Comparison of results of the skin friction coefficient
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10942",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Fiber-Reinforced Plastics",title:"Fiber-Reinforced Plastics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book deepens the study and knowledge on fiber-reinforced plastics (FRPs), which are composite materials made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibers. The fibers are usually glass, carbon, or aramid, although other fibers such as paper, wood, or asbestos are sometimes used. The polymer is usually an epoxy, vinyl ester, or polyester thermosetting plastic, and phenol-formaldehyde resins are still in use. Among, the most prominent applications of FRPs are in the aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction industries. The development of FRPs has a very promising future with a marked annual increase and with a wide range of sources. This book presents comprehensive information on FRPs and their wide variety of applications in the industry worldwide.",isbn:"978-1-80355-076-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-075-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-077-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95632",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"fiber-reinforced-plastics",numberOfPages:192,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"50dc791b1036b236a6676986cb295c6f",bookSignature:"Martin Alberto Masuelli",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10942.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1240,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 24th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 15th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 14th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 3rd 2022",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"99994",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:"Alberto",surname:"Alberto Masuelli",slug:"martin-alberto-masuelli",fullName:"Martin Alberto Masuelli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99994/images/system/99994.png",biography:"Martin A. Masuelli is a Inv. Adj. professor at the Instituto de Física Aplicada, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), and an associate professor at the National University of San Luis (UNSL), Argentina. He holds a master’s degree and a Ph.D. in Membrane Technology from UNSL. He has served as the director of the Physics Chemistry Service Laboratory, UNSL, since 2014. He is an expert in polysaccharides and the physical chemistry of macromolecules. Dr. Masuelli has authored or co-authored more than thirty-two peer-reviewed international publications, eight book chapters, and seventy communications in international congresses. He has also edited seven books. He is a member of the Sociedad Argentina de Ciencia y Tecnología Ambiental, Asociación Argentina de Fisicoquímica y Química Inorgánica, and Asociación Argentina de Tecnólogos de Alimentos. He is editor in chief and founder of the Journal of Polymer and Biopolymers Physics Chemistry and an editorial board member for various other journals. His research interests include hydropolymers, biopolymers (separative, purification processes, and characterization), physiochemistry of macromolecules, membrane technology and design (NF-UF-MF), and separative processes.",institutionString:"National University of San Luis",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"National University of San Luis",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"156",title:"Composite Materials",slug:"materials-science-composite-materials"}],chapters:[{id:"79165",title:"Self-Healing Polymers and Composite Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100908",slug:"self-healing-polymers-and-composite-materials",totalDownloads:203,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In order to overcome the challenges and limitations related to conventional maintenance and repair methods in structural composites during service, the concept of self-healing for polymeric materials has been developed in the last decades. Inspired by biological systems, ideal self-healing materials must be able to repair damages continuously during the service life of the component, recovering its performance. Several techniques have been proposed in the last years to manufacture self-healing polymers and fiber-reinforced composites to provide healing of microcracks in the composite structure without or with less intervention, extending service life and safety of the components and reducing maintenance time and cost. This book chapter proposes an overview of the most promising self-healing approaches for thermoset and polymer matrix composites developed in recent year.",signatures:"Allana Azevedo do Nascimento",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79165",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79165",authors:[{id:"427098",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Allana",surname:"Azevedo do Nascimento",slug:"allana-azevedo-do-nascimento",fullName:"Allana Azevedo do Nascimento"}],corrections:null},{id:"80891",title:"Design, Simulation, and Analysis of the Extrusion Process of a PVC Thermoplastic Profile to Optimize the Design of the Die and the Machine Parameters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100909",slug:"design-simulation-and-analysis-of-the-extrusion-process-of-a-pvc-thermoplastic-profile-to-optimize-t",totalDownloads:58,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objective of this work is to verify the design of an existing die for the manufacture of an extruded profile using the simulation of the flow in the head using a simulation software that uses computational fluid dynamics and also the experimental design and construction of a calibrator by means of the extrusion the geometry and desired dimensions of the profile. The rheological behavior of rigid PVC in the extruded molten state was investigated, which in itself is a difficult target due to the intrinsic weakness of this polymer that degrades when heated above 140°C. By means of a special capillary rheometer, rheological data, k and n of the power law, were obtained to introduce them, together with the process input parameters and the flow channel geometry in the simulation software. The flow channel was drawn with the head and calibrator using CAD-3D software. The different parts of the calibrator were manufactured and assembled into the equipment. The extrusion was performed with the process parameters: screw speed and material temperature used in the simulation software. The results obtained by the extrusion, geometry and final dimensions of the profile, mass flow, pressure, and temperature in the head were compared with those delivered by the software, being the same satisfactory.",signatures:"Carlos José Salvador Tomassini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80891",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80891",authors:[{id:"427374",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",surname:"José Salvador Tomassini",slug:"carlos-jose-salvador-tomassini",fullName:"Carlos José Salvador Tomassini"}],corrections:null},{id:"79552",title:"Unidirectional Carbon Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Tape in Automated Tape Placement Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101110",slug:"unidirectional-carbon-fiber-reinforced-thermoplastic-tape-in-automated-tape-placement-process",totalDownloads:157,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Thermoplastic matrix composites are finding new applications in the different industrial areas, thanks to their intrinsic advantages related to environmental compatibility and process-ability. The tape placement process is one of the few techniques that have the potential to continuously process thermoplastic composites in large industrial applications. Fiber-reinforced thermoplastic tapes are subjected to high heating and cooling rates during the tape placement process. The application of laser heating for the tape placement process requires a thorough understanding of the factors involved in the process. Qualitative experimental analysis is presented to identify the important phenomena during the tape placement of carbon (PEEK, PEKK, PAEK PPS) tapes. The present chapter focuses on the input parameters in the process of manufacturing composite parts. The mechanical performance of the final parts depend on a number of parameters. It should be void-free and well consolidated for reliable use in the structure. In the present work, it is becoming increasingly wiser to introduce the production of high-quality laminates, using laser AFP and ATL with quality consolidation during the laying process. The experimental results in this chapter help to better understand the consolidation process during LATP.",signatures:"Svetlana Risteska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79552",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79552",authors:[{id:"425132",title:"Prof.",name:"Svetlana",surname:"Risteska",slug:"svetlana-risteska",fullName:"Svetlana Risteska"}],corrections:null},{id:"79224",title:"Mechanically Improved and Multifunctional CFRP Enabled by Resins with High Concentrations Epoxy-Functionalized Fluorographene Fillers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100141",slug:"mechanically-improved-and-multifunctional-cfrp-enabled-by-resins-with-high-concentrations-epoxy-func",totalDownloads:94,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To meet the maximum potential of the mechanical properties of carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP), stress transfer between the carbon fibers through the polymer matrix must be improved. A recent promising approach reportedly used reinforcing particles as fillers dispersed in the resin. Carbon based fillers are an excellent candidate for such reinforcing particles due to their intrinsically high mechanical properties, structure and chemical nature similar to carbon fiber and high aspect ratio. They have shown great potential in increasing the strength, elastic modulus and other mechanical properties of interest of CFRPs. However, a percolation threshold of ~1% of the carbon-based particle concentration in the base resin has generally been reported, beyond which the mechanical properties deteriorate due to particle agglomeration. As a result, the potential for further increase of the mechanical properties of CFRPs with carbon-based fillers is limited. We report a significant increase in the strength and elastic modulus of CFRPs, achieved with a novel reinforced thermoset resin that contains high loadings of epoxy-reacted fluorographene (ERFG) fillers. We found that the improvement in mechanical performance of CFRPs was correlated with increase in ERFG loading in the resin. Using a novel thermoset resin containing 10 wt% ERFG filler, CFRPs fabricated by wet layup technique with twill weaves showed a 19.6% and 17.7% increase in the elastic modulus and tensile strength respectively. In addition, because of graphene’s high thermal conductivity and high aspect ratio, the novel resin enhanced CFRPs possessed 59.3% higher through-plane thermal conductivity and an 81-fold reduction in the hydrogen permeability. The results of this study demonstrate that high loadings of functionalized particles dispersed in the resin is a viable path towards fabrication of improved, high-performance CFRP parts and systems.",signatures:"Junhua Wei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79224",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79224",authors:[{id:"426142",title:"Dr.",name:"Junhua",surname:"Wei",slug:"junhua-wei",fullName:"Junhua Wei"}],corrections:null},{id:"79965",title:"Composite Materials with Natural Fibers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101818",slug:"composite-materials-with-natural-fibers",totalDownloads:105,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The materials involved in the fabrication of biocomposites have dissimilar physical and chemical properties. More important, the newly created materials exhibit anisotropy and their performance is strongly influenced by the hydrophobic nature of the natural fibers used as reinforcement materials. Beyond a compressive discussion regarding the potential of composite materials with natural fibers in engineering applications, the chapter focuses on simulation of their behavior under applied loads. Modern experimental approaches for defining and validating computer simulations are also introduced. Finally, health hazards and biodegradability issues are evaluated. The new trends in biocomposites materials for engineering applications are briefly discussed.",signatures:"Nicholas Lambrache, Ora Renagi, Lidia Olaru and Brian N’Drelan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79965",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79965",authors:[{id:"438068",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicholas",surname:"Lambrache",slug:"nicholas-lambrache",fullName:"Nicholas Lambrache"},{id:"440101",title:"Dr.",name:"Ora",surname:"Renagi",slug:"ora-renagi",fullName:"Ora Renagi"},{id:"440102",title:"Mrs.",name:"Lidia",surname:"Olaru",slug:"lidia-olaru",fullName:"Lidia Olaru"},{id:"440103",title:"Mr.",name:"Brian",surname:"N'Drelan",slug:"brian-n'drelan",fullName:"Brian N'Drelan"}],corrections:null},{id:"79625",title:"Sisal Fibre Based Polymeric Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101107",slug:"sisal-fibre-based-polymeric-composites",totalDownloads:91,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nature origin fibres have drawn in extraordinary consideration from commercial and specialists for the use of polymer composites as a result of their ‘greener’ nature and commitment to maintainable practice. Different enterprises have moved towards reasonable innovation to work on the harmony between the climate and social and financial concerns. Innovative work has demonstrated that normal fibres have been effectively applied as fortifications in the composites business, for example, for transportation, inside segments, building, airplane.",signatures:"Archana Nigrawal, Arun Kumar Sharma and Fozia Zia Haque",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79625",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79625",authors:[{id:"257011",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",surname:"Nigrawal",slug:"archana-nigrawal",fullName:"Archana Nigrawal"},{id:"437736",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun Kumar",surname:"Sharma",slug:"arun-kumar-sharma",fullName:"Arun Kumar Sharma"},{id:"437737",title:"Dr.",name:"Fozia",surname:"Zia Haque",slug:"fozia-zia-haque",fullName:"Fozia Zia Haque"}],corrections:null},{id:"79700",title:"Functional Application for the Corn Leaf Fibre to Make Reinforced Polymer Composites Sheet",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101656",slug:"functional-application-for-the-corn-leaf-fibre-to-make-reinforced-polymer-composites-sheet",totalDownloads:164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This research work has mainly utilized agricultural waste material to make a good-quality composite sheet product of the profitable, pollution free, economical better for farmer and industries. In this study, from corn leaf fibre to reinforced epoxy composite product has been utilized with minimum 35 to maximum range 55% but according to earlier studies, pulp composite material was used in minimum 10 to maximum 27%. Natural fibre-based composites are under intensive study due to their light weight, eco-friendly nature and unique properties. Due to the continuous supply, easy of handling, safety and biodegradability, natural fibre is considered as better alternative in replacing many structural and non-structural components. Corn leaf fibre pulp can be new source of raw material to the industries and can be potential replacement for the expensive and non-renewable synthetic fibre. Corn leaf fibre as the filler material and epoxy as the matrix material were used by changing reinforcement weight fraction. Composites were prepared using hand lay-up techniques by maintaining constant fibre and matrix volume fraction. The sample of the composites thus fabricated was subjected to tensile, impact test for finding the effect of corn husk in different concentrations.",signatures:"Ramratan Guru, Anupam Kumar and Rohit Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79700",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79700",authors:[{id:"336997",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramratan",surname:"Guru",slug:"ramratan-guru",fullName:"Ramratan Guru"},{id:"337607",title:"Prof.",name:"Anupam",surname:"Kumar",slug:"anupam-kumar",fullName:"Anupam Kumar"},{id:"337608",title:"Mr.",name:"Rohit",surname:"Kumar",slug:"rohit-kumar",fullName:"Rohit Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"79103",title:"Fabricating Natural Biocomposites for Food Packaging",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100907",slug:"fabricating-natural-biocomposites-for-food-packaging",totalDownloads:159,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, there are dominant scientific breakthroughs to advance the packaging industry to identify innovative and emerging fruitful results for making the food packaging systems, in particular, more efficient, resilient, and sustainable. Therefore, friendliness packaging research has been gaining momentum, thanks to global environmental awareness, and also consumer ecological consciousness, and leading companies are committing to a more holistic worldview of packaging in response to more sustainable processes to reduce pollution and any depletion of resources. High-yielding and cost-effective production and design of packaging, involving synthetic materials use reduction and development of new bio-based packaging materials, are very much part of this holistic approach. Thus, in comparison with petroleum-based materials, potential bio-based materials may have benefits for all agents comprised: the producers, customers as well as the whole environment. This chapter explores a review of relative topics across all disciplines that could accelerate understanding toward this goal. It walks through conventional materials, and then important natural and synthetic polymers from the context of food packaging. Moreover, it provides an overview of the performance of bioplastics and their limitations. State-of-the-art main trends on green biocomposites thereof, their potential to transform the food industry, are also herein considered.",signatures:"Liqaa Hamid and Irene Samy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79103",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79103",authors:[{id:"427722",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Irene",surname:"Samy",slug:"irene-samy",fullName:"Irene Samy"},{id:"437221",title:"Mrs.",name:"Liqaa",surname:"Hamid",slug:"liqaa-hamid",fullName:"Liqaa Hamid"}],corrections:null},{id:"79811",title:"FRP for Marine Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101332",slug:"frp-for-marine-application",totalDownloads:166,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRPs) are widely used in marine sector owing to their high specific strength and resistance to marine corrosion. For naval application, additional advantages are transparency to radar wave and better vibration damping than metals. The use of various FRPs in off-shore structures and marine vessels needs analysis of desired properties considering the types of matrices and fiber. The common consideration is effect of sea water on the properties of the FRP. This chapter gives a brief on use of different FRPs in various areas such as off-shore pillars, Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) enclosers, primary and secondary marine components. A brief discussion is included here on diffusion models and estimation of durability by a time-temperature superposition principle applied to water ingress and corresponding change in mechanical strength of FRPs with examples. The effect of microbial activity on the damage of FRP is not very much reported in literature. It is known that sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are the most damaging microbes for FRP. In conclusion, it is highlighted that vinyl-ester-based FRPs using glass and carbon fibers are best for marine application. To determine the realistic service life in marine environment, Vinyl Ester- FRP (VE-FRP) are to be simultaneously studied for damage due to sea water and the microbes such SRB.",signatures:"Bikash Chandra Chakraborty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79811",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79811",authors:[{id:"427043",title:"Dr.",name:"Bikash",surname:"Chandra Chakraborty",slug:"bikash-chandra-chakraborty",fullName:"Bikash Chandra Chakraborty"}],corrections:null},{id:"80884",title:"Mechanical Properties and Chemical Stability of Bathroom Wall Composites Manufactured from Recycle Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Mixed with Cocoa Hull Powder",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102457",slug:"mechanical-properties-and-chemical-stability-of-bathroom-wall-composites-manufactured-from-recycle-p",totalDownloads:43,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The recovery of plastic waste and agricultural residues has led us to develop composites based on polyethylene terephthalate (PET) filled with cocoa shell powder. These shells have been previously treated with the organosolv process to improve the fiber-matrix interaction. The objective of this work is to develop wall covering materials to replace tiles which require a lot of energy and from PET. The composites were made by the method of melt mixing followed by compression molding. The mechanical, physico-chemical properties and stability to environmental conditions were evaluated. The results showed that the incorporation of 20–30% of powder in the matrix made of PET gave rise to a composite material with good properties for application in construction, as a wall covering replacing the tile. The study showed that the optimum powder weight ratio for optimum composite properties was achieved at a powder weight ratio of 30%. The maximum tensile strength of 60.3 MPa, bending strength of 19.5 MPa, impact strength of 10.3 MPa and water absorption of 1.34% were obtained. 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The boundary layer flow and heat transfer over a stretching sheet have momentous views not only from theoretical point of view but also one can see their practical applications in the paper production, polymer industry, crystal growing, food processing etc. Crane [1] was the first to study the boundary layer flow yielded by a stretching sheet. He gave an exact solution for the originating problem. Later on, the boundary layer flow over linear and non-linear stretching surfaces have pulled in a great deal of interest of many of the researchers [2, 3, 4, 5]. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) boundary layer flow due to an exponentially stretching sheet with radiation effect has been examined by Ishak [6]. In fluid dynamics, the influence of external magnetic field on magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) flow over a stretching sheet is very significant due to its applications in many engineering problems such as for purification of crude oil, paper production and glass manufacturing. A physiological process in human body can be deciphered by processes like MRI, NMRI and MRT, in which MHD plays an important role [7, 8]. Pavlov [9] analyzed the effect of external magnetic field on MHD flow over a stretching sheet. Andersson [10] studied the MHD flow of viscous fluid over a stretching sheet. A robust numerical method for solving stagnation point flow over a permeable shrinking sheet under the influence of MHD was considered by Bhatti et al. [11]. They observed that as the Hartman number increases, the fluid velocity also increases. Sheikholeslami et al. [12] employed the control volume-based finite element method (CVFEM) to show the influence of external magnetic source on
In a boundary layer flow, the flow field gets significantly affected by the presence of porous media and as a result, the rate of heat transfer at the surface also gets influenced. Practical applications of the flow and heat transfer through a porous media can be seen in geophysical fluid dynamics such as limestone, wood, beach sand, sandstone, the human lungs and in small blood vessels [41]. Sheikholeslami [42] analyzed the exergy and entropy of nanofluids under the impact of Lorentz force through a porous media by incorporating the CVFEM method. He observed that exergy drop diminishes with reduction of magnetic forces. Shehzad et al. [43] simulated nanofluid convective flow inside a porous enclosure by means of a two-temperature model. They remarked that the porosity and temperature gradient are inversely related. Sheikholeslami [44] studied CuO-water nanofluid flow due to magnetic field inside a porous media considering Brownian motion. Shehzad et al. [45] considered the numerical modeling for alumina nanofluid’s magnetohydrodynamic convective heat transfer in a permeable medium using Darcy law. They concluded that an increase in radiation parameter makes the thermal boundary layer thinner. Sheikholeslami [46] examined CuO-water nanofluid’s free convection in a porous cavity considering the Darcy law. He applied the CVFEM method to interpret his results. Numerical simulation for heat transfer intensification of a nanofluid in a porous curved enclosure considering shape effect of
Consider the steady two-dimensional MHD flow of an electrically conducting non-Newtonian Casson nanofluid over a stretching sheet situated at y = 0. The flow is confined in the region y>0. Two equal and opposite forces are applied along the x-axis so that the wall is stretched with the origin fixed. The rheological equation of state for an isotropic and incompressible flow of the Casson nanofluid is
where u and v are the velocity components in the x and y directions, respectively.
The appropriate boundary conditions for the problem are given by
where
Introducing the following similarity transformations
Making use of Eq. (6), the governing equations (3) and (4) are reduced into the non-dimensional form as follows
The corresponding boundary conditions are
where prime denotes differentiation with respect to
The important physical quantities of interest are the skin friction coefficient
where
Substituting the transformations in
where
A finite difference scheme known as Keller box method is used to solve numerically the system of non-linear ordinary differential equations (7) and (8) together with the boundary conditions in
Reduce the governing equations of the problem to a system of first-order ordinary differential equations.
Convert the resulting system of first-order ordinary differential equations into difference equations by using the central difference scheme.
Newton’s method is used to linearize the non-linear finite difference equations so obtained and then write them in matrix-vector form.
Solve the linearized system of difference equations by using the block tri-diagonal elimination technique.
The method is highly adaptable to solve non-linear problems. In this method, the choice of the initial guess is very important to give the most accurate solution to the problem and it is made based on the convergence criteria along with the boundary conditions of the flow into consideration. In boundary layer flow calculations, the greatest error appears in the wall shear stress, as mentioned in Cebeci and Bradshaw [52]. So, in accordance with it, the values of the wall shear stress, in our case
In order to analyze the results, numerical computation has been carried out to calculate the velocity profiles, temperature profiles, skin friction coefficient and local Nusselt number for various values of the parameters that describe the flow characteristics, that is, magnetic parameter (M), Casson parameter (
Velocity profiles
Temperature profiles
Velocity profiles
Temperature profiles
Velocity profiles
Temperature profiles
Temperature profiles
Variation of skin friction coefficient
Variation of heat transfer coefficient
Cu-Water | Ag-Water | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hamad [53] | Present | Hamad [53] | Present | ||
0.05 | 1.10892 | 1.1089 | 1.13966 | 1.1397 | |
0.1 | 1.17475 | 1.1747 | 1.22507 | 1.2251 | |
0.15 | 1.20886 | 1.2089 | 1.27215 | 1.2722 | |
0.2 | 1.21804 | 1.2180 | 1.28979 | 1.2898 | |
0.05 | 1.29210 | 1.2921 | 1.31858 | 1.3186 | |
0.1 | 1.32825 | 1.3282 | 1.37296 | 1.3730 | |
0.15 | 1.33955 | 1.3396 | 1.39694 | 1.3969 | |
0.2 | 1.33036 | 1.3304 | 1.39634 | 1.3963 | |
0.05 | 1.45236 | 1.4524 | 1.47597 | 1.4760 | |
0.1 | 1.46576 | 1.4658 | 1.50640 | 1.5064 | |
0.15 | 1.45858 | 1.4586 | 1.51145 | 1.5115 | |
0.2 | 1.43390 | 1.4339 | 1.49532 | 1.4953 | |
0.05 | 1.72887 | 1.7289 | 1.74875 | 1.7487 | |
0.1 | 1.70789 | 1.7079 | 1.74289 | 1.7429 | |
0.15 | 1.67140 | 1.6714 | 1.71773 | 1.7177 | |
0.2 | 1.62126 | 1.6213 | 1.67583 | 1.6758 |
Comparison of results of the skin friction coefficient
Vajravelu [54] | Present | |
---|---|---|
0.4590 | 0.4596 | |
1.8953 | 1.8954 |
Comparison of values of local Nusselt number
MHD flow and heat transfer of Casson nanofluid through a porous medium over a stretching sheet have been investigated. The governing boundary layer equations are transformed into ordinary differential equations using similarity transformations and are then solved by the Keller box method. The effects of the various governing parameters viz. magnetic parameter M, Casson parameter
An increase in the Casson parameter
With an increase in the magnetic parameter M, the momentum boundary layer thickness decreases while the thermal boundary layer thickness increases.
The temperature and the thermal boundary thickness increase as the nanoparticle volume fraction
Ag-water nanofluid has thicker thermal boundary layer than Cu-water nanofluid.
The velocity of the nanofluids decreases as the porosity parameter k increases and the reverse is observed in the case of temperature.
The skin friction increases with an increase in nanoparticle volume fraction
The rate of heat transfer at the surface of the sheet decreases with an increase in magnetic parameter M and porosity parameter k.
skin friction coefficient
specific heat capacity at constant pressure
dimensionless velocity
thermal conductivity of the base fluid
thermal conductivity of the nanoparticle
thermal conductivity of the nanofluid
mean absorption coefficient
characteristic length
permeability of the porous medium
magnetic field parameter
local Nusselt number
Prandtl number
yield stress of the fluid
heat flux
local Reynolds number
fluid temperature
temperature at the stretching surface
temperature of the fluid far away from the stretching surface
velocity components along
velocity of the stretching surface
Cartesian coordinates measured along stretching surface
product of the component of deformation rate with itself
critical value of the product
thermal diffusivity of the nanofluid
Casson fluid parameter
dimensionless similarity variable
electrical conductivity
dimensionless temperature
nanoparticle volume fraction
shear stress
dynamic viscosity of the base fluid
dynamic viscosity of the nanofluid
kinematic viscosity of the base fluid
kinematic viscosity of the nanofluid
density of the base fluid
density of the nanoparticle
density of the nanofluid
heat capacity of the base fluid
heat capacity of the nanoparticle
heat capacity of the nanofluid
plastic dynamic viscosity of the fluid
denotes differentiation with respect to
Lakes and reservoirs are bodies of water that often serve multiple beneficial uses, such as water supply for municipal and agricultural use, recreation use, fishery enhancement, flood control, and power generation. Their physical, biological and chemical characteristics determine to a large extent how those beneficial uses are met. Survey texts, such as Wetzel [1] and Hutchinson [2], describe the important limnological processes that affect lake and reservoir water quality. An overview of reservoir dynamics and water quality is well-summarized in Martin et al. [3].
\nLakes are different from man-made reservoirs where outlet (and perhaps inlet) hydraulic structures regulate the flow rates and often internal hydrodynamics of the reservoir. Not only does this flow regulation affect the reservoir temperature stratification, but also in consequence affects its water quality. An important distinction between rivers and lakes/reservoirs is the cycle of stratification that can occur throughout the year since most rivers are well-mixed vertically.
\nIn some river systems though, stratification can occur if there are natural pools. For example, in the Chehalis River basin in Washington, USA, the Chehalis River is usually well-mixed except in pools of slow-moving water. This is shown where a large area of the Chehalis river has little to no channel slope and exhibits lake-like characteristics in Figure 1.
\nElevation drop along the Chehalis River, WA, USA, showing a section that is lake-like where summer stratification occurs. Sampling sites (multi-colored dots) are also shown.
Stratification in turn is related to the density of water as a function of temperature and dissolved substances. The progression of stratification during a summer period is shown in Figure 2 in a mountain lake during a summer period where the upper well-mixed layer, the epilimnion, is separated from the lower layer, the hypolimnion, by the strong density (temperature) gradient. Figure 3 shows the typical inverse stratification in the wintertime. Oftentimes, ice formation on the surface can impede gas transfer and create winter-time oxygen deficits even though there is reduced biological activity as a result of the cold temperatures.
\nProgression of stratification in summer of Bull Run Lake, OR, USA, during 1997.
Bull Run Lake, OR, USA, temperature profile on January 19, 1993.
The progression of summer stratification can also influence the progression of dissolved oxygen depletion (see Figure 4 for Tenkiller Reservoir, OK, USA). This seasonal depletion in Figure 4 includes both the metalimnetic minimum (caused by hydrodynamic interflow of low-dissolved oxygen water at the base of the epilimnion) and the hypolimnetic depletion as a result of sediment oxygen demand.
\nTenkiller reservoir dissolved oxygen profiles in 2006 showing progression of summer oxygen depletion.
Also, as a result of internal seiching, wind dynamics, surface cooling, and solar radiation input, the vertical profiles for water quality parameters can vary during the day. For example, Hemlock Lake temperature and dissolved oxygen vertical profiles are shown in Figures 5 and 6, respectively, for the morning (9 am) and early afternoon (1 pm). Variation of 1–2°C and 4–5 mg/l dissolved oxygen concentrations were noted over the 4-hour time difference between profiles.
\nHemlock Lake, NY, USA temperature profile July 13, 2013 at 9 am and 1 pm.
Hemlock Lake, NY, USA dissolved oxygen profile July 13, 2013 at 9 am and 1 pm.
Showing the effect of diurnal wind on seiching dynamics, Figure 7 shows a temperature buoy at a depth of 15 m in Chester Morse Lake, WA, USA, where variations of 2–3°C can be common diurnally as wind-induced seiching occurs.
\nInternal seiching as evident in temperature dynamics at a depth of 15 m in Chester Morse Lake, WA, USA. Variations of 2°C occur at a diurnal time scale are evident during the later spring and summer as a result of wind seiching and closeness to vertical temperature gradient.
In order to describe these changes in water quality in a lake or reservoir, the next section describes the mathematical framework for modeling lakes and reservoirs.
\nThe basic governing equations for hydrodynamics and water quality were discussed by Wells et al. [4] and summarized and simplified here. The hydrodynamic governing equations include conservation of water mass and momentum. The water quality governing equations include conservation of constituent mass and heat including processes such as advection, turbulent diffusion, molecular diffusion (and dispersion if there is spatial averaging). An equation of state is used to relate the water density to salinity, temperature, and suspended solids that can affect fluid momentum.
\nThe equations for fluid motion are based on mass and momentum conservation. The development of the governing equations is based on a control volume of homogeneous properties. The conservation of fluid mass is the change in fluid mass within the control volume equaling the sum of mass inflows to the control volume and the sum of mass outflows from the control volume. The conservation of momentum is based on evaluating the sum of forces acting on a control volume in
Example of a force acting on a control volume resulting in the acceleration of the fluid within the control volume.
The general coordinate system used in the development of the governing equations is shown in Figure 9. The rotation of the coordinate system can result in significant horizontal accelerations of fluids. This is usually restricted to large water bodies such as large lakes (such as the Great Lakes in the USA) and oceanic systems. The body force that causes horizontal accelerations because of the spinning coordinate system is termed the Coriolis force.
\nDefinition sketch of coordinate system for governing equations where x is oriented east, y is oriented north, and z is oriented upward opposite gravity, Ω is the angular velocity of the earth spinning on its axis and ϕ is the latitude.
The continuity (or conservation of fluid mass) and the conservation of momentum equations for a rotating coordinate system [5, 6, 7] are the governing equations used to determine the velocity field and water level.
\nThe final form of the governing equations is obtained by making the following assumptions:
the fluid is incompressible, where \n
the centripetal acceleration is a correction to gravitational acceleration,
the Boussinesq approximation (which is related to the incompressibility assumption) is applied to all terms in the momentum equation except those dealing with density gradient induced accelerations, i.e. \n
all velocities and pressure are turbulent time averages, i.e., \n
The governing equations become after time averaging and simplifying:
\nwhere \n
where: \n
where: \n
where: \n
The conservation of constituent mass in a control volume is a sum of all the fluxes (advective and diffusive) into and out from the control volume plus sources and sinks (chemistry, biology, physics, withdrawals, inputs) within the control volume. Summing up the fluxes in each direction, assuming that the fluid is incompressible and that the molecular diffusivity, D, is homogeneous and isotropic, the advective diffusion equation becomes
\nwhere c is the concentration [M/L−3], S is the sources and sinks of reactions occurring in the control volume, or the reaction rate [ML−3 T−1].
\nThis equation is a 3-D, unsteady equation that applies to all flow conditions: laminar and turbulent. Since we cannot determine the instantaneous velocity field, the x-y-and z momentum equations were time averaged and hence were only able to practically predict the temporal mean velocity. Similarly, we time average the conservation of mass/heat equation using time averages of the velocity field.
\nThe instantaneous velocity and concentration are decomposed into a mean and an unsteady component. Similar to the velocity field shown earlier, for concentration, c, this becomes \n
Substituting the time average and fluctuating components of concentration and velocities into the 3D governing equation and time averaging we obtain:
\nwhere the turbulent mass fluxes in x, y and z were assumed to be defined as a gradient, diffusion-type process, such as \n
In turbulent fluids, Ex, Ey, and Ez >> D, and D can be neglected (except at boundaries or density interfaces where turbulent intensity may approach zero). The turbulent diffusion coefficients can be thought of as the product of the velocity scale of turbulence and the length scale of that turbulence. These coefficients are related to the turbulent eddy viscosity. In general, these turbulent diffusion coefficients are non-isotropic and non-homogeneous.
\nSpatial averaging of this equation leads to the introduction of “dispersion” coefficients which account for the transport of mass as a result of spatial irregularities in the velocity field.
\nThese equations are also valid for heat transport and temperature modeling by substituting the concentration of heat, \n
where DT is the molecular thermal conductivity for heat and Ex, Ey, and Ez are the heat and mass turbulent eddy diffusivities assuming they are of the same order of magnitude.
\nSince density is an important variable for the momentum equation to account for density-driven flows, the computation of density is accomplished through an equation of state where density is computed from dissolved and suspended solids concentrations (\n
Typical equations of state for fresh and saltwater have been published by Gill [8] and Ford and Johnson [9].
\nThere are six equations (continuity or conservation of fluid mass, conservation of momentum in x, y and z, and conservation of constituent mass or heat, equation of state) that we are solving for six unknowns: turbulent time average concentration (or temperature), velocities in x, y, and z, density and turbulent time average pressure (or water surface), i.e. \n
Determination of the turbulent eddy viscosities and eddy diffusivities is often based on what are termed closure models that are based on the turbulent Schmidt number (\n
Determination of turbulent eddy viscosities have been based on multiple approaches: (1) eddy viscosity models as a function of water stability [13, 14, 15, 16], (2) Mixing length models [17, 18], (3) One equation models for turbulent kinetic energy [19], (4) Two-equation k-ε models for turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation [11] and (5) Reynolds stress and algebraic stress models [11]. In many models, once the turbulent eddy viscosity is known, then the turbulent diffusion coefficients are computed from \n
Vertical boundary conditions for the hydrodynamic model usually involve a surface shear stress condition for the wind and a bottom shear stress condition for frictional resistance based on a specified friction coefficient (for example, Chezy or Manning’s). Vertical boundary conditions for temperature and water quality constituents are assumed to be known fluxes at the surface and bottom.
\nHorizontal boundary conditions for mass or heat include mass or heat fluxes as a result of advection and for hydrodynamics include water level (or head) or flow conditions. The flow conditions in outlets to stratified reservoirs can be complicated because of local vertical accelerations in the vicinity of the outlet. In many models, the vertical acceleration of a fluid parcel is assumed to be much less than the horizontal accelerations and hence the vertical momentum equation simplifies to the hydrostatic equation. In order to model the complicated outlet hydraulics in a reservoir, special selective withdrawal algorithms are often used [21, 22]. These allow the computation of flow from multiple vertical layers without having to solve the full-vertical momentum equation.
\nTypical assumptions of the flow field and water quality model are related to the dimensionality of the system (one, two or three-dimensions), whether the flow field is dynamic or steady-state, and the turbulence closure approximation. Based on the model assumptions, the model grid is developed where the governing equations are satisfied at points (differential equation representation) or over control volumes (integral representation). The resulting equations are then solved using numerical methods.
\nThe source-sink term in the mass and heat conservation equation can be either positive or negative and is determined by each water quality state variable. The units of \n
State variable | \nTypical source-sink term | \nDescription | \n
---|---|---|
Temperature | \n\n\n | \nφ is the heat flux in units of W/m2 transmitted through the water body. This is the short-wave solar radiation transmitted through the water and is a function of light extinction. The variable z is assumed to be positive downward. | \n
Salinity or conservative substance | \n\n\n | \nNo sources and sinks | \n
Suspended solids | \n\n\n | \nwss is the settling velocity of particles as a positive velocity, cSS is the concentration of suspended solids of a given size fraction. Often multiple size fractions are modeled independently using Stokes’ law for settling velocity, wss. The variable z is assumed to be positive downward. | \n
CBOD | \n\n\n \n\n \n\n | \nSource/sink terms are shown for dissolved CBOD (cCBODd) and particulate CBOD (cCBODp), kCBOD is a BOD decay rate for dissolved and particulate CBOD, and wCBOD is the settling velocity for particulate BOD. Models of CBOD usually use CBODultimate. Many models also track the P and N associated with this organic matter. Many models track multiple CBOD groups. | \n
Algae | \n\n\n | \nSource sink terms include the algae growth rate μgrowth [T−1] (this is a complicated function of light, limiting nutrient and temperature), μrespiration [T−1] the “dark” respiration rate, μexcretion [T−1] the rate of excretion or biomass loss, μmortality [T−1] the mortality rate (which often can include zooplankton grazing as a separate loss rate based on zooplankton populations and zooplankton food preferences), and walgae the algae settling rate (this also can have complicated expressions especially for cyanobacteria and other species which migrate up and down in the water column). Often models include multiple algae groups. Calgae is the concentration of algae. | \n
Ammonia-N | \n\n\n | \nThe source/sink terms shown include algae uptake and release (where δaN is the stoichiometric equivalent of algae to ammonia-N, but the N source can be nitrate), organic matter release as particulate and dissolved CBOD decay (where δCBODdN is the stoichiometric equivalent of cBODd to N and δCBODpN is the stoichiometric equivalent of cCBODp to N), and sediment oxygen demand release under anoxic conditions (where SODN is the rate of N release in mass/area/time and V is the volume of the computational cell and A is the area of the sediment), nitrification decay rate knitr [T−1], and cammonia is the total ammonia concentration. | \n
Dissolved oxygen | \n\n\n | \nThe source/sink term includes algae production and respiration (where \n | \n
Nitrate-Nitrite-N | \n\n\n | \nThe source/sink terms include algae uptake (where \n | \n
PO4-P | \n\n\n | \nThe source/sink terms shown include algae uptake and release (where δaP is the stoichiometric equivalent of algae to P), organic matter release as particulate and dissolved CBOD decay (where δCBODdP is the stoichiometric equivalent of cCBODd to P and δCBODpP is the stoichiometric equivalent of cCBODp to P), and sediment oxygen demand release under anoxic conditions (where SODP is the rate of P release in mass/area/time and V is the volume of the computational cell, calgae is the algae concentration, and A is the area of the sediment). Other models include adsorption of P onto inorganic particles. | \n
Typical source-sink terms for temperature and some eutrophication water quality state variables.
There are many models used to simulate reservoir and lake water quality. A summary of modeling approaches for lakes is shown in Mooij et al. [24] and Janssen et al. [25]. Table 2 shows a listing of some common lake and reservoir models.
\nModel name | \nDescription | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|
DYRESM and CAEDYM | \n1D model based on mixed layer dynamics, separate temperature and water quality models | \nTanentzap et al. [26] | \n
CE-QUAL-W2 | \n2D longitudinal-vertical, open source, eutrophication model, hydrodynamics and water quality solved together | \nWells [20] | \n
CE-QUAL-R1 | \n1D vertical | \nEnvironmental Laboratory [27] | \n
W3 | \n3D, hydrodynamics and water quality solved together | \nAl-Zubaidi and Wells [28] | \n
EFDC and WASP | \n3D, hydrodynamics and water quality solved separately, both sigma stretch and z coordinate models | \nHamrick [29], Tetra Tech [30] | \n
GLM | \n1D | \nHipsey et al. [31] | \n
ELCOM and CAEDYM | \n3D-mixed layer dynamic model, hydrodynamics and water quality solved separately | \nHipsey et al. [32], Hodges and Dallimore [33] | \n
List of common lake and reservoir water quality models.
The choice of a correct framework is dependent on several considerations: (1) dimensionality of the lake/reservoir system (even though all water bodies are in essence 3D, 2D and 1D models can often represent the important processes of water quality and temperature gradients), (2) documentation (up-to-date user manual with example problems), (3) ease of use and expertise required (all models require a degree of file manipulation and many include GUI interfaces that often facilitate running the model for new users), (4) established record of successful projects (as documented in papers and conference proceedings and technical reports) and (5) model processes represent important lake/reservoir processes (for example, if macrophyte growth is an important ecological consideration, does the model represent macrophytes).
\nIn many cases, 3D models do not often do better than other model frameworks. One reason may be that the data and parameter uncertainty increase in higher dimensional models [34]. In a comparison of 2D and 3D models, many examples have shown [28, 35, 36] that 2D models often better represent temperature profiles than some 3D models. There may be many reasons for this, but the important message is that more complicated models do not necessarily mean better model predictions. Another issue with 3D models is the excessive computational time compared to lower dimensional models. In one comparison between a 2D and 3D model, the 3D model took 30× longer than the 2D model. This will vary depending on model configuration and model. This is becoming more of an issue as models are being used for multiple-decade simulations evaluating climate change and long-term changes in model boundary conditions.
\nUsing the CE-QUAL-W2 model [20] as an example, consider an application to Folsom Reservoir, CA, USA, as presented in Martinez et al. [37].
\nFolsom lake, located near Sacramento California USA, is a deep-storage reservoir that provides municipal water, power generation and cold water for primarily salmonid fish in the lower American River (see Figure 10). The reservoir has multiple outlets that allow the operator to choose different water levels for downstream temperature control.
\nFolsom reservoir bathymetry showing the north fork and south fork of the American River channels. Axes are labeled in m.
The model was set-up and calibrated to a 10-year period between January 1, 2001 and December 31, 2011. Boundary conditions for flow, meteorological data, and outflow during this period were developed. A very detailed approach for filling in data gaps was undertaken to provide a good set of boundary conditions. Typical model predictions compared to field data are shown for temperature in Figure 11 in 2002 and 2007 at multiple longitudinal stations in the reservoir. Error statistics for temperature profiles over the 10-year period using about 27,000 data comparisons were an average mean error of 0.004°C, an average absolute mean error (AME, average absolute value of the error) of 0.56°C, and a root mean square (RMS) average error of 0.71°C. The R2 correlation between modeled and predicted temperature was 0.996.
\nFolsom reservoir model temperature predictions compared to field data on August 20, 2002 (left) and October 31, 2007 (right) at 6 different stations in Folsom reservoir.
In other examples of predicting the thermal regime, Cole [38] has shown that typical errors (AME, RMS) for temperature should often be well less than 1°C with a mean error of close to zero with minimal calibration if the boundary condition data are well-specified.
\nOftentimes, the success of modeling other water quality state variables is first dependent on obtaining good temperature calibration results. For example, in a higher elevation pristine lake, Chester Morse Lake, WA, USA, Ceravich and Wells [39] have shown dissolved oxygen profiles mimicking the unusual behavior of the dissolved oxygen profile in a lake with little algae growth as shown in Figure 12. Error statistics for dissolved oxygen, which integrates all the water quality processes, were a ME of 0.15 mg/l, a AME of 0.42 mg/l, and a RMS error of 0.49 mg/l for 551 data-model comparisons.
\nPredictions (solid lines) and field data (dots) of dissolved oxygen at one sampling site for Chester Morse Lake in 2015. Dates shown are Julian days since January 1, 2015.
The complexity of existing models has often exceeded our capacity in the field to verify model coefficients usually because of cost and time. Deterministic water quality models require an incredible amount of information that is rarely measured. In the CE-QUAL-W2 model, for each algal group the model user must specify approximately 25 values describing rate coefficients for growth, respiration, excretion, mortality, stoichiometry, temperature preferences, N preferences, light saturation limits, and settling velocities. Even though this model has no limit to the number of algal groups one can represent mathematically, in a practical sense modeling living populations and their impact on nutrients, organic matter, pH, temperature, and oxygen is very complex. In the end, the model user tries to balance the known field data with literature values of the coefficients with the goal that if the boundary conditions are well-specified, the model requires little calibration.
\nIf one cannot understand and interpret field data, then it will be challenging for a model to match field measurements. Hence, knowing and understanding the field data as one is setting up the model is important for making sure the model is agreeing with field data trends.
\nIn other cases though, the model is able to discern complex interactions between water quality state variables that may be difficult for the model user to piece together a priori. For example, the unusual dissolved oxygen profiles in the field data and model shown in Figure 12 is one example where it was unclear the reasons for the unusual vertical profile until the combination of a sharp thermocline, algae growth within the metalimnion, and slow sediment oxygen demand caused the model to match the field data vertical trend.
\nWater quality models are adding more and more complex algorithms to reproduce admittedly complex phenomena. But this increasing complexity does not necessarily mean a better model or one that better reproduces field data. One example is the use of a complex model of bacterial populations on the Snake River in ID/OR, USA, from Harrison [40]. The bacterial populations were modeled based on Reichert et al. [41] as shown in Figure 13 and compared to a model with only a first order decay rate for organic matter decay (basically neglecting all the complex bacterial dynamics). In predicting the impact of organic matter on dissolved oxygen, the simpler model neglecting bacterial dynamics performed better. This does not mean that complex models may not be useful for research purposes, but more complicated does not mean a better model.
\nBacterial dynamics model compartments in the Snake River from Harrison [
Hence, to improve water quality models, one of the most fruitful areas is working on obtaining better boundary condition data by “smart” filling in of data gaps in time series of field data. This is still a critical component of modeling lakes and reservoirs. In addition, measuring field data on-site for lakes and reservoirs helps tremendously in understanding better the impact of hydrodynamics on water quality.
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O'Malley",authors:null},{id:"573",doi:"10.5772/5176",title:"Lower-Limb Wearable Exoskeleton",slug:"lower-limb_wearable_exoskeleton",totalDownloads:5117,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"5250",slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"J.L. Pons, J.C. Moreno, F.J. Brunetti and E. Rocon",authors:null},{id:"574",doi:"10.5772/5177",title:"Exoskeleton-Based Exercisers for the Disabilities of the Upper Arm and Hand",slug:"exoskeleton-based_exercisers_for_the_disabilities_of_the_upper_arm_and_hand",totalDownloads:6089,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"5250",slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Ioannis Sarakoglou, Sophia Kousidou, Nikolaos G. Tsagarakis and Darwin G. Caldwell",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"578",title:"An Embedded Control Platform of a Continuous Passive Motion Machine for Injured Fingers",slug:"an_embedded_control_platform_of_a_continuous_passive_motion_machine_for_injured_fingers",totalDownloads:3653,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"5250",slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Zhang Fuxiang",authors:null},{id:"70419",title:"Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction: Robot-Assisted Pyeloplasty",slug:"ureteropelvic-junction-obstruction-robot-assisted-pyeloplasty",totalDownloads:844,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The standard treatment of ureteropelvic junction obstruction (UPJO) is represented by the Anderson-Hynes dismembered pyeloplasty, even if different approaches, both surgical and endoscopic, have been described. Robot-assisted pyeloplasty (RP) is a feasible and safe approach. The indications for the robotic approach remain the same as those for the laparoscopic or open pyeloplasty. Every patient with symptomatic UPJO, or with decreasing renal function in the presence of UPJO, should undergo RP. The transperitoneal, retroperitoneal, and transmesocolic approaches are described focusing on advantages and disadvantages of each approach. Robot-assisted pyeloplasty has excellent success rates for relief of obstruction and very low peri- and post-operative morbidity. The robotic surgical technique maintains the advantages of laparoscopic surgery providing a more precise manipulation and visualization, and a faster learning curve. Comparative studies are reported to confront the different techniques. Secondary minimally invasive pyeloplasty is obviously a more challenging procedure due to the fibrosis and the adhesions formed after the previous surgery. Newer techniques and indications such as the employment of buccal mucosal graft, the single port approach, and indocyanine green injection are described. Tips and tricks to keep in mind during this kind of procedure are listed in order to report our experience in this setting.",book:{id:"7375",slug:"medical-robotics-new-achievements",title:"Medical Robotics",fullTitle:"Medical Robotics - New Achievements"},signatures:"Pietro Diana, Paolo Casale, Alberto Rosario Saita, Giovanni Lughezzani and Nicolomaria Buffi",authors:[{id:"307565",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicolo'Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Buffi",slug:"nicolo'maria-buffi",fullName:"Nicolo'Maria Buffi"},{id:"309172",title:"Dr.",name:"Pietro",middleName:null,surname:"Diana",slug:"pietro-diana",fullName:"Pietro Diana"},{id:"309173",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Casale",slug:"paolo-casale",fullName:"Paolo Casale"},{id:"309174",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Saita",slug:"alberto-saita",fullName:"Alberto Saita"}]},{id:"552",title:"Work Assistive Mobile Robot for the Disabled in a Real Work Environment",slug:"work_assistive_mobile_robot_for_the_disabled_in_a_real_work_environment",totalDownloads:3414,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"5250",slug:"rehabilitation_robotics",title:"Rehabilitation Robotics",fullTitle:"Rehabilitation Robotics"},signatures:"Hyun Seok Hong, Jung Won Kang and Myung Jin Chung",authors:null},{id:"66614",title:"CFD Analysis of Flow Characteristics in a Jet Laryngoscope and the Different Application Forms of Superimposed Jet Ventilation",slug:"cfd-analysis-of-flow-characteristics-in-a-jet-laryngoscope-and-the-different-application-forms-of-su",totalDownloads:837,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The superimposed high-frequency jet ventilation is a jet ventilation technique that allows the surgeon to operate in a system open to the outside endoscopic surgery in the area of the vocal cord level. Although the clinical application is uncomplicated, the possible mechanisms of the gas flow in the jet laryngoscope are largely unknown. In the performed calculations for this work, the CFD software package Fluent is used with the preprocessor GAMBIT. After creating the geometry and networking of the jet laryngoscope in the preprocessor GAMBIT, the boundary conditions and input parameters in the solver are defined. This is followed by iterative calculation using Fluent and the tabulation of results. Ventilation is provided by an electronic respirator specially developed for the endoscope. There is a bidirectional gas flow in the jet laryngoscope. The free jet characteristics of the jet beam can be confirmed. Entrainment depends on pressure and on the gas velocity. The arrangement of the nozzles enables jet ventilation in stenosis. CFD analysis enables the representation of a continuous progress of the pressure as well as the representation of the continuous profile of the velocity in the investigated endoscope. Additionally the practical application for intensive care ventilation is shown.",book:{id:"7375",slug:"medical-robotics-new-achievements",title:"Medical Robotics",fullTitle:"Medical Robotics - New Achievements"},signatures:"Alexander Aloy, Simon Hell, Andreas Nowak and Matthaeus Grasl",authors:[{id:"283149",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Aloy",slug:"alexander-aloy",fullName:"Alexander Aloy"},{id:"290610",title:"Mr.",name:"Simon",middleName:null,surname:"Hell",slug:"simon-hell",fullName:"Simon Hell"},{id:"290611",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreas",middleName:null,surname:"Nowak",slug:"andreas-nowak",fullName:"Andreas Nowak"},{id:"290612",title:"Prof.",name:"Matthaeus",middleName:null,surname:"Grasl",slug:"matthaeus-grasl",fullName:"Matthaeus Grasl"}]},{id:"69924",title:"An Active Exoskeleton Called P.I.G.R.O. 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It is realized using light and strong materials, and it is electropneumatically controlled. In particular the authors also studied and defined some innovative input control curves useful for the unloaded training. In this paper, the main characteristics and innovations of P.I.G.R.O. are presented.",book:{id:"7375",slug:"medical-robotics-new-achievements",title:"Medical Robotics",fullTitle:"Medical Robotics - New Achievements"},signatures:"Guido Belforte, Terenziano Raparelli, Gabriella Eula, Silvia Sirolli, Silvia Appendino, Giuliano Carlo Geminiani, Elisabetta Geda, Marina Zettin, Roberta Virgilio and Katiuscia Sacco",authors:[{id:"14069",title:"PhD.",name:"Gabriella",middleName:null,surname:"Eula",slug:"gabriella-eula",fullName:"Gabriella Eula"},{id:"14077",title:"Prof.",name:"Terenziano",middleName:null,surname:"Raparelli",slug:"terenziano-raparelli",fullName:"Terenziano Raparelli"},{id:"61056",title:"Mr.",name:"Katiuscia",middleName:null,surname:"Sacco",slug:"katiuscia-sacco",fullName:"Katiuscia Sacco"},{id:"313089",title:"Prof.",name:"Guido",middleName:null,surname:"Belforte",slug:"guido-belforte",fullName:"Guido Belforte"},{id:"313094",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Sirolli",slug:"silvia-sirolli",fullName:"Silvia Sirolli"},{id:"313095",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Appendino",slug:"silvia-appendino",fullName:"Silvia Appendino"},{id:"313096",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuliano Carlo",middleName:null,surname:"Geminiani",slug:"giuliano-carlo-geminiani",fullName:"Giuliano Carlo Geminiani"},{id:"313097",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabetta",middleName:null,surname:"Geda",slug:"elisabetta-geda",fullName:"Elisabetta Geda"},{id:"313098",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Zettin",slug:"marina-zettin",fullName:"Marina Zettin"},{id:"313101",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberta",middleName:null,surname:"Virgilio",slug:"roberta-virgilio",fullName:"Roberta Virgilio"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1125",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. 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Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:245,paginationItems:[{id:"196707",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa Numan",middleName:null,surname:"Bucak",slug:"mustafa-numan-bucak",fullName:"Mustafa Numan Bucak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196707/images/system/196707.png",biography:"Mustafa Numan Bucak received a bachelor’s degree from the Veterinary Faculty, Ankara University, Turkey, where he also obtained a Ph.D. in Sperm Cryobiology. He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. 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