Nominal settings of Sentinel-2A/Sentinel-2B MSI with band number, central wavelength, band width, and pixel size/resolution (source ESA).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5849",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Molecular Self-assembly in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology",title:"Molecular Self-assembly in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Self-assembly is a common principle in molecular fabrication of natural and synthetic systems and has many important applications in the fields of nanoscience and nanotechnology. This book provides clear explanations of the principles of self-assembly with the limitations along with examples and research-based results with discussion for students, researchers, and professions.",isbn:"978-953-51-3158-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3157-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4849-4",doi:"10.5772/65607",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"molecular-self-assembly-in-nanoscience-and-nanotechnology",numberOfPages:142,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ed0dd5b8311f232ce2a0e51f907f7ac5",bookSignature:"Ayben Kilislioğlu and Selcan Karakuş",publishedDate:"May 10th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5849.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10493,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 6th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 27th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 23rd 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 23rd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 22nd 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"139903",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayben",middleName:null,surname:"Kilislioglu",slug:"ayben-kilislioglu",fullName:"Ayben Kilislioglu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/139903/images/2862_n.jpg",biography:"Professor Ayben Kilislioğlu is currently working in the department of chemistry, Istanbul University (IU), Turkey. She received her master of science degree in physical chemistry from IU in 1994. She received her doctor of philosophy degree in physical chemistry from IU in 2000. She worked as visiting research assistant professor at the University of Illinois, Chicago, department of chemistry, between 2005-2006. She also worked at University of Chicago in Dr. Graeme Bell’s Lab in 2007. She has research experience in adsorption, surface characterization and ion exchange. She worked on different projects funded by Istanbul University Grant Commission. She has published several research articles and a book chapter in this area.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",middleName:null,surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206110/images/system/206110.jpeg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Selcan Karakuş is currently working at the Department of Chemistry, Istanbul University - Cerrahpasa, Turkey. She obtained her Master of Science degree in Physical Chemistry from Istanbul University (IU) in 2006. She obtained her Doctor of Philosophy degree in Physical Chemistry from IU in 2011. She has worked as a visiting researcher at the University of Massachusetts, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering. She has research experience in nanoparticles, nanocomposites, nanoemulsions, metal oxide nanostructures, and sensors. She has worked on different projects funded by Istanbul University - Cerrahpasa and has published several research articles and book chapters in her area of interest.",institutionString:"Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"508",title:"Nanochemistry",slug:"chemistry-physical-chemistry-nanochemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"55094",title:"Nanostructured Morphologies by Self-Assembly of Diblock Copolymers: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68476",slug:"nanostructured-morphologies-by-self-assembly-of-diblock-copolymers-a-review",totalDownloads:2003,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to the thermodynamic incompatibility between blocks, diblock copolymers can self‐assemble in a wide variety of nanostructures, covalent linkage among blocks preventing the phase separation at macroscopic scale. Those nanostructures depend on copolymer composition (f), Flory‐Huggins interaction parameter among both blocks (χ), and polymerization degree of the copolymer (N). Thin films of block copolymers can show different equilibrium morphologies such as spheres, cylinders, gyroids, and lamellas. Besides mentioned parameters, film preparation process (substrate, annealing process if any) and used solvent will determine self‐assembled morphology. In the present review, the most important morphologies or microstructures obtained for different diblock copolymer films are presented, as well as the most important phase transitions among them. Different microstructures and the way in which they can be obtained become of great importance, as they could be used as templates for nanoparticle deposition, nanolithography, or nanopatterned materials with several potential applications in different fields such as nanoelectronics or nanomedicine.",signatures:"Galder Kortaberria",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55094",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55094",authors:[{id:"102097",title:"Dr.",name:"Galder",surname:"Kortaberria",slug:"galder-kortaberria",fullName:"Galder Kortaberria"}],corrections:null},{id:"55083",title:"Amphiphilic Ionic Perylenediimides: Structures, Self-Assembly Studies and Biomedical Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68399",slug:"amphiphilic-ionic-perylenediimides-structures-self-assembly-studies-and-biomedical-applications",totalDownloads:1696,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Amphiphilic ionic perylenediimides (AIPDIs) with well‐defined structures have been widely studied, which involve abundant non‐covalent interactions. Among these interactions, electrostatic interactions serve as the primary force that may be followed by other non‐covalent interactions like π–π stacking. Taking advantage of these tunable interactions between simple AIPDI‐building blocks, AIPDIs are widely used for constructing increasingly complex structures at varying scales. Besides, AIPDIs with outstanding photochemical stability exhibit high fluorescence quantum yields (FQYs) in aqueous solution, because hydrophilic substituents of AIPDIs can shield the inner perylene chromophores and weaken π–π stacking, contributing to the improvement of water solubility and the suppression of aggregation‐caused quenching (ACQ). AIPDIs with excellent water solubility, strong FQYs and desired interactions with charged components in cells and tissues hold great promise for various biomedical applications, which can be concluded in three hierarchical levels, which is in vitro, live cell and tissue.",signatures:"Meizhen Yin and Baozhong Lü",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55083",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55083",authors:[{id:"197547",title:"Prof.",name:"Meizhen",surname:"Yin",slug:"meizhen-yin",fullName:"Meizhen Yin"},{id:"199447",title:"Mr.",name:"Baozhong",surname:"Lü",slug:"baozhong-lu",fullName:"Baozhong Lü"}],corrections:null},{id:"54636",title:"Supramolecular Materials Based on Ionic Self‐Assembly: Structure, Property, and Application",doi:"10.5772/67906",slug:"supramolecular-materials-based-on-ionic-self-assembly-structure-property-and-application",totalDownloads:1869,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The technique of ionic self‐assembly (ISA), on the basis of electrostatic interactions, is a powerful tool to create new material nanostructures and chemical objects due to its advantages of facility, reliability, cost saving, flexibility, and universality. It has attracted great attention because of its promising applications in catalysis, drug delivery, and molecular detection. This review focuses on recent advances in the construction of self‐assemblies with different morphologies on the basis of ISA strategy and its applications. The ISA method provides an opportunity to generate complex and hierarchical assemblies with tunable properties, which is regarded as a very promising case of supramolecular chemistry.",signatures:"Jinglin Shen, Shiling Yuan and Xia Xin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54636",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54636",authors:[{id:"153202",title:"Dr.",name:"Xia",surname:"Xin",slug:"xia-xin",fullName:"Xia Xin"},{id:"204831",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinglin",surname:"Shen",slug:"jinglin-shen",fullName:"Jinglin Shen"},{id:"204832",title:"Prof.",name:"Shiling",surname:"Yuan",slug:"shiling-yuan",fullName:"Shiling Yuan"}],corrections:null},{id:"54331",title:"Chiral Solvation Induced Supramolecular Chiral Assembly of Achiral Polymers",doi:"10.5772/67700",slug:"chiral-solvation-induced-supramolecular-chiral-assembly-of-achiral-polymers",totalDownloads:1571,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To date, liquid crystal chirality, mechanophysical chirality, circularly polarized photon chirality, gelation and chiral solvation are all feasible candidates to generate optically active polymers and supramolecular chirality when employing achiral molecules as starting substances. Among this, chiral‐solvation‐induced chirality is one of the dominant methods for construction of chirality from achiral sources, such as achiral poly(n‐hexyl isocyanate) (PHIC), π‐conjugated polymers, oligo(p‐phenylenevinylene), polyacetylenes, σ‐conjugated polysilanes and side‐chain polymers. Supramolecular chirality is well established through their intra‐ or inter‐molecular noncovalent interactions, such as van der Waals, CH/π, dipole‐dipole interactions, hydrogen bonding and metal‐ligand coordinating interactions. Compared with the traditional methods, this strategy avoids the use of expensive chiral reagents and also expands the scope towards challenging substrates. This chapter highlights a series of studies that include: (i) the development‐historical background of chiral solvent induction strategy; (ii) the chiral‐solvation‐induced chirality in small molecules and oligomers; and (iii) recent developments in polymers, especially in π‐conjugated polymers and σ‐conjugated polymers.",signatures:"Wei Zhang, Yin Zhao and Lu Yin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54331",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54331",authors:[{id:"197834",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei",surname:"Zhang",slug:"wei-zhang",fullName:"Wei Zhang"},{id:"199289",title:"Dr.",name:"Yin",surname:"Zhao",slug:"yin-zhao",fullName:"Yin Zhao"},{id:"199292",title:"Dr.",name:"Lu",surname:"Yin",slug:"lu-yin",fullName:"Lu Yin"}],corrections:null},{id:"54558",title:"Supramolecular Assembly and Stimuli-Responsive Behavior of Multielement Hybrid Copolymers",doi:"10.5772/67905",slug:"supramolecular-assembly-and-stimuli-responsive-behavior-of-multielement-hybrid-copolymers",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Toward the organic polymer, hybrid elements can be defined as those beyond C, H, O, and N. Polymers comprising hybrid elements, such as Si, P, B, or metal ions have attracted great attention in the design of high performance or smart materials. Introduction of hybrid elements into a polymeric network may also lead to the formation of new intermolecular interactions, thus promote the self-organization of polymer chains to form controllable structures and morphologies. In this chapter, we introduce some of the recent important development in the design and self-assembly of hybrid amphiphilic copolymers. Specific attention was paid on the hybrid amphiphilic copolymers containing POSS, boronic acid, or boronate functional moieties. We introduce the design, synthesis, self-assembly behavior, and properties of these hybrid amphiphilic copolymers in detail. Also, the advantages and drawbacks of these polymers and their corresponding nanoassemblies are discussed.",signatures:"Conghui Yuan, Yiting Xu, Birong Zeng, Weiang Luo, Guorong Chen,\nJie Mao, Cheng Liu and Lizong Dai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54558",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54558",authors:[{id:"54512",title:"Prof.",name:"Lizong",surname:"Dai",slug:"lizong-dai",fullName:"Lizong Dai"},{id:"197698",title:"Dr.",name:"Conghui",surname:"Yuan",slug:"conghui-yuan",fullName:"Conghui Yuan"},{id:"199444",title:"Dr.",name:"Yiting",surname:"Xu",slug:"yiting-xu",fullName:"Yiting Xu"},{id:"199446",title:"Dr.",name:"Birong",surname:"Zeng",slug:"birong-zeng",fullName:"Birong Zeng"}],corrections:null},{id:"54752",title:"Introduction to Electronic Properties and Dynamics of Organic Complexes as Self‐Assembled Monolayers",doi:"10.5772/68111",slug:"introduction-to-electronic-properties-and-dynamics-of-organic-complexes-as-self-assembled-monolayers",totalDownloads:1559,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Self‐assembled monolayers (SAMs) of organic‐conjugated transition metal complexes on surfaces is a focus of both device engineering and basic science, since it is a key factor in nearly all important aspects of device performances, including operation voltages, degradation, and efficiency. The huge amount of literature results related to the first monolayer, and reorganization and self‐assembling processes are due to the general accepted result that structural and chemical properties of the first monolayer are the key parameters for controlled thin film growth. Optical and magneto‐electronic properties are intimately connected, and the accurate determination of electronic levels, excitation, and relaxation dynamics is mandatory for the optimization of electronic, photovoltaic, and opto‐electronic devices. Quite a number of electronic states is generated by the interaction of light with complex organic molecules. Time‐resolved spectroscopies are a new investigation tool that gives the possibility of correctly addressing their origin and life time. Examples of prototypical systems are presented and discussed. 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New Questions",slug:"old-yeasts-new-questions",publishedDate:"December 13th 2017",bookSignature:"Candida Lucas and Celia Pais",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6007.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95655",title:"Prof.",name:"Cândida",middleName:null,surname:"Lucas",slug:"candida-lucas",fullName:"Cândida Lucas"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11513",leadTitle:null,title:"Gas Sensors",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tWe are living in a society where automation in each electrical appliance/instrument is a great demand. We wish to have automatic devices/gadgets/instruments with no or minimal intervention from humans in their daily operation. Then only, these devices can qualify to call it is smart instruments. To fulfill this, one of the major requirements is to come up with highly sensitive, long-lasting, low-cost smart sensors. On the other hand, the healthcare industry demands low-cost, Lab-on-chip type biosensors for simple and rapid detection of various biomolecules or biogases. A sensor is an analytical device that detects the change in the environment and responds to some output in terms of a measurable analog resistance/voltage/current converted into a human-readable display or transmitted for further processing. In the last two decades, a significant amount of research has been devoted to the development of various types of gas sensors using different nanomaterials in the electronic and healthcare industry.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to provide the reader (research scholars, scientists, and engineers working in the field of sensors) an overview of the recent advances made in the development of various gas sensors for the electronic and healthcare industries for the betterment of the human lifestyle. Also, this book will intend to address existing challenges and a few future directions of research for easy integration and cost-effective fast sensing of such
\r\n\tgas sensors.
Forestry means use of forests for achieving specific objective that introduces it into different types [1]. The aim of industrial forestry is to produce wood-based products for national and international markets. But the objective of other approaches of forestry is to create and enhance wildlife habitat and water quality [2]. Managing forests with the express intent of benefiting neighbouring communities is community forestry (CF) [3]. Beneficial functions of the forest had attracted various actors and stakeholders, including the state, private enterprises and local forest users. Also, they have built up distinct interactions with the forest to satisfy their economic, political and social needs [4].
\nIn community forestry, forest user group (FUG) controls and manages the local forests [1]. Harvesting and pricing of all forest products and forest management are governed by an executive committee elected in the FUG assembly [5–7]. Local people gain membership and receive cash subsidy as an incentive for forest management after registration of FUG in District Forest Office (DFO). Surplus income of community forestry forest user group (CFUG) has been used for the purpose of infrastructure development [1, 5]. Therefore, co-operation and collective actions will be obtained by transferring authority and responsibility for forest management to local users [5]. Incentives are made to control the forest through the practice of sustainable activities for income generation.
\nCFUG members carrying firewood from CF. (Source: Author).
Many rural communities that depend on nearby forests take community forestry (CF) as a tool for the globalization of the economy. It provides benefit from timber and non-timber forest resources, as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, and also creates job opportunities. Community forestry provides benefits to local users from nearby forests. As neighbouring communities suffer most from resource degradation, community forestry provides overall role to local people in forest decision making [2]. It provides great opportunity for resource managers to utilize the indigenous knowledge of local people for sustainable management. Rural development practitioners utilize potential of forestry for forest protection, community strengthening and economic development [2].
\nLocal fruits extracted from CF of Syangja. (Source: Author).
In community forestry, forest can be sustainably managed to protect natural resource and forest ecosystem functions and also provide income opportunities to community residents from traditional and non-traditional products and services. The benefits and services of forest ecosystems include non-timber forest products, watershed protection, recreational use, tourism, carbon storage, spiritual and cultural significance, genetic resources, medicinal plants and wildlife habitat [2]. In spite of the market values from timber and wood products, non-market values include environmental stability, quality of life and the economic strength of a region. Community forestry is practiced on public forest lands with the partnerships and coordination between communities and forest landowners to foster forest stewardship and economic development. It should be under the management of the local community to emphasize collaborative and participatory management in local needs and local knowledge.
\nHistorical experience shows that unless people are given user rights and ownership to control and make decisions, people lose interest in active practices of forest management [5]. Community forestry management (CFM) originates in Nepal due to the progressive degradation of hill forests caused by institutional failure [3]. Before the 1950s, forests in the Middle hills of Nepal were managed by local landlords and there was free access to non-commercial forest products. During 1951–1961, forests were nationalized and controlled by the Department of Forest (DoF). But, they were unable to manage it which creates an open access situation and local users lacked incentives to regulate forest use. It leads to unregulated extraction by creating conflicts between villagers and DoF staff. After this, land registration processes started in Nepal, which lead to encroachment and forest degradation by threatening the sustainability of livelihoods in the Middle hills [8]. There was increasing loss of forest areas due to the increase in the values of timber and other natural resources [4]. Involving local people in forest management was necessary so community forestry management was introduced to establish community-based organizations for collective management of forest resources [8].
\nForest policies have been changed as the state and local communities experience forest losses and degradation after the 1950s. The process of nationalization formulates a centrally designed and scientifically informed forest policy in the context of Nepal. The new policy could not work longer as it had limited the use of forest resources and incentives for sustainable use and co-operative management. After the failure of the governmental forest management system and the revival of common-based management systems, local communities have taken back these rights to use and manage their forests and formed institutions called forest user groups (FUGs). Therefore, in the 1970s, local users’ participation in forest management was reconsidered by the government after recognizing the effectiveness and benefits of common property management [9].
\nConference organized by the Department of Forest in 1975 focused on the role of community in forest management. It helps in the emergence of community forest management till 1978 and further development occurs till 1993 [8]. Community forestry management was initiated on an experimental basis in the 1980s which decides to provide power and authority over resource use to the community level and return property rights to communities. Projects were initiated by the governmental institution with the support of policymakers, field staff of the forest department and project staff of the national community forestry workshop. Eventually, community forestry was legally implemented with the 1993 Forest Act and the 1995 Forest Rules with the support of local users and forestry staffs [10]. The responsibility of protection of CF is taken by local forest user groups while forestry staff plays the role of supervision [10].
\nThe need of community involvement was identified in the National Forestry Plan after the deterioration of hill forests. After the National Forestry Plan, two amendments were made in Forest Act in 1977 and 1978, and the handover of forests has started gradually. World Bank, Australia and Britain also need changes in the forestry sector in the 1980s, and community forestry management was introduced in various policies. Decentralization Act in 1982 focused on forming the community forestry management committees for forest management, and the concept of forest user groups was introduced. To provide subsistence needs of people, the Seventh Periodic Plan (1985–1990) gave priority to people’s participation in forest management. As a second major milestone, the master plan for the forestry sector declared to handover forests in the Middle hills to FUGs by following the outcomes of first the National Community Forestry Workshop in 1987. For the reorientation of DoF staff towards this new priority, 47% of investment within the forest sector was invested in support of community forestry programmes for the new role of facilitation. Democracy in 1990 helps to form FUGs the important unit of community forestry management and a strong independent legal institution [8].
\nAnalysts have delineated three phases of forestry development in Nepal–privatization (before 1957), nationalization (1957 to the late 1970s) and decentralization (the late 1970s onwards) [11]. Before the state took control of forests in late 1950s, most forests in rural Nepal were controlled and managed by local communities. When the government identified the need of active co-operation of local forest-dependent citizens, participation of local people in the forest management began in the late 1970s. In the history of Nepal, state was controlled by the Shah or Rana families before the democracy in the 1950s, the 1990s and after 2006. The control of forest resource and economic surplus flowed from general people to the ruling elites [11].
\nBefore the establishment of community forestry, government of Nepal assumed that transferring forests from private groups to the state would enhance people’s access to forest resources but the state imposed regulations to exclude people from controlling forest resources [11]. To mitigate deforestation and forest degradation and to address the negative impacts on rural livelihoods, community forestry management (CFM) was established as an important forestry policy in the late 1970s. It plays an important role in forest management by linking agriculture, livestock rearing and the forest [12]. It focuses on avoiding deforestation and forest degradation by implementing protective measures [13]. Involvement of local people in forest protection and management became an important policy in the forestry sector in the hilly region due to the failure of states to mitigate deforestation and forest degradation [13].
\nCFM has been promoted as an important step in common property resource management in Nepal [14]. To mitigate the growing deforestation and deterioration of the forest, government of Nepal made a policy based on the 1976 National Forestry Plan to involve local communities in forest management [8]. Many communities in developing countries are successful in transforming natural forests from the deteriorating state to the sustainable state. Community-based forest management is an approach to mitigate increasing deforestation and forest degradation to address the negative impacts on rural livelihoods. In Asia, this management approach quickly became widespread in different forms of community involvement in forest management and protection [8]. China Collective Forest, India Joint Forest, Philippines Community-based Forest and Nepal Community Forest are some of the examples of community managed forest. In a time duration of more than 10 years, CFM had a great role in forest conservation. Management of forest by local users and supervision by local forestry staff make CFM more successful, which is a successful example of decentralization and empowerment of local people [8].
\nA group of households wishing to form a CFUG should prepare an operational plan under the provisions of the Forest Act of 1993 and submit it for registration at the local District Forest Office (DFO). To prepare an operational plan for forest management, CFUG should take technical assistance from forest officials and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). There is no any legal limit for the area and size of the CFUGs as it depends on the willingness and ability of the community to manage a forest. CFUG may include all members of a village, a selected group of households, people from different village and district without any administrative boundaries. It is inclusive of households in the village and all households of one or more villages become members of a CFUG, representing diverse interest in forests. CFUG is a perpetually self-governed institution with rights to manage and fix the prices of forest products. Forest use is not restricted in legal framework and practice, but CFUGs have to pay taxes to the government for selling any forest products outside CFUG. The state retains ownership of forests but communities hold the rights to use the forests and make management decisions. With the help of operational plan, CFUGs set the price of various products, collect revenue and mobilize income for community development activities [11].
\nGeneral meeting of CFUG members. (Source: Author).
CFUG members can participate in decision-making process through role-based meetings, executive committee involvement, annual assemblies and forest management plans formulation as shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. Each CFUG prepares its own constitution and operational plan, registers and approves from DFO, defines the social arrangements, responsibilities and rights of the group and makes arrangement for forest management. The strategy, constitution and operational plan are prepared by following standard guidelines and norms but varies from group to group to adapt local traditions and practices. Each CFUG elects a specified number of members to an executive committee for a period of 1–3 years to carry out day-to-day decisions about forest management [11].
\nChecklist and feedback collection from CFUG. (Source: Author).
Community forestry management in Nepal is successful in providing important rights, including decision making, empowerment over forest management and use, and access to forest resources at the community level. Community forestry policy and institutional innovations contribute to improved welfare and livelihood security in Nepal by increasing access of CFUG to forest products and by providing positive impacts on income, employment and entrepreneurial opportunities, livelihood diversification, and broader community development activities. The role of CFM to overall livelihood security is critically important in Nepal because more than 70% of Nepal’s population depends on agricultural livelihoods that encompass complex interactions between agriculture, forestry and livestock systems [11].
\nUp to date, a total of 1,798,733 ha of community forest is handed over to 18,960 community forest user group throughout the country [15]. The trend of conversion of public forest into community forest is increasing rapidly with the need and interest of local community in conserving forest.
\nDifferent life forms or varieties of life are called biodiversity, and care and management of biological materials are called biodiversity conservation [16]. It is categorized as species diversity, ecological diversity and genetic diversity [17]. Due to the unique geographical location with diverse climate and altitude, Nepal has great diversity of flora and fauna [16, 17]. Nepal consists of 0.1% of the terrestrial area of the earth with 118 ecosystems, 75 vegetation types and 35 forest types [17]. It consists of 5000 species of flowering plants, 2252 species of moths, 635 species of butterflies, 185 species of fishes, 844 species of birds and 181 species of mammals. For the conservation of biodiversity, there is provision of protected areas, zoo, different types of law, conventions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), local and national authorities and national and international organizations [16].
\nScenic beauty of forestry combined with water. (Source: Author).
Community forestry is successful in decreasing resource degradation and helpful in the conservation of biodiversity [18]. Implementation of community forest management has improved the forest condition and biodiversity in the hills of Nepal as compared to degraded forest in the past. It could be a suitable option to conserve biodiversity, but it focuses on sustainable forest product and keeping biodiversity conservation in less priority. Its aim is to supply forest products to local users rather than to conserve biodiversity [19]. There is a considerable role of community forestry in biodiversity conservation of Nepal. The impacts on biodiversity of plant species are clear but it is less obvious in the case of faunal biodiversity. Community forestry had protected or re-established habitat and helpful in the survival of birds and animals. Operational plans also include prohibitions against hunting at the request of local people [20]. For the conservation of forest and its biodiversity, CFUGs are voluntarily involved in fencing, planting and meetings. It is helping in carbon sequestration and increasing the forest cover by controlling deforestation and forest degradation [1].
\nVarious studies have demonstrated a significant increase in forest condition under community forestry showing that it is a proven model for controlling deforestation and forest degradation. CF helps in supporting livelihood in hilly area by providing necessary forest products, such as fodder, firewood, timber, leaf litter and agricultural tools. CFM also helps in conservation of flora and fauna. There is a growing concern that CF is prioritizing only towards sustainable management of forest resources and less towards biodiversity conservation. The aim of community forestry is to supply forest products to local users rather than to conserve biodiversity. Currently, there is evidence that CFUGs are slowly moving towards active forest management. Effective management of CF leads to sustainable production and sustainable harvest of forest resource. Sustainable harvest of forest resource helps to fulfil forest product needs and also helps in livelihood enhancement of local people [18].
\n\nCF has been successful to provide forest resource need of people by enhancing the forest cover. Forest enhancement is increasing ecological services of forest, water resource management, biodiversity conservation, carbon stock, greenery enhancement and air quality management, as shown in Figure 5 [12]. In actual fact, CFM provides win-win situation in atmospheric carbon dioxide mitigation and biodiversity conservation in global scale; and livelihood enhancement and greenery enhancement in local scale are shown in Figure 6. Community forestry also had co-benefits of reducing poverty, addressing social exclusion and creating rural employment [21].
\nAgroforestry system practiced in CF area. (Source: Author).
In Nepal, local communities have come a long way in conserving forest ecosystems and nurturing local institutions for democracy and social justice. The historical context for the emergence of community forestry in Nepal dates back to the 1950s, when the Government of Nepal nationalized all the forests hoping to optimize the use of natural resources and conserve it sustainably. Communities were totally excluded from the forest management process threatening the livelihood of the rural people. This exclusion led to massive deforestation and degradation of natural resources solely because the community viewed the state as an enemy causing destruction of forest. The situation of environmental crisis had emerged due to lack of participation of community in management of forests. By the late 1970s, Nepal had lost almost 2.2 million hectares of forest cover resulting in serious downstream flooding. In the Kavre and Sindhupalchok districts of central Nepal, a study found that shrub land and grass land have been converted into productive forests increasing the forest area from 7677 to 9678 ha [11, 22]. Three different studies conducted in mountain ecosystem for a time period of 25 years (1976–1989–2000) showed that forest cover had increased as compared to the past. Due to the increase in forest cover, small patches were merged into larger ones decreasing their number (from 395 to 175) and increasing forest area (794 ha). Thus, there is an overall improvement in forest protection contributing to local environmental conservation and increased greenery [11, 23].
\n\nDifferent research studies are conducted by different researchers to assess the role of community forest in biodiversity conservation in Nepal by applying different methodologies. Issues raised by researchers in their research studies were reviewed to find out tools and techniques applied by them. It would support the researchers to identify the subject of research with appropriate tools and techniques. It would make the new researchers easy and simple to select appropriate literature necessary for them. This chapter provides the location, aim and methodology of different research studies throughout the world.
\nWith an objective to examine the impacts of forest management on biodiversity in Nepal, Acharya [19] conducted a study on two CFUGs in the Mid-hill region of Parbat district in Nepal. The study area was selected on the basis of similar socio-economic, ecological conditions, area, forest types and biophysical factors. Forest biodiversity information was collected using six transects walk at three different altitudes in the east-west and north-south directions in each of the CFUGs with the help of informal interviews with CFUG members by applying tools and techniques of participatory rural appraisal (PRA).
\nThoms [24] conducted a study to examine whether community forestry is elite dominated and not successful in livelihoods improvement of CFUGs. For this purpose, primary data were collected from 6 months of field research between October 2002 and April 2003 in four hill districts and two Terai districts. Data were collected from 2871 household surveys selected through multi-stage area probability sampling.
\nWith an aim to compare land use changes between village development committees (VDCs) with and without community forests, Gautam et al. [25] conducted a study in the Roshi watershed of Kabhrepalanchok district in the Middle Hills of Nepal. Spatial analysis was based on two land use data sets, 1978 data compiled by the land resource mapping project (LRMP) and 1992 data compiled by Survey Department of His Majesty’s Government of Nepal (HMGN).
\nWith an aim to evaluate forest condition in community forests, national forests and protected areas in the Nepal Terai, Nagendra [26] conducted a study in three International Forestry Resources and Institutions (IFRI) research sites in the Chitwan district of Nepal. The site was selected to cover the east-west range at an altitude of 195–425 m above the sea level in
Measurement of diameter of tree inside CF. (Source: Author).
Adhikari et al. [18] studied the relationship between key household characteristics and common property resources in eight community forest of two districts, Kabhre Palanchok and Sindhu Palchowk, in the mid-hills of Nepal. The study was based on information collected through a household survey. A total of 20% stratified sample of households from each income group was chosen by compiling a census of village households with participatory rural appraisal (PRA) techniques.
\nWith an aim to assess success of restoration in community forest using a reference of semi-protected natural forest, Baral and Katzensteiner [27] conducted a study in CF and better protected municipality owned forest (MF) in similar topographic positions in Dhulikhel of Kavrepalanchowk district. The diversity of vascular plants and forest structure was compared with the help of primary data of tree height, diameter at breast height (DBH) and crown width with the help of transect survey, clinometers and diameter tape.
\nTo assess improved condition of forests by collective action of local communities, Shrestha and McManus [28] conducted a study in three CFUGs of Nepal. Data collection was directly carried out by rapid forest assessment (RFA), household questionnaire interview (HQI), group discussion, participant observation and informal talks. Rectangular plots were established in each community forest of size 100 m2 (10 m 10 m) to capture plantation in a recently harvested site and dense forest with mature trees and to represent the diversity of forests within the sample plots.
\nTo identify the role of community forests in the conservation of faunal diversity of Satbariya Range Post of Dang district, Pokhrel and Shah [29] conducted a study with the help of questionnaire survey, group discussion and line transect methods. They collected data of faunal diversity, abundance and distribution pattern of the wild animals and wildlife-people conflict.
\n\nTo estimate the climate change mitigation potential from carbon stock of the forest, K. C. et al. [14] conducted a study in Ghwangkhola Sapaude Babiyabhir Community Forest (GSBCF) in Syangja district of Nepal. Their study was based on carbon stock measurement and review of past studies.
\nMeasurement of height of tree inside CF. (Source: Author).
With a special focus to study the impact of forest resource use on carbon stock of forest, Paudel and K. C. [30] conducted a study in Kafle Community Forest of Lalitpur district in Nepal. To conduct carbon stock measurement, focus group discussion and key informant interview, field visit was conducted in different time of year in 2012 and 2014. Biomass measurement was conducted directly in the field for trees and sapling by following national guideline as shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8. Twenty composite samples of leaf litter, herbs, grasses and soil collected in the field were brought to the laboratory for detailed analysis of biomass and carbon stock.
\n\nWith a special focus to study the feasibility of community forest management, K. C. and Manandhar [31] carried out research on GSBCF of Syangja district in Nepal. Their study was based on carbon stock measurement, household survey, focus group discussion, key informant interview and review of past studies.
\nAs stated in the introductory section, CFM had a great role in the conservation of flora and fauna. To identify the status of community forest, findings of different research studies are documented below.
\nGautam [32] conducted a study to assess the carbon sequestration rate of the agroforestry system, natural forest and annual cropping system in the Terai region of Nepal. Natural forest had the highest carbon stock of 98 ton/ha. Carbon stock in the annual cropping system ranges from 33.2 to 55.5 ton/ha while that of orchard plantation ranges from 35 to 74.6 ton/ha. Similarly, soil organic carbon (SOC) in natural forest, vegetable field and streamside were 53.2, 52.6 and 3.6 ton/ha, respectively.
\nAcharya [19] observed that active management by CFUGs contradicts with biodiversity conservation. Forest types are slowly converting to monoculture from mixed, shrub and tree diversity is decreasing gradually, and shrub land areas are gradually converting to high forest land. Active forest management favouring specific useful plant may introduce more homogeneity into the forest structure with consequent loss of biodiversity. It will lead to the modification of forest types and ecosystem in the mid-hills of Nepal affecting ecological functions and services of forests.
\nThoms [24] concluded that community forestry is quite successful in terms of forest protection and management but at the cost of the poorest households. Community forestry is fairly successful in conservation but not in improving rural livelihoods.
\nGautam et al. [25] observed that VDCs having community forests before 1992 sustained less total loss of forested area (1.9%) than VDCs without community forest (9.9%). High forest area was six times higher in VDCs with community forests (77%) than the VDCs without community forests (13%). Loss of shrub land in VDC with community forest was 50% greater than that of VDCs without community forest.
\nNagendra [26] observed that vegetation density and species diversity were highest in national park forest, followed by national forest and community forests. Community forests were Significantly poorer as compared to national forests in species richness and Shannon species diversity of tree; sapling density, sapling diameter, sapling richness, sapling Shannon species diversity, sapling girth and sapling height. Trees located in community forests were Significantly taller with high density than those within national forests, but there was no difference in tree size (diameter). Community forests have Significantly low species richness, low Shannon species diversity and smaller diameter saplings as compared to national park forest. There was low level of grazing, low tree lopping but proper fencing in community forest as compared to the national forest.
\nAdhikari [33] tried to examine the contribution of community forestry to household-level income with particular emphasis on group heterogeneity and equity in benefit distribution. The household level benefits suggest that poorer households are currently benefiting less from community forestry. But, poor are not more dependent than the rich in community forest. Regression analysis shows that socio-economic conditions and ownership of private property are directly related to revenue generated from community forest. Households having more land and livestock get more benefits from community forest. Educated people and female-dominated household get less benefit from forest resources.
\nBhatta [34] conducted a study in mixed broad leaved forests of Phulchowki watershed, Lalitpur. The carbon stock in above ground in natural forest and community forest ranges from 91.89 to 112.79 and 55.30 to 67.04 ton/ha, respectively. Similarly, the carbon stock in soil in natural forest and community forest ranges from 195 to 223 and 150 to 160 ton/ha, respectively.
\nShrestha and McManus [28] observed that local communities are effectively protecting the forest through direct efforts of users or through forest watchers or sometimes both. Improvement in forest condition was seen by reversing degradation and regenerating degraded areas but not ideally for biodiversity conservation. The forests have low species diversity as the trees and poles are dominated by few species promoted by the FUG for their social, economic and political values.
\nDahal [35] conducted a study in Sunaulo Ghampa
Karky [36] conducted a study in three community forest of Manang, Lalitpur and Ilam district in Nepal. From measurement of carbon stock, it was observed that the carbon stock of community forest with SOC up to 1 m depth (without leaf litter, herbs and shrubs) was 138 ton/ha or 504 ton CO2/ha in three districts of Nepal. He found that the annual incremental rate for carbon sequestration in forest under CFM was 1.92 and 7.04 ton/ha per year excluding soil organic carbon. He also found that when CFUGs are permitted to use forest resource, the breakeven price for per ton CO2 is $0.55 for Illam, $3.70 for Lamatar and $2.30 for Manang.
\nBaral and Katzensteiner [27] observed that maximum tree height (13.5 m) and the maximum DBH (29.5 cm) were observed in managed forest (MF). Trees with higher diameters have a higher basal area in MF, but 5–15 cm DBH trees have higher a basal area in CF. CF management activities have affected plant community composition, species richness and distribution, and age class distribution of the trees. CF was less diverse with uniform stands of tree species compared to MF. Overall diversity of vascular plants was maintained by providing proper niches for rich under storey vegetation.
\nGurung [37] conducted a pilot study in western Terai and had estimated the average forest carbon stock to be around 231 ton/ha. The carbon stock in trees above ground, below ground and in soil organic carbon (SOC) had been estimated to be about 68, 18, and 143 ton/ha, respectively. This clearly indicates that the share of SOC was almost 60% of the total forest carbon stock.
\nThagunna [38] conducted a study in Bailbanda Buffer zone CF, Kanchanpur. The total carbon stock of CF was 78.46 ton/ha. The benefit from carbon trade was $ 57,640 at the rate of $ 12.5/ton C.
\nAryal [39] conducted a study in Toudol Chhap CF, Sipadol, Bhaktapur. The total carbon content of pine forest and mixed broad leaf forest were 167.04 and 101.91 ton/ha, respectively.
\nBhusal [40] conducted a study in Nagmati watershed in Shivapuri National Park. The SOC and total carbon content in the sampled area (14 ha) were found to be 9782.11 ± 25.18 ton/ha corresponding to a total of 167442.26 ± 42076.82 ton carbon content in the Nagmati watershed (1406 ha). The total carbon content of Shivapuri National Park (5860.8 ha, i.e. 40% of the total area of park which is forest) excluding soil was 699961.20 ± 175894.32 ton.
\nDhakal [41] measured the total carbon stock in Pashupati Community Forest, Sarlahi district of Janakpur zone. The total carbon stock was found to be higher in naturally regenerated forest i.e. 181.83 ± 26.34 ton/ha followed by planted forest with 159.49 ± 31.96 ton/ha. The recent amount of total carbon stock of 133.65 ± 37.05 ton/ha was found in enriched forest.
\nICIMOD, ANSAB and FECOFUN (2010) had performed baseline study in 104 community forests (CF) of three watershed areas of Nepal; Kayarkhola of Chitwan district, Charnawati of Dolakha district and Ludhikhola of Gorkha district. Analysis of the DBH distributions of all strata follows a left-skewed trend, indicating most of the trees in all the strata were younger, and there was potential to enhance forest carbon stock by encouraging tree growth. Forest carbon stock in dense and sparse strata of Kayarkhola, Charnawati and Ludikhola watershed were 296.44 and 256.70, 228.56 and 166.75, 216.26 and 162.98 ton/ha, respectively.
\nMishra [42] conducted a study in Chapako CF, Kathmandu. The biomass carbon and soil organic carbon (SOC) of CF were 119.742 and 32.29 ton/ha, respectively. There was potential of storing and sequestering carbon in the CF.
\nCommunity forest user groups are giving less attention to biodiversity, ecosystem functions and services due to short-term economic motive, elite sanction and knowledge gap. They are unaware about maintaining biodiversity, ecosystem services and sustainable forest management. Monoculture of high economic valuable species and greenery of the forest are prioritized rather than the natural forest. Seedling plantation, wildlife hunting control and regulating forest encroachment assist biodiversity conservation but species selection, removal of unwanted species and traditional knowledge depletion have negative impact on biological diversity [43].
\nThe study reveals that the carbon stored in the forest soil is almost double than the biomass carbon [44]. The biomass in the Gwangkhola Sapaude Babiyabhir community forest, Syangja, Nepal, was found to be 164 ton/ha, with yearly increment of 0.95 ton/ha. The total carbon stock of the forest was 122.29 ton/ha, including soil organic carbon and below ground carbon of 45.18 and 12.85 ton/ha, respectively. The forest was dominated by
Increase in forest cover and leaf litter in CF. (Source: Author).
K. C. et al. [14] measured the biomass in above ground shoot and below ground root of trees, shrubs, leaf litter, herbs and grass (LHG) in community forest of Syangja district in Nepal. It was observed that above ground biomass of trees was highest (126.3 ton/ha) followed by below ground biomass (27.34 ton/ha), sapling biomass (2.88 ton/ha) and leaf litter, herbs and grass biomass (7.54 ton/ha). Carbon stock in forest (122.29 ton/ha) was increasing at the rate of 0.45 ton/ha per year. Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) was mitigated by the forest at the rate of 1.64 ton/ha per year. The species diversity of
K. C. and Manandhar [31] observed the total carbon stock of 155.04 ton/ha with soil organic carbon of 50.15 ton/ha in the forest. The more number of trees below 20 cm DBH shows that the forest is conserved after handing it to CFUG and newly grown plants are increasing thereafter. Above ground tree carbon had increased from 59.36 to 80.09 ton/ha while soil organic carbon had increased from 45.18 to 50.15 ton/ha from 2011 to 2014. The carbon stock of
Paudel and K. C. [30] observed that community forest management had helped in conservation of plants and animals as forest is getting denser than past, as shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10. Carbon stock in all forms of plants as measured in 2014 was higher than that of 2012 with an annual carbon sequestration rate of 1.52 ton/ha. The forest was dominated by
Researcher conducting study inside dense CF. (Source: Author).
There are very few research studies conducted to assess the role of CFM in fauna conservation of Nepal. Some of the research studies conducted on the concerned topics were reviewed and documented below.
\nPaudel and K. C. [30] observed that carbon stock in all forms of plants as measured in 2014 was higher than that of 2012 with an annual carbon sequestration rate of 1.52 ton/ha. Community forest management had helped in conservation of plants and animals. Wild animals such as leopard, porcupine, monkey and other birds were increased in the forest and were frequently seen nearby the forest destroying the crops of people. The forest is becoming denser than past according to the view of local people.
\nTo find the condition of animals in the Setidevi community forest and Gyaneshwar community forest, camera trapping technology was used. In the forest area of 500 ha, 181 animal species including one-horned rhino, Royal Bengal tiger and python have been observed. Among these 125 bird species and 19 mammals have been spotted [46].
\nPokhrel and Shah [29] observed the increased frequency and movement of wild elephant and blue bull due to the establishment of community forests. Twenty-five mammals, 16 herpetofauna and 163 bird species were recorded in their study area indicating availability of suitable habitat for the species. In the study of 10 transects, they encountered 251 different signs of the wild fauna. Local people had suffered from economic loss of crop damage and livestock due to the increasing number of wildlife in the community forest.
\nCommunity forest management is an approach to mitigate increasing deforestation and forest degradation to address the negative impacts on rural livelihoods. Studies have demonstrated a significant increase in forest condition under community forestry showing that it is a proven model for controlling deforestation and forest degradation. It has co-benefits of reducing poverty and addressing social exclusion by creating rural employment. It is contributing to livelihood promotion such as fulfilling the basic needs of local communities investing money in supporting income generation activities of the poor people and providing access to the forestland for additional income or employment.
\nDifferent research studies are conducted by different researchers to assess the role of community forest in biodiversity conservation in different study areas of Nepal by applying different methodologies. Researchers had focused on analysis of biomass, carbon stock analysis, calculation of biodiversity index, change in land use and land cover, spatial analysis of forest resources, camera trapping of wild fauna and socioeconomic analysis by using different primary and secondary data collection techniques. They are using national guideline and their own derived methodologies for assessing biomass, carbon stock, measurement of biodiversity index and analysis of flora and fauna.
\nIt was concluded that community forestry management had a great role in biodiversity conservation in Nepal. Biomass, carbon stock, growing stock, soil organic carbon, forest cover, forest products and benefit from forest resource had increased due to CFM as compared to past. The number and density of trees of highly productive plant had increased while the number and density of less productive shrubs and bushes had decreased. Forest biomass and carbon in different form of plants, above ground tree biomass, above ground sapling biomass, leaf litter herbs and trees and underground biomass had increased gradually after CFM implementation. Wild animals such as leopard, porcupine, monkey and other birds were increased in the forest and were frequently seen nearby the forest destroying the crops of people. The forest is getting denser and providing habitat to the wild animals as compared to past according to the view of local people.
\nAs community forestry management had great role in biodiversity conservation of Nepal, there is a need of more funding for its sustainable management. Local people are working hard and devoting their time voluntarily for sustainable harvest of forest resource and conservation of flora and fauna. If they do not get adequate benefit of forest resource and monetary benefit from job employment and other income-generating activities, they will start using forest products for sustaining their livelihood and fulfilling their day-to-day need. It would cause utilization of more forest resource and decrease in biodiversity of plants and animals. It is recommended to provide skill development trainings, income-generating activities, high yield forest resource and non-timber forest products and also provide financial support for the installation of renewable and alternative energy technologies to minimize the use of forest resources. In addition, more research studies on assessing the role of CFM in biodiversity conservation should be carried out to find out the feasibility of CFM in the Nepalese context for biodiversity conservation.
\nFreshwater constitutes only 3% of the Earth’s water resource, but only 1% is available as surface water in lakes and rivers, while the remainder is frozen in glaciers and ice caps or stored underground. Lakes represent a valuable source of water for consumption and irrigation and provide a variety of key services such as food provision, energy generation, transportation, recreation, and tourism. Lakes are essential components of the hydrological and biogeochemical cycles due to their basic ability to store, retain, clean, and provide water [1]. Lake waters also contribute to support the agricultural sector and livestock to feed the 7 billion of people on our planet [2].
Lake ecosystems are under pressure from various human impacts as well as climate change [3]. They are sensitive to a range of stressors operating at global, regional, and local scales [4] whose impacts manifest in eutrophication, proliferation of toxic algae, increase in turbidity, loss of aquatic benthos, and harmful effects on health for both animals and humans [5]. Significant effort is often devoted to monitor for changes, to the restoration of impacted systems, and to the preservation of healthy lakes. For example, in Europe, the need for having “[…] a coherent and comprehensive overview of water status within each river basin district” was defined by the Water Framework Directive (WFD) [6], setting out the requirements for the monitoring of the status of surface waters with the main objective of maintaining “good” and non-deteriorating status for all waters.
Earth observation (EO) techniques with optical sensors have been used for many decades to support timely and frequent acquisition of synoptic lake water quality information [7 and reference herein]. In recent years, EO has become an operational tool to support traditional measurements providing, at a relatively low cost and for some bio-geophysical parameters, information on surface water status to support a variety of applications [e.g., 8, 9]. EO systems measuring water quality typically are multispectral radiometers which might be grouped by their characteristic spatial and spectral resolution. Spatial resolution (the area on the ground covered by each pixel) is of particular importance for remote sensing of inland waters [10] as it determines the minimum size of lakes visible by each satellite. Four groupings of satellite sensors can currently be distinguished: ocean color (e.g., Sentinel-3 OLCI or MODIS, with pixels of about 300–1000 m), multispectral sensors (e.g., Landsat or Sentinel-2, with pixels of 10–30 m), imaging spectrometers (e.g., Hyperion or PRISMA, with a pixel size of 30 m, but coverage is not global unlike the previous missions), and geostationary platforms (e.g., GOCI, with a 500 m pixel size). Ocean color sensors provide better data for aquatic applications because they have more and narrower spectral bands and higher signal-to-noise ratios, but multispectral sensors are often the only choice for inland water applications because their finer spatial resolution can resolve smaller water bodies [10]. Multiple sensors might be used for improving the resolutions as in [11].
After processing of the light measured by a satellite sensor at the top of the atmosphere by removing light scattered by the atmosphere, stray light from adjacent pixels and specular reflection from the water surface physical and biochemical parameters of lakes can be estimated using several methods. Parameters that can be estimated include turbidity, photosynthetic biota (e.g., phytoplankton, macrophytes, and cyanobacteria), colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM, e.g., humic and fulvic substances), and suspended non-algal particulate matter (e.g., detritus from land). Lakes are complex ecosystems relative to oceanic waters due to the large variety and range of concentrations of living and nonliving material [12]. This complexity also applies to the optical properties, i.e., the spectral characteristics of absorption and scattering of light, of the constituents of lake water [13, 14], and, therefore, their estimation in lakes is extremely challenging. For example, if one component (e.g., CDOM) dominates the others (e.g., phytoplankton), it may mask the signature of the other components in the reflectance spectrum and reduce the accuracy of determining their concentrations. Due to this optical complexity, most algorithms for the retrieval of biogeochemical parameters are tailored to specific lakes and are not applicable to systems with optical properties different to those used for their development [e.g., 15, 16].
When research activities are focusing on mapping water quality in lakes from national to global scales, simpler yet robust approaches might be therefore strategically adopted. Among those, the methods estimating the color of water as perceived by the human eye show promise, because it does not rely on knowledge on inherent optical properties and concentrations of water components. Although perceived color is not unambiguously related to quantitative water quality attributes such as clarity, the phytoplankton, suspended matter, and CDOM, the color of water can be seen as a water quality attribute in its own right with the advantage of intuitive meaning in public perception.
The Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage (CIE) [17] mathematically defines color by weighting the reflectance spectrum of an object with three mixing curves, or chromaticity curves, each specifying the respective sensitivity of the human eye to one of the primary colors. To adapt this definition to the spectral bands of satellite sensors, several methods have been developed starting from the use of Forel-Ule (FU) scale, a historical standard recently recalibrated [18]. More recently, van der Woerd and Wernand [19] developed an algorithm to derive the hue angle consistently from different ocean color and multispectral sensors. Hue angle can be thought of as the pure color most closely resembling the true color of natural waters.
Several studies have used color analysis for a variety of applications in different aquatic ecosystems, including oceans and lakes. For example, [20] used chromaticity coordinates to prove the capability of Landsat-5 in assessing water quality changes from the pelagic to the coastal zone in Lake Garda (Italy). Wang et al [21] assessed the trophic state of global inland waters using a MODIS-derived Forel-Ule index finding that oligotrophic large lakes are concentrated in plateau regions in central Asia and South America, while eutrophic large lakes are concentrated in central Africa, eastern Asia, and mid-northern and southeast North America. In New Zealand, [22] calculate the color of water on almost 45,000 observations from 1486 lakes over 4 years. A preliminary exploratory analysis suggests that both geophysical and anthropogenic factors, such as catchment land use, provide environmental control of lake color and are promising avenues for future analysis. Lastly, [23] revealed that subtropical oceans will get bluer as fewer phytoplanktons are able to survive in its waters, while green regions at the poles will turn greener as warming waters become more habitable for them.
In this study, the method developed in [24] is adopted to calculate the color of Italian lakes based on multispectral Sentinel-2 images, whose 10-m spatial resolution allowed us to observe 170 lakes of the country. We follow [22] to analyze and classify lake colors from two different periods in 2017 for seasonal variations and patterns related to geomorphology and other primary drivers of water quality.
About 2000 lakes are known in Italy, and ~500 of those have a surface area greater than 0.2 km2 (400 of which are freshwater bodies and 100 brackish water bodies) [25]. The lakes are diverse systems with a plethora of values, including biodiversity, water provision, recreation, and landscape. For example, the volcanic-lake district located between Lazio and Basilicata administrative regions has 80% of the deep lakes within the Mediterranean coastal region holding 94% of the freshwater in central and southern Italy [26].
Lakes in Italy have different origins and features. Alpine lakes are generally small, fed by meltwater, and are normally located at altitudes above 2000 m a.s.l. where they occupy basins carved by glaciers. The deep subalpine lakes—the largest in Italy—occupy deep elongated valleys shaped by the erosive action of glaciers during the last glacial period. The debris left by ice on the edge of the plain forms the so-called morainic amphitheaters that, like the case of Lake Garda, still mark the southern limit of these water basins. The moraine lakes are entirely enclosed by hills formed by glacial deposits on the border between the Prealps and the Po Plain (e.g., lakes Viverone, Varese, Pusiano). The barrier lakes are formed following the obstruction of a river valley due to a landslide or the accumulation of alluvial sediments; examples are Lake Alleghe (landslide) and Lake Levico (accumulation of sediments). Volcanic lakes, mainly found in central Italy, feature an almost circular shape. Their formation is mainly related to subsidence and caldera formation during the final stages of volcanic activity [27]; examples are Lake Bolsena and Lake Bracciano. Alluvial lakes located in Central Apennines are formed by the filling of depressions originated by the raising of the Apennine chain (e.g., Lake Trasimeno). Other types of lakes include coastal and artificial ones.
Italy’s overall lacustrine water volume is about 146 billion m3, with seven large lakes (Garda, Maggiore, Como, Bolsena, Iseo, Bracciano, and Monte Cotugno) representing more than 97% of this amount. A major part of these lakes is located in the northern sector of the Italian Peninsula (along the Alpine range), although the Mediterranean regions are characterized by a high number of artificial lakes mainly supporting drinking or irrigation purposes. The morphology of the lakes is diverse with surface areas ranging between 3.4 and 370 km2 (lakes Comabbio and Garda, respectively), maximum depths ranging between 2 and 410 m (Lesina and Como), and altitudes ranging between 0 and 507 m a.s.l. (lakes Lesina and Varano, and Vico).
Since 1997, a systematic investigation of morphological, physical, chemical, and biological features of the main lakes (with areas >0.2 km2) has been implemented under the Project LIMNO. This project has the objective of developing a territorial information system for the interdisciplinary study of Italian lake environments. It consists of a database focused on morphometric, chemical, and biological data of water and sediments and the geographic information system tool (GIS LIMNO), which also includes thematic information on land use.
A major outcome of this project is the ability to analyze the physical and chemical variables for time trends in many lakes, especially the subalpine ones. For Lake Pusiano, it was revealed that the total phosphorus (TP) concentration, after having increased up to 200 μg/L (i.e., hypereutrophic) around the middle of the 1980s of the last century, has undergone a constant decline, down to the value of 58 μg/L in 2004. In other cases, however, opposite trends were observed. For example, Lake Garda exhibited TP concentrations in the range of 15 (1990s) to 34 μg/L during the 2004 circulation. In general, TP concentration shows higher values in lakes located at altitudes lower than 1000 m a.s.l. (median = 43 μg/L), while, for high-altitude lakes, this value never exceeds 4 μg/L. A similar trend has been also detected for total alkalinity (TAlk), with the highest values at low-altitude lakes (TAlk = 2.65 meq/L) and lowest values at high-altitude lakes (TAlk = 0.40 meq/L). This trend is also reflected by pH, which shows the minimum values at the highest altitudes. To sum up, the collected evidence has confirmed a considerable reduction in the maximum values of nutrients and contaminants even if data has often verified an increase in their basal levels.
Sentinel-2 is a multispectral imaging mission of the Copernicus program. The mission that is funded by ESA Member States and the European Commission consists of twin satellites, the Sentinel-2A and Sentinel-2B, launched on 23 June 2015 on 7 March 2017, respectively.
Sentinel-2A and Sentinel-2B carry the Multispectral Imager (MSI), a push-broom sensor designed and built by Airbus Defense and Space, France. MSI has 13 spectral bands, ranging from the visible to the shortwave infrared (443–2190 nm) [28], with a swath width of 290 km and spatial resolutions of 10, 20, and 60 m (Table 1).
S2A | S2B | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Band number | Central wavelength (nm) | Bandwidth (nm) | Central wavelength (nm) | Bandwidth (nm) | Spatial resolution (m) |
b1 | 442.7 | 21 | 442.2 | 21 | 60 |
b2 | 492.4 | 66 | 492.1 | 66 | 10 |
b3 | 559.8 | 36 | 559.0 | 36 | 10 |
b4 | 664.6 | 31 | 664.9 | 31 | 10 |
b5 | 704.1 | 15 | 703.8 | 16 | 20 |
b6 | 740.5 | 15 | 739.1 | 15 | 20 |
b7 | 782.8 | 20 | 779.7 | 20 | 20 |
b8 | 832.8 | 106 | 832.9 | 106 | 10 |
b8a | 864.7 | 21 | 864.0 | 22 | 20 |
b9 | 945.1 | 20 | 943.2 | 21 | 60 |
b10 | 1373.5 | 31 | 1376.9 | 30 | 60 |
b11 | 1613.7 | 91 | 1610.4 | 94 | 20 |
b12 | 2202.4 | 175 | 2185.7 | 185 | 20 |
Nominal settings of Sentinel-2A/Sentinel-2B MSI with band number, central wavelength, band width, and pixel size/resolution (source ESA).
By providing spatial resolution on the order of tens of meters and spectral bands comparable to the Operational Land Imager on Landsat 8 (and imagers on previous Landsat missions back to Landsat-5), Sentinel-2 is becoming to be considered as a key sensor for mapping lakes [10], which are often too small for ocean color sensors largely used in water quality studies [e.g., 21]. Then, considering the capacity of revisiting the same area every 5 days (2–3 days toward mid to high latitudes because of the overlap of the paths), Sentinel-2 is also useful for tracking changes over time scales of weeks. Therefore, in the last years, a number of lake studies have been developed with Sentinel-2 [e.g., 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
In our study, 45 Sentinel-2A and Sentinel-2B MSI images were chosen, 22 during the spring (end of March to end of May) and the remaining acquired between late August and the end of September (late summer). Images were selected based on clear sky conditions and low glint contamination. Level-2C standard products were downloaded via the Copernicus Open Access Hub. The level-2C standard product is atmospherically corrected using the Sen2Cor [35]. Although the level-2C products rely on an atmospheric correction scheme not specifically designed for retrieving water leaving reflectance, it was recently demonstrated that its accuracy was better for inland than for coastal waters [36]; moreover level-2C MSI data have been used both in lake [37] and shallow water [38] applications. The MSI bands 1–5 were resampled at 10 m and then converted into remote sensing reflectance (
The chromaticity coordinates
The
Any pair of
The final step was the computation of dominant wavelength (
For each lake,
Chromaticity diagram showing the color of water of 170 lake observations determined from Sentinel-2A/Sentinel-2B MSI data of 2017. Data related to spring are shown on the left, whereas those observed in late summer are shown on the right. The white point (WP:
The optical properties of clean water are dominated by absorption and scattering by water molecules whose spectral dependence produces a blue reflectance spectrum. Therefore, the common perception that blue is “clean” is often true, while moving toward green, yellow, orange, and red, the optical effects of the other water components, such as phytoplankton, CDOM, and non-algal particle, become predominant. However, a simple back calculation from color to the direct causes of color change, e.g., proliferating phytoplankton or increasing sediment resuspension, is not possible. Nevertheless, any changes from blue can be reasonably attributed to decreasing water purity and is often also associated with a reduction in water clarity.
The frequency distribution of the dominant wavelength for the 170 lakes for both periods is plotted in Figure 2. Both histograms show a bimodal frequency distribution. In spring, most observations are in the blue-green part of the spectrum, with a secondary mode at green-yellow wavelengths. Vice versa, in late summer, most observations are in the green-yellow part of the spectrum and the secondary mode in the blue-green. To explain these changes, the lakes have been clustered according to three
Frequency histogram of dominant wavelength for the 170 lakes: on top, spring data; on bottom, late summer data.
Of the 170 lakes, 96 did not show any transition from one color class to another, while 13 lakes moved from blue to yellow, showing a major change of optical properties also likely associated with a reduction in water clarity. The remaining 61 lakes showed smaller transitions to the neighboring color: 45 from blue to green or from green to yellow. The other 16 lakes showed transitions in the opposite direction, from green to blue or from yellow to green, suggesting improving water clarity from spring to late summer.
The geographic distribution of the three color classes is presented in Figure 3. Subalpine lakes in the northern part of the country including the largest lakes of the country (lakes Garda and Maggiore of 370 and 210 km2, respectively) are distinctly blue in the spring. This lake district represents more than 80% of the total Italian lacustrine volume and is therefore of great interest. Moving from spring to late summer, a change of color toward green and yellow was observed in many of these lakes. Notably, the largest of these lakes, e.g., Lake Garda, remained blue.
Geographic distribution of lakes, colored according to their dominant wavelength: on left, spring observations; on right, summer observations. The latitudes in degrees are indicated as reference.
A similar change is occurring in Sardinia, the second largest island of the country. Blue lakes turn yellow and green from spring to late summer. In contrast, only few lakes in Sicily show color transitions, and green and yellow colors prevail. Along the peninsula, more lakes are also blue during the spring than in late summer. However, a geographic gradient is seen in that summertime greening or yellowing is more common in the southern half of the peninsula.
To investigate these trends further, the lakes were split into four clusters according to latitude: northern (with latitudes >44°N), central (with latitudes in the range 44–41°N), southern lakes (with latitudes <44°N), and separately the lakes of Sardinia (Figure 4). Similar to general trends observed at the national scale, a progressive increase in
Box plot depicting dominant wavelengths for spring (white) and autumn (gray) periods for northern (>44°N), central (44–41°N), Sardinian, and southern (<41°N) lakes.
A possible explanation, regardless of physical and chemical differences between lakes, is that the Mediterranean lakes are characterized by an advance of the growing season compared to northern ones. This may translate into an early start of the algal growth with significant effects on the color of the water. Consequently, it is quite natural to guess higher levels of productivity (colors basically more green-yellow) for southern lakes, as described by [39] at a global scale. Additionally, the differences between the two main Mediterranean and Italian islands, Sicily and Sardinia, are probably due to the geological and climatic differences between the two islands [40] and are likely exacerbated by the fact that their lakes are largely artificial reservoirs with site-specific trophic drivers.
In this study, the color of water, a simple and straightforward water quality attribute quantitatively described in terms of dominant wavelength, was retrieved from Sentinel-2A and Sentinel-2B MSI data. The method allowed us to map the color of 170 Italian lakes in two periods during 2017.
The results revealed a general increase in
Our work shows that color observations are an efficient means to capture an intuitive water quality attribute at spatial and temporal scales practically impossible to achieve using ground-based observations. Further investigations are required to relate color of water to trophic status and traditional water quality metrics such as chlorophyll
For more than four decades, satellite sensors have been used for lake monitoring, and since 2015, Sentinel-2 MSI provides free and open data at a spatial resolution suitable for small- to medium-sized lakes (down to 0.3 km2). MSI has similar spectral and spatial resolution as the Landsat series of satellites which allows the new data to be analyzed in continuity with historical imagery spanning back four decades. The color of water as calculated in this work is a promising water quality attribute for time series analysis as it does not rely on algorithms depending on inherent optical properties that have to be calibrated with field observations. While the present study only looked at two seasons in the same year, a long-term analysis could investigate the timing of summertime greening of the lakes in response to climatic forcing mechanism.
Ongoing research is focused on extending the color mapping over past observations. Future applications of chromaticity analysis are promising as each Sentinel-2 satellite has a 7-year lifetime design, and they are planned to be replaced in the framework of ESA’s Copernicus Program in 2022–2023 by new identical missions. This ensures continuity of the data record to 2030 and provides the opportunity for lake water quality monitoring for decades from now.
Sentinel-2 images were downloaded from Copernicus Open Access Hub. Morphometric characteristic of the Italian lakes were obtained CNR-LIMNO Project (http://www.ise.cnr.it/limno/limno.htm). We also thank Pietro Alessandro Brivio who has shared, with some of us, his knowledge on lake chromaticity at the end of the 1990s.
No potential conflict of interest is reported by the authors.
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We describe the marker-less technologies in the area of AR, indoor marker-less AR, outdoor marker-less AR, real-time solutions to the tracking problem, real-time registration, cultural heritage in AR, 3D remonstration techniques, as well as presenting the problems in each research.",book:{id:"7699",slug:"advanced-methods-and-new-materials-for-cultural-heritage-preservation",title:"Advanced Methods and New Materials for Cultural Heritage Preservation",fullTitle:"Advanced Methods and New Materials for Cultural Heritage Preservation"},signatures:"Hoshang Kolivand, Abdennour El Rhalibi, Mostafa Tajdini, Sarmad Abdulazeez\nand Pisit Praiwattana",authors:[{id:"151219",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdennour",middleName:null,surname:"El Rhalibi",slug:"abdennour-el-rhalibi",fullName:"Abdennour El Rhalibi"},{id:"225824",title:"Dr.",name:"Hoshang",middleName:null,surname:"Kolivand",slug:"hoshang-kolivand",fullName:"Hoshang Kolivand"},{id:"256916",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarmad",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulazeez",slug:"sarmad-abdulazeez",fullName:"Sarmad Abdulazeez"},{id:"256917",title:"Dr.",name:"Pisit",middleName:null,surname:"Praiwattana",slug:"pisit-praiwattana",fullName:"Pisit Praiwattana"},{id:"289071",title:"Dr.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Tajdini",slug:"mostafa-tajdini",fullName:"Mostafa Tajdini"}]},{id:"36570",doi:"10.5772/45619",title:"Archaeological Geophysics - From Basics to New Perspectives",slug:"archaeological-geophysics-from-basics-to-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:6709,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1999",slug:"archaeology-new-approaches-in-theory-and-techniques",title:"Archaeology",fullTitle:"Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques"},signatures:"Roger Sala, Ekhine Garcia and Robert Tamba",authors:[{id:"131865",title:"Dr.",name:"Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Sala",slug:"roger-sala",fullName:"Roger Sala"}]},{id:"36574",doi:"10.5772/37679",title:"The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques from the Perspective of Experimental Archaeology and Work Traces",slug:"the-study-of-shell-object-manufacturing-techniques-from-the-perspective-of-experimental-archaeology-",totalDownloads:3139,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1999",slug:"archaeology-new-approaches-in-theory-and-techniques",title:"Archaeology",fullTitle:"Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques"},signatures:"Adrián Velázquez-Castro",authors:[{id:"113840",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Velazquez",slug:"adrian-velazquez",fullName:"Adrian Velazquez"}]},{id:"70612",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89154",title:"The Technological Diversity of Lithic Industries in Eastern South America during the Late Pleistocene-Holocene Transition",slug:"the-technological-diversity-of-lithic-industries-in-eastern-south-america-during-the-late-pleistocen",totalDownloads:701,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Brazilian archaeological literature has insisted for decades upon associating hunter-gatherer sites dated to the Pleistocene–Holocene transition either to the Itaparica tradition, if located in central or northeastern Brazil, or to the Umbu tradition and Humaitá tradition, if located in southern Brazil, Uruguay, or any other adjacent part of Paraguay and Argentina. These associations have been based almost entirely on the presence or absence of lesmas and “projectile points,” regardless of their morphological and technological features. In the Uruguayan archaeological literature, three other cultures are recognised: Fell industry, Catalanense industry, and Tigre tradition, all in the Uruguayan region. However, the last 10 years of systematic studies on the lithic assemblages from these sites have shown that Paleoindian societies from Eastern South America are more culturally diverse than expected and that previously defined archaeological cultures present several issues in their definition, suggesting that many of these “traditions” are not valid and should no longer be used. Instead, new lithic industries and archaeological cultures should be defined only when cultural patterns are observable through systematic analyses.",book:{id:"9251",slug:"pleistocene-archaeology-migration-technology-and-adaptation",title:"Pleistocene Archaeology",fullTitle:"Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation"},signatures:"João Carlos Moreno De Sousa",authors:[{id:"303361",title:"Dr.",name:"João Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno De Sousa",slug:"joao-carlos-moreno-de-sousa",fullName:"João Carlos Moreno De Sousa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"36570",title:"Archaeological Geophysics - From Basics to New Perspectives",slug:"archaeological-geophysics-from-basics-to-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:6704,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1999",slug:"archaeology-new-approaches-in-theory-and-techniques",title:"Archaeology",fullTitle:"Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques"},signatures:"Roger Sala, Ekhine Garcia and Robert Tamba",authors:[{id:"131865",title:"Dr.",name:"Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Sala",slug:"roger-sala",fullName:"Roger Sala"}]},{id:"36576",title:"Homage to Marcel Proust - Aspects of Dissemination and Didactic in a Museum and a Science Centre: Science Communication Visions for the Third Generation Museums",slug:"generations-of-ancient-history-dissemination-towards-the-public-at-the-university-museum-in-trondhei",totalDownloads:2691,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"1999",slug:"archaeology-new-approaches-in-theory-and-techniques",title:"Archaeology",fullTitle:"Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques"},signatures:"Kistian Overskaug",authors:[{id:"117119",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristian",middleName:null,surname:"Overskaug",slug:"kristian-overskaug",fullName:"Kristian Overskaug"}]},{id:"63772",title:"Cultural Heritage in Marker-Less Augmented Reality: A Survey",slug:"cultural-heritage-in-marker-less-augmented-reality-a-survey",totalDownloads:1657,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Augmented reality (AR) is considered as one of the most significant technologies in the field of computer graphics and is utilised in many applications. In this chapter, we have presented a brief comprehensive survey of cultural heritage using augmented reality systems. This survey describes the main objectives and characteristics of marker-less augmented reality systems through presenting up-to-date research results in this area. We describe the marker-less technologies in the area of AR, indoor marker-less AR, outdoor marker-less AR, real-time solutions to the tracking problem, real-time registration, cultural heritage in AR, 3D remonstration techniques, as well as presenting the problems in each research.",book:{id:"7699",slug:"advanced-methods-and-new-materials-for-cultural-heritage-preservation",title:"Advanced Methods and New Materials for Cultural Heritage Preservation",fullTitle:"Advanced Methods and New Materials for Cultural Heritage Preservation"},signatures:"Hoshang Kolivand, Abdennour El Rhalibi, Mostafa Tajdini, Sarmad Abdulazeez\nand Pisit Praiwattana",authors:[{id:"151219",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdennour",middleName:null,surname:"El Rhalibi",slug:"abdennour-el-rhalibi",fullName:"Abdennour El Rhalibi"},{id:"225824",title:"Dr.",name:"Hoshang",middleName:null,surname:"Kolivand",slug:"hoshang-kolivand",fullName:"Hoshang Kolivand"},{id:"256916",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarmad",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulazeez",slug:"sarmad-abdulazeez",fullName:"Sarmad Abdulazeez"},{id:"256917",title:"Dr.",name:"Pisit",middleName:null,surname:"Praiwattana",slug:"pisit-praiwattana",fullName:"Pisit Praiwattana"},{id:"289071",title:"Dr.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Tajdini",slug:"mostafa-tajdini",fullName:"Mostafa Tajdini"}]},{id:"73769",title:"Human Evolution in the Center of the Old World: An Updated Review of the South Asian Paleolithic",slug:"human-evolution-in-the-center-of-the-old-world-an-updated-review-of-the-south-asian-paleolithic",totalDownloads:899,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Indian Subcontinent was an important geographic region for faunal and hominin evolution in Asia. While the Oldowan as the earliest technocomplex continues to be elusive, the oldest Acheulean is dated to ~1.5 Ma and the early Middle Paleolithic is ~385 ka (from the same site). New Late Pleistocene dates have been reported for the Middle Paleolithic which continues up to 38 Ka in southern India. The Upper Paleolithic remains ambiguous and requires critically multidisciplinary investigations. The microlithic evidence appears to spread rapidly across the subcontinent soon after its emergence at ~48 Ka (though its origin is debated) and continues into the Iron Age. The timeline of the initial arrival of Homo sapiens continues to be debated based on the archaeology (advanced Middle Paleolithic vs. microlithic) and genetic studies on indigenous groups. Other issues that need consideration are: interactions between archaics and arriving moderns, the marginal occurrence of symbolic behavior, the absolute dating of rock art and the potential role of hominins in specific animal extinctions and ecological marginalization. The region does not appear to have been a corridor for dispersals towards Southeast Asia (although gene flow may have occurred). Instead, once various prehistoric technologies appeared in the Subcontinent, they possibly followed complex trajectories within relative isolation.",book:{id:"9251",slug:"pleistocene-archaeology-migration-technology-and-adaptation",title:"Pleistocene Archaeology",fullTitle:"Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation"},signatures:"Parth R. Chauhan",authors:[{id:"307040",title:"Dr.",name:"Parth",middleName:null,surname:"Chauhan",slug:"parth-chauhan",fullName:"Parth Chauhan"}]},{id:"73386",title:"Island Migration, Resource Use, and Lithic Technology by Anatomically Modern Humans in Wallacea",slug:"island-migration-resource-use-and-lithic-technology-by-anatomically-modern-humans-in-wallacea",totalDownloads:758,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Island migration and adaptation including both marine and terrestrial resource use and technological development by anatomically modern humans (AMH) are among the most significant issues for Pleistocene archaeology in Southeast Asia and Oceania, and directly related to the behavioral and technological advancements by AMH. This paper discusses such cases in the Wallacean islands, located between the past Sundaland and the Sahul continent during the Pleistocene. The Pleistocene open sea gaps between the Wallacean islands and both landmasses are very likely the major factor for the relative scarcity of animal species originating from Asia and Oceania and the high diversity of endemic species in Wallacea. They were also a barrier for hominin migration into the Wallacean islands and Sahul continent. We summarize three recent excavation results on the Talaud Islands, Sulawesi Island and Mindoro Island in Wallacea region and discuss the evidence and timeline for migrations of early modern humans into the Wallacean islands and their adaptation to island environments during the Pleistocene.",book:{id:"9251",slug:"pleistocene-archaeology-migration-technology-and-adaptation",title:"Pleistocene Archaeology",fullTitle:"Pleistocene Archaeology - Migration, Technology, and Adaptation"},signatures:"Rintaro Ono, Alfred Pawlik and Riczar Fuentes",authors:[{id:"177123",title:"Dr.",name:"Rintaro",middleName:null,surname:"Ono",slug:"rintaro-ono",fullName:"Rintaro Ono"},{id:"300616",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfred",middleName:null,surname:"Pawlik",slug:"alfred-pawlik",fullName:"Alfred Pawlik"},{id:"330591",title:"Dr.",name:"Riczar",middleName:null,surname:"Fuentes",slug:"riczar-fuentes",fullName:"Riczar Fuentes"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"263",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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