount of irregularities, such as Figure 6 (b), requires modifications to the equations, more specifically, the use of an effective field-dependent collision frequency equation. The large number of irises generates a much higher space charge density than for a conventional obstruction-free waveguide. Further analysis of space charge density and the correct equations for these cases are considered in Section 6.
\nAccording to Witting [13], the transmission capacity of a communication network in terms of the number of users, power and data rate is:
\nwhere \n
Analysed filter | \n\n | Minimum breakdown power [W] | \nData rate [Gb/s] | \n
---|---|---|---|
12.2 GHz | \n\n\n | \n83.5 | \n4175 | \n
\n\n | \n86.1 | \n4305 | \n|
12.5 GHz | \n\n\n | \n97.2 | \n4860 | \n
\n\n | \n101.4 | \n5070 | \n
Calculated bit rate from power obtained by characteristic diffusion length and effective diffusion length for two different Ku band filters.
By using (35), the resulting increase on the bit rate of the filters, when using the effective diffusion length, is of 4.3% in the case of the 12.5 GHz low-pass filter and of 3.1% for the 12.2 GHz low-pass filter. Therefore, a small raise in the power, even of 3 or 4 W, is heavily reflected on the data rate and an increase of almost 200 Gbps is achieved.
\nThe microwave devices’ designers use the analytical solution of the corona discharge to determine if the operating power is within the established margins. As shown previously, the experimental results differ considerably from the analytical when the characteristic diffusion length is considered. It has been proved by some authors [2, 9, 12, 14] that the criteria used until now for the design of waveguide filters can be improved if the effective diffusion length is used instead of the characteristic diffusion length.
\nThe two main processes responsible for the electron losses during the breakdown stages are the diffusion from high-density regions towards lower-density regions and the attachment by neutral molecules, forming essentially negatively charged unmovable ions. For sufficiently enough electron density, at breakdown threshold, the region saturates and the electric field propagation is affected by its reflection or absorption in the device walls.
\nThe most important negative ions present in air are \n
The avalanche evolution can be affected by any agent that alters the space charge electronic density. Figure 7 shows the electric field \n
Schematic representation of electric field distortion in a gap caused by space charge of an electron avalanche [
The resultant field strength in front of the avalanche is thus (\n
According to the results exhibited in Figures 4 and 5, where the analytical values of the breakdown power are lower than the experimental ones, this is an indication that the avalanche is mainly affected by the presence of positively charged ions instead of the negatively charged ions. The radial field produced by positive ions immediately behind the head of the avalanche can be calculated using the expression from [16]:
\nwhere \n
The Townsend first ionization coefficient indicates the number of ions generated by the electron collision by length unity. Figure 8 shows the behaviour of \n
Applied electric breakdown
It can be appreciated that the influence of the positive ionic space charge field is greater as a function of the development in the space of the avalanche.
\nFor a more correct approach of the analytical results, Woo et al. [6] propose the collision frequency equation dependent on the reduced electric field as:
\nFigures 9 and 10 show the results of using this energy-dependent collision frequency equation and the effective diffusion length.
\nBreakdown power of a Ku band filter operating at 12.5 GHz using different collision frequency values.
Breakdown power of a Ku band filter operating at 12.2 GHz using different collision frequency values.
It is shown that considering the diffusion length and the electric field-dependent collision frequency altogether, the results are far more similar to the experimental results, proving this to be an important approach towards the experimental results.
\nAs minimal as these increases result, Table 1 shows the importance of power, and the regulations for the design of these devices can be increased in terms of input power tolerance.
\nAs the actual waveguide devices reach the technological limit, in terms of their data rate, it is necessary to develop new alternatives to overcome the continuously increasing demand of services [12]. By using encoding techniques, it is possible to send up to 16 bits of information per each Hertz sent [17]; the current Ku band analysed devices operate generally around 12.2 GHz, so the data rate is only of 195.2 Gbps. Much higher frequencies, such as those provided by optical communication, of about 350 THz, show a much promising environment, delivering up to 5600 Tbps.
\nOptical wireless communications demand different multiplexing and de-multiplexing techniques than traditional RF communication. For this, some proposals include a wavelength divisor multiplexer (WDM), this can be a polymer substrate mode for photonic interconnections and is used even for satellite communications [18]. This helps in a way that incoming signals are directly coupled with the system chip, leaving out any optical-electrical and electrical-optical conversions. This is a partial solution since the system needs power and wavelength management; for this, digital grating processors (DGPs) are implemented. There are many advantages that these photonic interconnections provide, among them are introducing a planar platform for space-saving purposes, efficiency against any external perturbation, low propagation losses, compatibility with other surface mount technologies and low cost. Nevertheless, DGPs are components that demand energy from the system to operate and generate interruptions in the transmission due to electronic processing. Other components can be responsible for the filtering of signals; as seen by Calva et al. [2], a plasmonic waveguide filter is a viable option.
\nSince the interconnection is very important, as the planar configuration of the devices, plasmonic waveguide filter proves a viable solution due to their capability of transfer information operating at different frequencies at the same time. Surface plasmons’ inherent properties permit the signal to travel at the speed of light and also transport electrical and optical signals simultaneously [19]. The disadvantage of using these devices is that electrical breakdown due to ionization phenomena can occur.
\nThese particular devices’ operating principle is based on the light capability to penetrate some materials; for metals this can be up to 30 nm deep, helping in the generation of surface plasmons, which are oscillating free electrons in a coherent state that generate at the interface between any two materials. In some cases, incident light couples with the surface plasmon to generate self-sustaining propagating electromagnetic waves; these are known as surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) [19]. A plasmonic waveguide filter example is shown in Figure 11; this is based on a metal–insulator–metal (MIM) structure [20].
\nTwo-channel plasmonic waveguide filter structure.
The configuration of these filters is formed by stacking nanometric waveguides of the same gap length. Multiple resonance modes are formed inside the devices; only the first and second mode can traverse through the next waveguides, the one in the middle of Figure 11 and the port 1 and 2 vertical waveguides. The SPPs travel through the principal plasmonic waveguide; resonance happens if the SPPs are enclosed in the middle cavity. This mid-section is very important, since its size is responsible for the filtering effect; modifications of its length alter the delivered wavelength through ports 1 and 2. A wide range of wavelengths can be covered by using these filters, from 500 to 10,000 nm. However, some optimal configurations have been suggested; for distances of \n
The analysis of electromagnetic waves through a surface already excited contemplates that the electrons are in a non-equilibrium state and that they are generated because of light absorption, not only due to collisions. The absorption can be linear or multiple, resulting in many non-equilibrium electrons; then, considering the diffusion effect, electron–electron collisions occur and there is an energy exchange between the photon-excited electrons and the non-equilibrium electrons. The evolution in time of the free-electron density generated by excited photons and electron–electron collisions is [22]:
\nwhere \n
According to Bhushan et al. [23], there is no two-photon absorption for the cases where the plasmon has an angular momentum of \n
Substituting \n
The lineal photonic absorption is obtained using the following [24]:
\nwhere \n
Wavelength \n | \nExtinction coefficient \n | \nAbsorption coefficient \n | \n
---|---|---|
575 | \n3.45 | \n7.54E + 05 | \n
850 | \n5.70 | \n8.43E + 05 | \n
1060 | \n7.33 | \n8.69E + 05 | \n
1310 | \n9.10 | \n8.73E + 05 | \n
1550 | \n10.60 | \n8.59E + 05 | \n
Experimental values for the extinction and linear photonic absorption coefficients.
The electron density in the electrical breakdown threshold is \n
Using these equations and the effective diffusion length, as discussed before, in (39) the power breakdown threshold of a plasmonic waveguide filter can be obtained. Figure 12 shows the power breakdown threshold of a plasmonic waveguide filter at different wavelengths.
\nPower breakdown threshold of a two-channel plasmonic waveguide filter at different wavelengths.
These extremely low power values are not a problem in the data transmission, according to Radek Kvicala et al. [26]; the optical communication systems are capable of receiving very low optical powers of about \n
The suggested modifications to the waveguide devices breakdown threshold analysis change the operating power in terms of the continuously increasing bandwidths and component integration. Increasing power handling in these devices by just a few watts have a considerable effect in the data rate, increasing its value, whereas avoiding the risk of breakdown to occur.
\nWaveguide designers use the free electrons in the time equation to obtain the lowest possible breakdown thresholds, which implies that homogeneous electric fields as a function of the geometry are considered. However, the presence of space charge inside the devices causes inhomogeneities in the electric field; therefore, it is important to determine the device structure for a correct analysis. When analysing a waveguide filter, the substructures inside it that generate the filtering effect, highly non-homogeneous areas are located. In these cases, the use of the effective diffusion length, along with the collision frequency equation that highly depends on the electric field, must be imperative for a correct approximation of the real values.
\nPlasmonic waveguide filters are a good proposal for the implementation of higher-frequency technologies. For wavelengths from 575 to 1500 nm, the power breakdown threshold is located between 0.1 and 0.4 Watts at 1 Torr atmospheric pressure. These power thresholds are sufficient for the electronic processing required in an optical environment, since optical systems are capable of fully operating while receiving very low power, \n
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a serious global health concern. Around two billion people have been infected with HBV worldwide, and more than 257 million people are currently living with hepatitis B virus infection [1]. There are an estimated 600,000 deaths annually from complications of HBV-related liver diseases [2]. The highest numbers of HBsAg carriers are found in developing countries with limited medical facilities. Endemicity levels of chronic HBV infection are classified as high (>8%), intermediate (2-8%), or low (<2%). Based on this classification, sub-Saharan African countries including Ethiopia are considered regions of high endemicity [1].
HBV infection can be prevented by using the HBV vaccine. HBV vaccine has been commercially avail- able since the 1980s. In 1991, WHO recommended the integration of the HBV vaccine into the national immunization programs and by the end of 2005, the vaccine coverage was 82.3% globally [3, 4]. Hepatitis B vaccine for infants had been introduced in 183 countries by the end of 2013. In 2007, almost all sub-Saharan African countries had Hepatitis B vaccination in their national program [5]. HBV vaccine was introduced into the Ethiopian Expanded Program of Immunization (EPI) in 2007 and national coverage had reached 86% by 2015 [6].
Immune response to the vaccine can be determined by measuring the concentration of antibodies against the HBsAg. Anti-HBs in vaccinated children decline with time, especially during the first few years of vaccination. Most children produce a high concentration of antibodies following vaccination; however, few children can have low or no response to the vaccine. The reason for this low or no response against the HBV vaccine is not well known. However, the site of injection and modes of administration are thought to be critical factors in achieving an optimal response [7]. Data on the level of immune responses against HBV vaccine in Ethiopia is very limited. This study was conducted to contribute to the base- line data needed for further monitoring of HBV vaccination effectiveness in Ethiopia and provides information on the level of immune responses against HBV vaccine among children in Addis Ababa.
The study was conducted in Addis Ababa, which is the capital city of Ethiopia from April 2016 to May 2017. A total number of 450 children (5-8 years old) were recruited.
A prospective cross-sectional study design was used. Healthy appearing 5-8 years old children were included in the study following their parents’ consent. Vaccination status was used to include and exclude participants.
The required samples size for this study was calculated using 50% of prevalence in vaccine response using the following formula:
where, n = sample size
q = 1 – p
p = proportion
Z = confidence interval.
Using confidence interval of 95%, Z =
The total number of the samples with 10% non- respondents should come to 424. However, just to be safe we collected 450 samples.
There was a structured questionnaire to collect all relevant information about the study participants. After the participant’s family agreed to take part in the study, they signed an in- formed consent form. 3-4 ml of blood sample was collected from each child and the serum was separated and stored at -20°C until further use.
Ethical clearance was obtained from the AHRI/ALERT Research Ethics Review Committee and the department of ethical research committee. A support letter was obtained from the Addis Ababa Health Bureau and from the health bureaus of each sub city. Written informed consent was obtained from each participant’s parent or guardian before enrollment.
SPSS Software statistical package version 20.0 was used to analyze the data. Association was determined by Chi-square test. P-values less than 0.05 were considered as statistically significant.
Serum level HBsAg, anti-HBc, and anti-HBsAg were determined using sandwich ELISA, where antigens/monoclonal antibodies were used both for capture and detection. All ELISA experiments were performed using BIO-RAD, Monolisa ELISA test kits, France. The test kits have a high sensitivity and specificity and each test procedure was undertaken according to the manufacturer’s instruction based on standard operating procedures.
The mean age of the study participants was 7 ± 1 (SD) years. Among these, 244 (54.2%) were male and 383 (85.1%) had been vaccinated. Forty-nine (10.9%) children had a history of infectious disease, fifteen (3.3%) had a history of noninfectious disease, while three (0.7%) were HIV positive (Table 1).
Characteristics | Categories | Number (n) | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|
Sex | Male | 204 | 54.2 |
Female | 206 | 45.8 | |
Age | 5 | 95 | 21.1 |
6 | 130 | 28.9 | |
7 | 124 | 27.6 | |
8 | 101 | 22.4 | |
Place of birth | Urban | 422 | 93.8 |
Rural | 28 | 6.2 | |
Sub city | Gulele | 45 | 10 |
Kirkos | 92 | 20.4 | |
Lideta | 313 | 69.5 | |
History of previous disease status | Yes | 66 | 14.7 |
No | 384 | 85.3 | |
Infectious | 49 | 10.9 | |
Disease type | Non Infectious | 15 | 3.3 |
Immunocompromised | 3 | 0.7 | |
None | 383 | 85.1 | |
Vaccination status | Vaccinated for HBV | 383 | 85.1 |
Non vaccinated for HBV | 67 | 14.9 |
Socio demographic characteristics of children between the age of 5 and 8 years old in Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
383 (85.1%) out of 450 children had received HBV vaccination, of which 99.2% (380/383) of them had received the complete three doses of the vaccination. Only two (0.8%) children among the vaccinated had taken just two doses of the vaccine. There was no one who took only a single dose of the vaccine. The proportion of girls vaccinated (86.9%) is slightly higher than of boys (83.6%) as tabulated in Table 2.
Vaccination status | Sex | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | Total | P value | |||
Frequency | % | Frequency | % | |||
Vaccinated | 204 | 83.6 | 179 | 86.9 | 383 | 0.33 |
Non-vaccinated | 40 | 16.4 | 27 | 13.1 | 67 | |
Total | 244 | 100 | 306 | 100 | 450 |
The coverage of hepatitis B vaccination among 5-8 year-old children in Addis Ababa.
Anti-HBsAg concentration > 10mIU/ml was observed in 214 (47.6%) children, six of whom were unvaccinated. Among the 383 vaccinated children, 208 (54.3%) had a protective level of antibody concentration (anti-HBsAg concentration of >10mIU/ml), while the remaining 47.3% did not. Among 67 unvaccinated children, 61 (91%) had anti HBsAg <10mIU/ml. From the three HIV infected participants, two of them were vaccinated. However, they did not have protective level antibody response (anti-HBsAg <10mIU/ml) (Figure 1).
Antibody response against hepatitis B vaccine in children between 5 and 8 years, Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
Anti-HBsAg concentration by age: A protective level antibody response against HBV vaccine was observed in 52.6%, 60%, 43.5% and 37.1% of children at the ages of 5, 6, 7, and 8, respectively. There was a significant association between age and the concentration of anti-HBsAg (p = 0.001). The levels of antibody concentration decreased as the age of the participant increased.
Seroprevalence of hepatitis B: From 450 children, only two (0.4%) were positive for HBsAg and 25 (5.6%) were positive for anti-HBc. 1 child (0.2%) was positive for both HBsAg and anti-HBc (Table 3). The two children who were positive for HBsAg were females, 5 years old, asymptomatic, and vaccinated for HBV.
Variables | Categories | Number (n) | Percent (%) | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | Male | 15(244) | 6.1 | 0.551 |
Female | 10(196) | 4.9 | ||
Vaccination status | Vaccinated | 10(383) | 2.6 | 0.000 |
Not vaccinated | 15(67) | 22.4 | ||
Age | 5 | 4(95) | 4.2 | 0.03 |
6 | 3(130) | 2.3 | ||
7 | 5(124) | 4.0 | ||
8 | 13(101) | 12.9 | ||
Previous disease status | Yes | 5(66) | 7.6 | 0.438 |
No | 20(384) | 5.2 |
Seroprevalence of anti-HBc in 5-8 years old children in Addis Ababa, 2016-2017.
Among anti-HBc positive children, 15 (6.1%) were male while 10 (4.9%) were female. There was no significant association between sex and anti-HBcAb (p = 0.551). Ten (2.6%) of anti-HBc positive children had received vaccination prior to this study. Among non-vaccinated children in this study, 15 (22.4%) were anti-HBc positive. There was a negative correlation between vaccination status and anti- HBc positivity (p = 0.000).
The seroprevalence of anti-HBc was 4.2%, 2.3%, 4% and 12.9% in 5, 6, 7 and 8 year old children, respectively. Age was significantly associated with anti- HBc seroprevalence (p = 0.03).
The primary goal of vaccination against HBV is to generate an effective antibody response against the virus. The efficacy of HBV vaccine has not been determined in Ethiopia since its introduction in 2007. HBV vaccine coverage rate observed (85.1%) in our study is comparable with the estimated (86%) national coverage reported in 2015 [6]. Evidence has shown that the immune response against the vaccine decreases with increasing age. Our study observed a similar association between age and immune response against HBV vaccine.
In this study, 54.3% of vaccinated children had protective antibody response, as well as was obtained with low seroprevalence of HBsAg and anti-HBc of 0.4% and 5.6%, respectively. This result is comparable with a study conducted in Yemen and in Iran, where 54.8% and 56.3% of the children had protective antibody responses, respectively [8, 9].
However, in other areas, higher proportions of children were reported with protective level antibody responses in comparison to our study. Studies con- ducted in different areas of Iran observed that 78% of 5-10 years old children [10], 84% of 5 to 7 years old children [11], and 87.6% of under 7 years old children [12] had a protective level antibody response against HBV. A study that was conducted in Spain also revealed that 85% of children at the age of seven had protective level antibody response to the vaccine [13]. The difference in these countries could be attributed to differences in dose, vaccine type, and vaccination route.
In contrast to our study, a lower proportion of children with protective level antibody responses were observed in other studies. For example, in a study conducted in Egypt, 39.3% of the children (6-12 years old) had protective level antibody responses [14]. In addition, in different areas of Iran, only 47.9% of 10-11 year old children [15], 48% of 7 to 9 year old children [16], and 30% of the 8 months to 15-year-old children [17] had between ages of 8 months and 15 years had protective level antibody responses against HBV vaccine. These differences may be due to sampling difference, type of vaccine, and different age for vaccine administration.
Seroprevalence of HBsAg among vaccinated children varies in different countries ranging from 0 to 2.5%. Seroprevalence of HBsAg was 1.8% in Yemen [8], 0.13% in Nepal [18], 2.3% in Papua New Guinea [19], 0.77% in Eastern China [20], 2.5% in northwest China [21], while it was 0.4% in our study. This difference in seroprevalence of HBV infection could be attributed to the difference in vaccine coverage and difference in vaccination schedule.
In our study, seroprevalence of anti-HBc was 5.6%, which is lower than anti-HBc seroprevalence observed in studies conducted in Gambia (17.7%) [22], China (14.1%) [21] and Iran (7.5%) [23]. These discrepancies in anti-HBc seroprevalence could be attributed to age difference, race, prevalence of HBV, and immune response level.
Nowadays, mutant hepatitis B viruses are spreading globally. Vaccination regime and vaccine type should also be considered when we administer the vaccine to the child. High seroprevalence of anti- HBc in vaccinated children may indicate the presence of an occult HBV infection, which is a concern for everyone that needs to be addressed [24].
Some children did not come with their vaccination card. Therefore, we had to use the words of their parents/guardians as evidence for vaccination, which is not always reliable. Other serological markers of active HBV infection, like HBeAg, were not examined in this study. Further, there was an unequal number of vaccinated and non-vaccinated children and the study design did not account for occult infections.
The vaccine coverage observed in this study is similar to that of the national estimate in 2014. However, less than half of the children had a protective level of anti- body response against HBV vaccine. Further, a negative association between anti-HBsAg antibody concentration and age was observed. Serological markers for hepatitis B virus were low: 0.4% for HBsAg and 5.6% of anti-HBc.
Persistence of anti-HBs antibodies is necessary for the long-term protection against hepatitis B virus infection. Even if different factors can contribute to low antibody response against the vaccine, we need to follow up children after vaccination, in order to see the effect of the vaccine in producing the desired response over time.
Finally, further studies should be undertaken to determine the duration of antibody response against HBV vaccine that may help in which years the vaccine response becomes less and less. For those who did not respond to the vaccine, booster doses should be given to enhance immunological responses to the vaccine. This can be important to elevate the vaccine response. Follow up is needed for those children who are administered with booster doses to evaluate response against the vaccine in those children.
The Ministry of Health through the Clinical Research Capacity Building program at the Armauer Hansen Research Institute (AHRI) funded this study; therefore, we would like to extend our deepest gratitude to both institutions. We would also like to express our deepest appreciation to AHRI laboratory staff, study participants, health extension workers, and all others who supported us in every step of this work.
There was no conflict of interest among the authors or with any other parties.
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