Some organic chelators often used for soil washing, EDTA and NTA are commonly used, while others in the table are known as new generation of chelators [69].
\r\n\tThe eye is our window to the brain. Vision is the ability to interpret and understand the information that comes in through the eyes. The visual system utilizes brain pathways to process and understand what the eyes sense. The dynamic process of vision is to identify, interpret and understand what the eyes see.
\r\n\tAn image is a sight which has been recreated. It is an appearance which has been detached from the place and time in which it first made its appearance. Sensing is not the same as seeing. The eyes and the nervous system do the sensing, while the mind does the perceiving.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tMedical imaging is the process of using technology to view the human body in the interest of diagnosing, monitoring, and treating medical problems. It is especially beneficial when it comes to detecting cancer. Such a threatening disease requires very early detection to improve the chances of survival. Medical imaging is an extremely important element in medical practice in the world of today. While medical knowledge and discernment forms the basis of diagnoses and decisions, medical imaging plays a vital role in confirming any diagnosis. With scientific advancement and a continued effective use, medical imaging will continue to help with earlier detection of health issues and provide increased preventative care.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide readers with a comprehensive overview of the latest and most advanced findings in several aspects of ophthalmic pathology, treatment and surgical strategies, ocular imaging, vision sciences, medical images and perception that focuses on the most important developments in these critically important areas. Enough has been achieved already to make it clear that these fields have enormous possibilities for improving the human health.
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Every child is regarded as a unique individual with their own name, and also these names generally reveal a child’s place within the society, sex, class, ethic origin, religious community and relations [1]. According to Yonge (1863), “we shall find the history, the religion, and the character of a nation stamped upon the individuals in the names they bear” [2]. What Yonga suggests here is the very point this study intends to make that names not only refer to people but also to the religion. When we look at our cultural and natural environment, there is nothing—living or non-living, concrete or abstract—without a name. In daily life, we mostly take these already given-names granted and continue using without focusing on where these names come from. Each person has their own proper name, and these names serve like an identity card both in private and public life. According to Goethe Dichtung and Wahrheit, “The name of a person is not like a jacket which just hangs down the shoulders and tug at the sides to fit, but on the contrary, like a perfect-fitting dress which fits in like a skin and cannot be taken or pulled off without a damage” [3]. Although proper names are personal names, social scientists regard the naming concept as “symbolized identity” [2, p. 3]. Anthropological personal naming (or anthroponomy), ethnonym and toponymy studies had not drawn attention before 1960s, yet a limited number of early anthropologists addressed the subject [4]. The study of personal names is referred to as anthroponomy and anthroponomy is related to genealogy, sociology and anthropology [5]. The subject of names has attracted ethnologists, philologists and ordinary people in accordance with different theories as well as these disciplines [6]. A personal name is symbolized version of identity and attachment by words. As names have been evolved out of collective memory and cultural memory, they embody the changes occurred in the social structure and culture. Hence, names and naming conventions vary from culture to culture. In brief, the naming preferences of people and societies is affected by such variables as popular culture, media, family, ethnic identity, religion, ideology, and politics. Generally, besides the fact that naming has distinctive function from other groups, the use of selected names is effective in reflecting ethno-religious identity [7]. The changes of a nation’s beliefs and values immediately reflect on the names [8, p. 2347]. In other words, the changed version of daily life for different reasons materializes in names. Cross-cultural ethnographic studies show that names are abstract symbols drawing cross-cultural borders. In this respect, the key factors which make names an identity and differentiation means and turn them into symbolic elements are religious beliefs and perceptions as well as ideological assumptions [9]. According to Geertz, religion is a system of symbols [10]. In order to convey the meanings relevant to the cultural processes and relations, symbols represent a “being” with which they are culturally associated in a way they can use within a context variety [11]. Tayfun Atay, who defines religion as cognitive attitude and behavior patterns toward supernatural beings and powers, suggests that cognitive attitude refers to belief (faith) and behavior pattern refers to ritual (worship-religious ceremony) [12]. Hence, ritual is one of the key elements through which sacred symbols and religious conventions are conveyed and maintained. Ritual-symbol relation and religion-based traditions caused by this dualist structure reveal the intercommunal differences, ethnic groups, religious communities, and class structure. The fact that naming ritual is conducted in accordance with religious beliefs and conventions brings along certain expectations. For instance, the names are “expected to bear special meanings including future attributes and wishes for the name holder; and the name holders to identify with the historical, cultural, and religious meanings attributed to the names” [9, p. 8]. The category of religious names greatly varying in the Muslim Turkish society includes Allah’s attributes, Prophet and Prophet’s relatives, names of Prophet’s companions, quotations and words from the Qur’an, names of entombed saints and religious scholar who lived and fell martyr for their faith, and times and places which have religious meaning and importance [9, p. 14]. Likewise, in Judaism, the names are quoted from the Holy Scripture, religious figures, and prophets; in Christianity, the names of saints; and among Nusayris, the names of religious figures and prophets are maintained in the course of nonsacred daily life. As is stated, in Christianity, “The given names are associated with the belief of hereafter in our religion.” In Judaism, “Name of a person is in fact a representative of the society and religion they belong.” or “We will be called by our names in the hereafter world, and unless our name is an appropriate Muslim name, no one would call us,” it is focused on the child naming rituals and names among Christians, Jews, Sunnis, and Arab Alevis in Antakya. This study suggests that in different religious beliefs, religious identity construction first starts with naming based on the rules of the religious-cultural community to which they belong. The main question to be addressed in this study is the relation between naming rituals and identity construction in different religious and sectarian communities.
Located by the Syrian border in the eastern Mediterranean region, “Hatay Province, Antakya District in particular, is one of the city centers where different ethnic communities live together” [13]. With a long history, this city has had a strategic importance with the Amik Plain through which trade routes have passed and which have served as a border. Reşat Kasaba depicts Antakya—where a variety of ethno-religious communities live together along with a plenty of subcultures—as follows: “These multi-identity and multi-religious characteristics can be observed in many cities. However, unlike the other cities, Antakya preserves its multi-identity characteristics despite wars and occupations” [14].
Şalom, a weekly political and cultural newspaper, published in Turkey and targeting the Jewish community in Antakya notes in its issue of June 22 1994 that: The history of the Jews dates back to 2000 years ago and the origin of this community is assumed to be the Jewish people emigrating from Syria and the Rhodes Island. Aside of the Jews, the Christians—Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant—also preserve their identity. The Orthodox in particular is the largest group in number. What makes Antakya so important for the Christians is that St. Pierre Church, the first cave church, was declared as a pilgrimage site by Vatican in 1963 and that “Antakya” is the place where the Christianity was adopted by other groups than the Jews for the first time and the name of “Christian” was first uttered here [15]. Another community addressed in this study is the Arab Alevis. Alternatively known as Alevis, Arab Alevis, and Nusayris, this community is referred to as the Arab Alevis (Nusayris) in this study. Despite regarding themselves as Muslim, the Arab Alevis practice different customs from the Sunni Muslims as the Arab Alevism embodies a number of syncretic religious patterns due to the conditions it first emerged and currently existing customs. As for the period when the Alevism first emerged, it is noted that “In those days, the Shia movements were disseminated and became popular among public by the efforts of intellectually elite groups who were interested in philosophy and hence quite familiar with the pre-Islamic religions and particularly the ancient Greek philosophy which had a great influence on the Pre-Islamic religions and provided intellectual ground for the sectarianism in these religions” [16]. Aside of the Arab Alevis, Sunni Muslims is the largest group in population in this region. This study focuses on the Sunni-Hanafi community. The introduction of Islam in Antakya dates back to seventh century AD. Today, there are two large groups as Arab Sunni and Turkish Sunni in Antakya. The Jews, Orthodox Christians, Arab Alevis, and Arab Sunnis speak Arabic as their mother tongue. In daily life, both Arabic and Turkish languages are spoken, and as in many other cultures, there are certain similarities and distinctions in naming. As a part of this qualitative study, a number of interviews were conducted with the Jewish, Christian (Orthodox), Sunni, and Arab Alevi (Nusayri) people. In addition to in-depth interviews, semi-structured interview forms were used to keep a record of interviewees’ statements with their permission. In interpreting the findings of the interviews, the interviewees were kept anonymous, while the data on their ethno-religious identity, sex, and age were utilized where necessary. In order to collect the relevant findings to the subject of this study, the following questions were posed to the interviewees: Do you regard the names you give your children at birth as a cultural symbol that represents your first ethnic-religious origin throughout your life? Do you think the names you give are related with your belief of hereafter? What are the names you choose for your children? Do you think your past experiences/memories/relationships are important in choosing a name? Are there any names you would avoid in naming your children? If any, what are they? Why do you avoid these names? Is there any family in your community who have chosen an avoided or undesirable name anyway? If any, could you tell us about their experiences? Is there any naming rituals? If any, could you elaborate these rituals? As in almost everywhere in the world, it is clear that in Antakya, religion and belief have an influence in choosing nicknames as well as names [17]. Also as a part of this study, “In Hatay, as the umbilical cord of a child is cut by a midwife, the child may be given such religious names as Muhammed, Mustafa, Emine, Ayşe, Fatma etc. as a middle name (göbek adı), and also as a first name, a child may be named after certain religious figures or some sections or verses quoted from the Qur’an” [18]. For instance, in a study conducted on the students of Mustafa Kemal University (Hatay) coming from all around Turkey, it is emphasized that the names chosen for children should comply with the religious beliefs or quoted from the Qur’an [8]. After the brief introduction of field and method of the study, the following chapters will focus on the religious origins of naming, differences among the communities, symbolism of the names, and the names that became a taboo due to historical events constructed and transmitted by cultural memory.
The names typically used and preferred by a community have a deep connection between the events happened in the past that affect the community life and people. This connection which has been transferred via cultural memory is symbolized with the names to tell the other communities passively about their religious beliefs, preferences and reactions. Hence, the names carry a special meaning for each nation as they carry the nation’s history and culture remind the members of that nation’s memories from the past [19]. Whether it is a prohibition or the result of a sacred verse or prays, names and naming are a great preference for most of the societies. Let’s touch them briefly and alternately.
There are especially some names which are not used among Arab Alevis (Nusayris). Although these names vary, Arab Alevis do not use the names of khalifas Osman, Bekir, and Ömer, and they do not use the names of Yavuz, Muaviye, Yezid, Harun, and Ayşe because they indicate that Halid bin Velid, Muaviye, Yezid, Harun bin Reşid, and Sultan Selim the Resolute persecuted Alevis in the past [20]. Since the name Ayşe is not preferred, the name Ayşegül is not preferred either. At this point, we should take a look at the history of the reason why some names are especially not used among Arab Alevis and what is left from the history in today’s cultural memory. After the third khalifa Osman was murdered (644–656), a sectarian division, which still continues today, has occurred among Muslims. While some people wanted Ali to become the khalifa, some others blamed Ali for the murder of Osman. According to Sunni Islam, Ali is the fourth khalifa; and according to Shia Islam, he is the first of imams. He is also seen as the successor of the Prophet Muhammad. Caliphate of Ali (656-661 AD) proceeded in the struggle between his supporters and the ones who did not accept him as the khalifa. Ali faced with Âişe, around whom people that objected him gathered, in the Battle of the Camel and Ali won the war. The fact that Ali was stabbed and killed by his enemies, while he was praying in the mosque irreversibly marked the division between Sunnis and Shias. Then, Muaviye had the Caliphate, and Muaviye has become one of the reaction centers of Shia Islam. After Ali, the struggle for Caliphate continued. The subsequent events proceeded as follows: After Muaviye Imam Hasan was killed by poison, his brother Imam Huseyin went to Mecca. After the death of Muaviye, Damascus people obeyed Yezid; and, the ones in Kufe obeyed Imam Huseyin. Imam Huseyin left for Kufe and the new governor of Kufe, Ubeydullah b. Ziyad sent an army to Karbala. Ziyad prevented Imam Huseyin from taking water from Euphrates River. On the 10th of Muharram ul Haram, the war started and 72 of Imam Huseyin’s supporters, who were dehydrated in the desert, died in the war. Imam Huseyin was also beheaded [21]. Thirteen days after the Karbala event, Yezid held Imam Huseyin’s supporters captive in a mosque that had no roof, and he left them there without food or water [21, p. 75]. The Ottoman Emperor Sultan Selim the Resolute (1470–1520) settled Turks to provide the security of Egypt-Anatolia road, which was one of the places where Alevis densely lived; as a result of this, the oppression they experienced made Nusayris an introvert-closed community [22]. Alevis supported Shah Ismail in his struggle with Sultan Selim the Resolute and they have expressed that Sultan Selim the Resolute killed many Alevis without a reason [23]. Apart from these historical events, our information source with whom we made an interview in the field states the reasons and results of the resistance they show against the names as follows:
“Karbala and caliphate are extremely important in naming. The name of Yavuz is not used because of the slaughter he made. The name Ayşegül is not preferred either. Although there is not a strict resistance against the names Yavuz and Fatih, they are not used. Though it is rare, sometimes people go beyond the ordinary behaviour and these names can be seen. However, the names of Ayşe, Ömer, Bekir, and Osman are never used. If somebody is detached from the Alevi culture as belief, they can use the name Ayşegül and other names but these people are not considered from the religion and their children cannot get the religious education called unclehood.” Again, people whom we interviewed said that although there are some exceptions, as one of the most common names, Ali should be used as the first name because Ali is the leader. They define the limits of the taboo by expressing that as the name Muhammad is used as Mehmed, the Holy person’s name Ali cannot be used as “Ali Can” because the second name, Can, seems to trivialize the name of Ali. In the community of Arab Alevis (Nusayris), the field of taboo against names is symbolized for ages with the Purgation Prayer performed in religious rituals. Purgation Prayer is as follows: “You protect us from the fire and the subjects of fire. God damns Ebû Bekir, Osman, Ömer, Muaviye, Yezid, Halid bin Velid, Amr-bin As, Harun Reşid, Sultan Selim the Resolute, and all others who claim power against God… Separate us from them and from their grandchildren like how the flesh is separated from the bone” [24]. Instead of the names mentioned in this prayer, the phrase 9 intriguer, meaning “9 people who make trouble,” is also used. In some Nusayri (Arab Alevi) communities, this prayer is read by adding the statement “how the dough is separated from the hair” after the statement “how the flesh is separated from the bone” [16, p. 67]. Community members frequently mentioned of avoided names that are marked with Arab Alevis’ “Arınma Duası” [Purification Pray]. Both male and female community members we interviewed have a common understanding about these names. They frequently state that names, such as: Yezid, Ömer, Osman, Yavuz, Bekir, Muaviye, Ayşe, shall be avoided; if not, they will get reactions from their community, and therefore, they are very keen on this distinction. A member of Jewish community member indicated the distinction between Sunnis and Christians accordingly: “In our community never a child is given distinctive names such as Hasan, Hüseyin or Christian names—it goes against the grain—which is why children are hardly ever given undesirable names in our community; and if so, they get serious reactions from the community.”Again, a member of Christian community member made the following statement regarding names to be avoided or preferred: “Non-muslim Turkish names can be given to children. For instance, names such as Gökhan, Hakan, Engin that have no Muslim associations can be preferred in the national identity card and can also be used in everyday life. However, there is no way to use names such as Muhammed, Ömer, Mustafa that have apparent Muslim associations; otherwise you may get reactions. On the other hand, it is possible to use names—Ali and Murat. Also, modern Turkish names that are not mentioned in the Qur’an can be used. There is a person named Mehmet among us; however the baptize name is the true name. The name Süleyman appears in the Old Testament, still we name children as Solomun.”
Regarding the undesirable or avoided names for Sunnis, resources state that it is forbidden by religion to use names to mean serving anyone other than Allah; thus, the Prophet advises to change the names that associate with idolatry and that contradict with Islamic customs [25]. Although it is not a complete taboo, for instance “As a matter of their respect to the Prophet Muhammed, Muslim Turks assumed to take his name directly to be impudent, instead they endorsed to name children after him as Mehmed” [25, p. 333]. A female Sunni interviewee we met in the field work stated that, “Our Prophet’s name is Muhammed. Some name their children after him; however, some others avoid that, for people may speak ill of him or swear at him,” stressing the fact that one should be very cautious with using the Muslim Prophet Muhammed’s name. The common perception among the Sunnis who follow traditions is: “If you name your child after another religion, she/he will not be judged in the last judgment day, and will have nowhere to go. Far too modern names are not favorable by religion. Names should not be fake/invented. According to our religion we shall give meaningful names to children. We are Muslims and our religion cammands us to give beautiful meaningful names to children.” Based on such statements, these people have taboos regarding using names that not favorable by religion. Moreover, some community members stated that it is also unfavorable to use names of Allah directly—such as Kadir; rather it should be used as Abdulkadir. For instance, a female member of Sunni community is against—in her words—using modern names, questioning convenience of using these names: “Recently, people started to give non-religious names to their children. For example, they name their children Alev [flame]. Alev means fire—why would you give an unfavorable name to your children!” Another women from the same community stated that Christians dwelling in Antakya use the name Sara whereas her community uses Sare; thus, it is important to prefer using names with Muslim associations in order not to resemble the Christian community. Sara is the name of prophet İbrahim’s wife; however, in the Koran, it is mentioned as Sâre.
Surveys show that those who maintain their identities prefer the names found in sacred books of all religions, names of important persons such as saints, prophets, religious leaders or companions of prophets and that religious identity is built in this way. One important point about naming is the belief in the hereafter. Jewish people believe that on the Day of Judgment, they will be called by their Hebrew names. Similarly, Sunni Muslims emphasize the importance of choice of names because of Prophet Muhammad’s statement: “You will be called by your names and your fathers’, so make your names beautiful” [26], which they think that they should use religious names for their children so that their children can be called by their names on the judgment day because after death people will be called with the names given to them. Apart from given names, there are middle names. Nusayris (Arab Alevis) living in Hatay give much importance to giving middle name to babies. They believe that people will be called by their middle names on the day of judgment after death and give babies their first names 3 or 7 days after the birth [27]. As Rinna Samuel (1972) has written, “For Jews, naming has always been e way of narrating history, demonstrating continuity, preserving the memory of those who have died, and celebrating significant event” [28]. Indeed, when names given to Jewish children are examined, it is seen that names are important in connecting with their history and maintaining their identity. Jewish people firstly give boys Hebrew names at circumcision. They are called by their Hebrew names in all religious ceremonies even if their names are different on birth certificate. Babies who die before their 8th day are still named [29]. A Jewish man interviewed explains their naming tradition, which has a function of establishing a relation between the old testament and daily life as well as presenting male domination, as following: “Mose: Generally such names as Musa, Yakup, Davut, and Davit, which are found in Torah, are used. Names of Prophets are used. For example my daughter’s name is Gila. We named her after my mother’s name Gerez, which means soft-hearted, but modernized it.” Christians name their babies after grandmothers or grandfathers whose names are generally found in the Bible. They may also give their babies the names found in Torah. However, according to a Christian, congregant modern versions of names are used instead of their Arabic origins, as in the examples of girl’s names Kettur;Katerina and Meryem;Maria. In the research area, there are many holy persons like St. Georgios, St. İlyas, St. Barbara, St. Antonios, St. Nikolaos, St. Dimitrios, St. Spiridon, St. Anna, St. Petrus and St. Pavlus and religious festivals for them [30]. Mar Curcos (St. Georges) festival is a name festival at the same time, and those whose names are George are visited, given presents and congratulated with on May 6 [31]. Saint Barbara’s Festival is celebrated on December 4 and people whose names are Barbara are given presents and congratulated with as it is also a festival for those bearing name of Barbara [31, p. 333]. Name festivals, arising out of common Christian tradition of naming babies after saints, strengthen the communication between people bearing the same names and increases communication in a congregation. That is because name festival days are shared with enthusiasm, joy, and excitement. If there is an icon of the saints, it is prayed and respected on the name festival day. The data we have gathered from a congregant man on this matter are as follows: “Using saints’ names as first names, naming girls after Mother Mary and naming babies after saints when their birthdays are on the same day of a Saint’s Festival are common patterns of behavior in Christianity. Babies are given names of martyrs’ or saints’ at baptism and called by this name. If the day is a memorial day for a saint, his/her name is preferred. In addition, name day or name feasts tradition can account for acceptance of persons who participated in the community and its importance. It is an important event in congregations that people bearing the same names get together in the church and celebrate it with a religious ceremony.” Sometimes babies’ names at baptism are given by their godmothers and godfathers, which makes naming a sponsor-based relationship [32].
A Sunni woman, one of our sources, states she heard it from her father that such names as “Mehmet, Mustafa, Ahmet” are Sunnah names. Even if Sunnis prefer to pronounce Muhammed as Mehmed, they also use the names of Ahmed, Mahmud, Hamid and Mustafa attributed to him as well as Muhammed [25, p. 333]. Congregants always stress the importance of naming children after companions of Prophet Muhammad, saints, religious people and leaders or using names found in the Qur’an. They think that it is being estranged from the religion that today Islamic names are not used as much as it used to be. A congregant says: “In the past elders’ names were all Islamic ones. As children used to be named after elder people, they had beautiful names in religious terms. If you name your child after Prophet Mohammed, it brings more abundance to into your house. This is what we believe. Ahmet, Muhammed, Mustafa, Mahmut, Ayşe, Fatma, and Havva are all names of holy persons and are commonly used among Muslims.” Arab Alevis and Sunnis have both a lot in common considering their sources for naming. Ahl al-Bayt is the most important one. Literally, referring to “People of the House of Prophet Muhammad,” the phrase “Ahl al-Bayt” has two different frameworks as narrow and broad. In broad terms, “Ahl al-Bayt” includes all people in the house of Prophet Muhammad and also people who are close to them. According to Islamic tradition, in broad terms “Ahl al-Bayt” refers to wives of Prophet Muhammad and the family of Ali and Fatimah. In narrow terms, as a common view of Muslim scholars, “Ahl al-Bayt” consists of Ali, Fatimah, Hasan and Husayn [33]. For Nusayris (Arab Alevis), “Ahl al-Bayt” means Muhammed, Ali, Fatimah, Hasan, Husayn and Muhsin [24, p. 59]. Hasan and Husayn, who are included in Ahl al-Bayt, have a different meaning for Arab Alevis as their source for names because one was killed by being poisoned and the other was beheaded. Love for Ali and what he symbolizes are much more different and important. The most commonly used names are Ali, Hasan and Husayn [20, p. 134]. In particular, Arab Alevis or Nusayris living in Hatay have deep love and respect for Ali [34]. Another important source for naming among Arab Alevis is the Twelve Imams. According to Arabic Alevis, “the Twelve Imams are extremely important holy persons” [24, p. 59]. The Twelve Imams consist of Imam Ali b. Ebi Talib, Imam Hasan el-Mücteba, Imam Hüseyin eş-Şehid, ImamAli Zeynulabidin, Imam Muhammed el Bâkır, Imam Cafer es-Sadık, Imam Musa el—Kazım, Imam Ali er—Rıdâ, Imam Muhammed el-Cevad, Imam Ali el-Hadi, Imam Hasanel-Askeri, and Imam Muhammed el-Mehdi [35]. Based on the information we get from the area “Names of Musa, İsa, Meryem are used, Muhammed is not preferred rather Mehmet is used. Names of prophets are used. Ali is the most commonly used name. Mehmet Ali is quite common. People mostly prefer names like Ali, Muhammed, Zeyniddin, Fahriddin, and Nureddin. Among the most preferred names are Zehra, Zeynep, Hasan, and Husayn. There are people who especially name their children after Sikh. Considering the time in which the child grows up, they say names like İbrahim, Süleyman, Ali, Ahmet, and Mehmet are more appropriate. Names of the Twelve Imams are preferred. It is important to maintain the names of Sikhs. Their sons or grandsons are named after Sikhs. For example the name of Selman is preferred because it means new-born, the one who came to the world.”
Aside of the preferred and avoided names, another important matter among Jewish, Christian, Sunni, and Arab Alevi communities is naming ritual. The rituals rules referred to in different names in different communities may also be seen as initiation rules to a relevant religion because it is the first time a child’s identity boundaries are drawn by the selection of an appropriate name to their religious identity. Below is a brief explanation of these rituals.
Among Jewish people, naming a child requires a series of important rituals. Despite causing some distinction among different Jewish communities today, naming ritual—requiring to follow different procedures for girls and boys—remains to be important. One of the interviewees, a member of Antakya Jewish Community, describes the ritual as follows: “According to our traditions, boys are named during a circumcision ceremony called Brit Milah. Our ancestor who had been called Avram until circumcision became the first person to prove loyal to God after he fulfilled the God’s circumcision order. And he was told that ‘your name is no longer Avram but Avraham.’ This is how the rabbis learned that a male new-born is to be named during Brit Milah as according to the Tora, when you perform a Brit Milah for a child, you complete the creation. God creates; parents and God, three partners shapes the body but the creation is completed in the day eight by means of circumcision. Brit Milah means ‘agreement’. The agreement, ‘Brit’, made with the God symbolizes that the agreement between Avram and the God will be maintained for generations. When there is a baby boy to be circumcised in the eight day after birth, a rabbi is invited from İstanbul as Antakya community lacks one. This rabbi is both a religious functionary and circumciser. It is held as a ceremony in a Synagogue. After the prayers, what the name will be determined (grandfather is ‘kirve’ –the person who supports the child during circumcision- and bears the ritual expenses). When the ritual is completed, people say ‘Besimantov’ (meaning Good Luck). Refreshers are served. In this circumcision ceremony, there is no need for a special invitation as it is a grand religious service and whoever informed should attend. The Day Eight tradition is based on the 613 mitzvot (commandments) related with the Ten Commandments which were declared by God gave to Prophet Moses. One of these commandments requires circumcision on the eight day. During Brit Milah, Rabbis read some prayers they combine. In reading the prayers to wish a child good luck for the rest of their life, their name is pronounced. We make an agreement and child takes a name at that moment. We say “May he follow God’s path, and his parents live long,” and then “In the name of God, we call him …….” Of course, this speech is made in Hebrew in a proper intonation. Circumcision takes place at the same day with the naming ceremony because for boys circumcision is a symbol of initiation to the religion. Each person initiates to the religion is marked. For girls, naming ritual is a bit different. This ritual is mostly known as Zeved HaBat and also called “vijola” in Spanish. Based on the field data gathered, “After a baby girl is born she is named in 8 to 40 days. The baby is dressed up nicely and a rabbi says prayers and calls her name, holding the baby on his lap. In naming baby girls, naming ceremony held by Sholomo Hamelech (Solomon) for his daughters is taken as a reference. Sholomo Hamelech wrote a book entitled ‘the Melody of the Melodies’ (שירהשירים, Şir ha-Şirim). Originally it is written by a man for his lover, but according to Jewish mysticism, it is in fact a narrative, a melody describes how a Jewish should love God. There is a part in this book that depicts and praises a girl. This part is read to the baby girl during vijola ceremony, and her name is given as these complimentary words are read. Baby girl wears wedding dresses and anadems; and people are served meal.”
Baptism is not only a cleansing ritual before admission to the religion, but also a name-giving ritual. Name-giving is attached great importance, and baptism is the basis of name-giving ritual. Generally, in Orthodox churches, children are given names on the 8th day and baptized in 8–40 days after birth [35]. As for the Christian community in Antakya, we can see various practices in terms of the day and time, the ceremony is held. Based on the data gathered on the field, Orthodox people give a name to their children even on the day they are born. According to the Jewish traditions, Jesus was given a name and circumcised on the 8th day after his birth. According to Luka (Bible) 2: 21, “On the eighth day, when it came time to circumcise the child, he was called Jesus. It is now that your angel gave it to Him before she fell into her mother’s womb.”
That’s why, some Christians maintain only the name-giving tradition on the 8th day. Once in Antakya, “name-giving ceremony used to be held in forty days for baby boys, and in 60–80 days for baby girls” [30, p. 158]; however, this tradition has partly changed today because based on the data we gathered on the field, “a child can be given their name both on the day they are born and depending on the family’s decision, baptism can be delayed from 2 months up to 1 year after the birth.” As is stated by a man, a member of the Christian community: “Baptism is held to give a child a name, a kind of registration. This ceremony symbolizes that a human being is purified, devoted to Jesus, and becomes a Christian. A child is born without a religion and become a Christian after baptism; hence, he/she has to take a biblical name. Church ceremony is followed by a festive occasion in the evening depending on the financial capacity of the family. In giving a name, relationships, memories, and culture play a role. Every Sunday is assigned as a Saint’s Eve. Those who are born on Sunday are named after Mor Gabriel, and those who are born in during a feast called ‘Mor Corcır’ are named after George. If the baby girl is to be named on a female saint’s day, she is named after her. And the relatives give crucifix necklace or such accessories as a gift.”
Name-giving rituals practiced by Sunnis and Arab Alevis are similar. However, this similarity is observed among those who practice name-giving ritual in accordance with religious rules because among Arab Alevis sometimes the child’s name is started to be used directly. In both communities, Ezan is read to the right ear and Kamet is read on the left ear, and the child’s name is read to the right ear. Although the Islamic sources contain conflicting information on when to name a child, it is noted that Prophet Muhammad says for His son to whom Mariye gave birth that “I had a son tonight and I named him after Ibrahim, which is interpreted that name giving on the birth day is appropriate [25, p. 333]. As is told by a rumor associated by the Prophet, in giving a name to a child, ezan is read to the right ear and then kamet is read to the left one. It is known that the Prophet Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, read ezan to the ear of His grandson, Hasan [25, p. 333]. As is stated by a Muslim woman, “Ezan is read to the right ear of the child, followed by ‘kamet’. Then the name is pronounced, as is practiced by our Prophet. This name-giving practice is a ‘sunnah.’ A name is given right after the birth”, in name-giving practice, the Prophet’s sunnah (Prophet Muhammed’s teachings and practices) is maintained as a rule. In daily life practices, additional remarks we recorded among Sunni community regarding the name-giving practices are as follows: “the name is read three times to the right ear and this should be done in 3-4 days after the birth. The name was given one month after the child was born. Ezan was read and the name repeated three times. My youngest son was given his name the next day he was born. The person to give the name performs an ablution. A man to practice the ritual holds the child, reads ezan and repeated three times that ‘your name is…..’ and then people say ‘good luck, may he/she be worthy of his/her name, may his/her parent live long.” There are a few differences between Ezan and Kamet reading practices of the Arab Alevis who prefer religious ritual and the Sunnis. For instance, in reading kamet to the left ear, it is said “Eşhedü enne Muhammeden Rasûlullah” (I accept that Muhammed is the prophet of Allah) and then “Eşhedü enne Aliyyen veliyyullâh” (I testify that Ali is the beloved servant of Allah). Hence, the love for Ali who is the center of Alevism is whispered to the ear, which indicates a religious difference. In Arab Alevi community, there might be differences in name giving rituals. However, adopted traditions are such: “After the birth, sikh is informed in one week. There is no obligation for immolation at that moment but the time their financial situation allows they must definitely sacrifice an animal for God. There must be blood. From the meat of the sacrificed animal, hrisi, boiled bulgur/meat is cooked. If the mother of child would be expected to join the sacrifice ritual, there must be 40 days passed since the birth. Nowadays, after the name giving, they give dessert to the neighbors and relatives. The ones who take the dessert say “may he/she live with the name of Allah.”
The names used by people from different religious communities are originated from the names mentioned in holy books and the names of prophets, wives of the prophets, saints and patronesses, chief rabbis, and mahatmas. These religious communities living in Antakya show resistance both against expressing their beliefs and against using some names; and through naming; they make a reference to the beyond of social memory and to the Other. In different religious communities, different religious authorities can be effective in the choice of names. Naming is more important especially among the members of religious groups and communities. In community relations, names and the action of naming complete the religious, ideological, and ethnic identity. Names are actually used as a kind of communication code in these communities in order to protect their differences and to strengthen the solidarity among members. Since there is a lineage-based tradition in Jewish communities, they especially prefer the names of mothers-fathers. Since the names of Jewish people’s mothers-fathers are based on Torah, the source of naming is again based on the holy book and rituals. Jewish people, whose native language is Arabic, are deeply loyal to their naming rituals. Among Christian people, on the other hand, although the Bible, saints and patronesses, and holy people are considered as the sources of naming, non-Islamic names are also preferred. Baptism is highly important for naming. There are many common names among Sunnis and Arab Alevis (Nusayris). Names based on Ahl al-Bayt (أهلالبيت) are frequently used in both communities. Although the name, Ali, is used by both Sunnis and Arab Alevis, its frequency and the meaning it symbolizes are associated with Alevi identity. However, in addition to this, there are some names which are banned in the division of Sunni-Alevi and symbolized by Arab Alevis (Nusayris) through the Purgation Prayer. The names met by resistance and the preferred names create a border between two communities.
I sincerenly extend my grateful thanks to Dr. Sonyel Oflazoğlu who is the one and only reason of this study.
Soil is a balanced and complex system, where plants and microorganisms live and co-operate, thus ensuring, crops and food necessary to sustain life [1]. Natural erosion and human activities are enemies of the soil ecosystem. It has been reported that 25% of the global soils are highly degraded and 44% are significantly degraded [2]. Inorganic and organic pollutants are enemies of soils responsible of its contamination. The contamination of soil by a mixture of organic and non-organic pollutants due to various anthropogenic and natural causes is one of the most important issues in soil pollution [3]. It threatens humans and the ecosystem via: direct inhalation or through contaminated soil, food chain, or consumption of contaminated surface and ground water, reduction agricultural land (arable land) and in the food’s quality; otherwise, there occur an issue related to the reduction of the marketability of farm products as result of safety concern (phytotoxicity) [4].
\nAmong several pollutants threatening soil are: metals [5, 6], through emissions from the rapidly expanding industrial areas, mine tailings, disposal of high metal wastes like e-wastes, leaded gasoline and paints, land application of fertilizers, animal manures, sewage sludge, pesticides, wastewater irrigation [7, 8]; and metalloids [9, 10, 11] from industrial waste [12] or mine ores [13]. To be noticed, there are also organic contaminants among which persistent organic pollutants (POP) such as chlorinated [14] and polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs) [15], pesticides and herbicides [16] that threaten soil and environment system. Particularly, potentially-toxic elements (PTE) in water and soil have been of great environmental concern due to their non-biodegradable nature, toxicity, bioaccumulation in the food chain, persistence in the environment, and adverse effects on organisms and humans. Chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) are among the environment most concerned toxic PTE. The presence of toxic metals in soil can severely inhibit even the biodegradation of organic contaminants [17]. The treatment thus, protection and remediation of soil are of paramount importance nowadays.
\nOverwhelming numbers of soil remediation technologies have been developed and tested in both field and controlled environment experiments. Among many, bioremediation (use of microorganism) [18], phytoremediation (use of plants species) soil washing (use of inorganic and organic acids or organic chelators or surfactants), solidification, stabilization, excavation, and electroremediation techniques [19, 20] approaches are commonly used for the treatment of contaminated soil. However, these approaches seem limited and not efficient and effective under severe contamination such as metallic elements and POPs co-contaminated site (e.g. e-waste disposal site or industrial contaminated sites) as microorganisms and plants growth is severely inhibited [17]. Electrokinetic remediation approach which consists in applying direct low level current between two electrodes is nowadays widely used for soil treatment due to it many advantages. The latter shows promising in the future of soil remediation mainly it combination with other technologies; it being under intense investigation. In this chapter of the book we are going to give an insight on the functioning of each of these three approaches during soil treatment, it advantages and limits; and then the direction to explore for a better future of soil remediation.
\nSoil, originally, acts as both source and reservoir of metallic elements [21]. PTE are naturally occurring throughout the earth’s crust. However, when talking of soil contamination, nowadays, it refers to the contamination related to anthropogenic activities which led to the increase of contaminants in the soil system; even beyond the threshold concentrations stated in regulations for the safe use of soil in agricultural productions. As consequence, due to its severe contamination, soil represents a major main through which metals are spread in different environment compartments including groundwater, plants, river etc.
\nSeveral sources can contribute to soil contamination by metallic elements. Indeed, with the rapid development and industrialization in many countries around the world, there occur an excessive use of various chemical based pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural fields, which results in to the accumulation of PTE in soil and the emerging of serious soil contamination issue [22]. The application of mineral and organic fertilizers can introduce PTE into the soil–plant system. It is commonly known that phosphate rock fertilizers often contain potentially toxic trace elements including copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd) [23, 24]. Several PTE, such as Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni), Zinc (Zn), and the metalloid Arsenic (As), are widely used by industries, agriculture and consequently released into the environment [25]. Mining is considered to be one of the most significant sources of PTE [26, 27]. In China, it was reported that 1.5 million ha of waste land was the result of PTE contamination caused by mining. Furthermore, area of polluted land keeps increasing at a rate of 46,700 ha/year [26].
\nOtherwise, with the rapid industrialization and urbanization, the world is facing growing environmental issues [28] with respect the production and disposal of huge amounts of sewage sludge. Indeed, it is noteworthy that huge amount of sewage sludge is being produced yearly and it management remains challenging. Nowadays, one of the mains for the disposal of this matter, is through land application as soil amendment; because the matter is a rich source of phosphorous and nitrogen, and could be value-added as fertilizer [29]. Unfortunately this matter is generally loaded with various pollutants among which metallic elements at a high concentration; which threatens the safety of the receiving soil [30], with its adverse impacts on human and other living organisms when their bioavailability exceeds the concentration. These metals mainly originate from the aqueous phase of the wastewater, and then concentrate in the sludge during the treatment processes like precipitation, coagulation, adsorption etc. Recently, a studied was conducted in China by [31], and over 50 metallic elements including industrial commonly used PTE, rare earth elements and precious metals; were investigated in sewage sludge from different wastewater treatment plants from different region. Results revealed broad range of concentrations of the elements ranging from >125–53,500 mg kg−1 dry sludge (DS) for commonly used industrial metals, 1.22–14.0 mg kg−1 DS for precious metals, and 1.12–439.0 mg kg−1 DS for rare earth elements. The application of such material to soil as amendment would lead to the accumulation and spreading of metals in the soil; mainly with a long-term soil application. Similar result on the occurrence of broad range of metals in the sewage sludge has been reported by [32] with over 60 metals detected in the sewage sludge from different states in US. Overwhelming numbers of reports can be found in the literature regarding the occurrence of metallic elements in the sewage sludge. For example, in 2006, a survey was carried out in china by [33] during which sludge samples collected from over 107 urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) from 48 different provinces across China. Results revealed broad range concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn (20.2, 1.97, 93.1, 218.8, 2.13, 48.7, 72.3, and 1058 mg·kg−1, respectively). Another study carried out by [34] reported the present of Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in sewage sludge, with concentrations ranging 293.7, 181.7, 114.8, 40.3, 1453.9 mg kg−1 DS, respectively. One of the drastic concentration of PTE in the sludge, is the one reported by [35]. Indeed, the author reported higher concentrations up to 172,300, 237, 2225, and 1700 mg kg−1 DS for Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn, respectively in an industrial sludge. In addition, [36, 37] recently reported concentration of 64, 73.1, 604.1, 1102.1, 483.9, and 2060.3 mg kg−1 DS for Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Ni and Zn, respectively, in an urban sewage sludge. As can be seen, sewage sludge represent a great sink of metallic pollutants which deserves peculiar attention; as its land application would lead to a drastic soil contamination and metals spreading. This was in accordance with a reported from [38] with respect the application of sewage sludge as soil fertilizer and the risk of metals spreading. To be noticed, aside sewage sludge, poultry and livestock manures from concentrated feeding operations can also, contain PTE and their application to agricultural land can lead to environmental problems and concerns over crop safety.
\nIt is very important to highlight the fact that potentially-toxic elements (PTE) are not biodegradable elements and can be teratogenic, mutagenic, endocrine disruptors. This means that a metal can only change state of form in the soil; and depending to its forms, it can be transported from soil to another compartment of the environment, and cause serious adverse effects on the environment and human. The behavior and the transportability of a given metal in soil or from the soil to another environment compartment are strongly linked to the state at which the metal is mainly found in the soil. In another word, metal mobility in the soil in strongly linked to their bioavailability. The bioavailability of a metal in the soil is often determined by proceeding a sequential extraction of the metal using various extracting solution. The commonly used sequential extraction procedure is that of Tessier et al. [39]. It consists in to extracting metals in soil in five different fractions including ion exchanges fraction (F2), Carbonate bound-fraction (F3), organic matter-bound fraction (F4) and iron and manganese-bound fraction (F5), and silicate bound/residual fraction (F6). The method has further been modified by introducing a sixth fraction known as water soluble fraction; which normally should be the first fraction (F1) [40]. To be noticed, there are several sequential extraction protocols with various extracting solvents which can be found in the literature. However, following the chemical sequential extraction, metals in soil are generally been extracted in six different fractions (F1–6); which permit to appreciate the state or forms in which a given metal is found and predominate in the soil. Otherwise, the sequential extraction technic permits to evaluate the bioavailability of a metal and thus its mobility in the soil; and finally forecast it potential hazard and toxicity in the environment.
\nIt is widely accepted that the sum of the first three fractions (F1, F2, F3) represents the minimum amount of labile/ bioavailable a given pollutant in the soil that could be easily be mobilized, spread and contaminate the environment [41]. As Result, it is bioavailable for plants uptake. These three fractions are environmental conditions-sensitive [42]. In addition, in the soil system, reactions that often take place are likely to be anaerobic which would lead to the degradation of organic matter in the soil system. As a consequence, the organic matter-bond metals would be released and be redistributed in the soil. This suggests that during the redistribution, the bioavailable fraction of metals could increase, thus increasing their mobility and the risk of environmental contamination. The higher S is for a given metal, the higher are its bioavailability and mobility. It can thus be easily transported in the soil towards the groundwater or be available for plants uptake or washed by runoff and then be transported towards the natural surface water reservoir. So, it can clearly be seen that the more a metal is bioavailable, the lesser its stability in the soil and the higher its toxicity would be. It thus very important to control the bioavailability and mobility of metals in the soil or at some extent, proceed to soil treatment and metals removal.
\nOtherwise, the bioavailability of a metal in the soil greatly influence it removal. As a consequence, the bioavailability of the metal greatly affects the efficacy and efficiency of soil treatment or remediation technologies [36]. As matter of fact, it is recommended to first take this factor into account before any choice of the treatment or remediation approach. In the following sections, we are going to introduce three main technologies commonly used for soil remediation. It includes phytoremediation, chemical leaching and electrokinetic remediation.
\nPhytoremediation refers to the technologies that use living plants including herbs (e.g. Thlaspi caerulescens, Brassica juncea, Helianthus annuus) and woody (e.g. Salix spp., Populus spp.) species, to clean up soil, air, and water contaminated with hazardous contaminants using their ability to either contain, remove, uptake, or render harmless various environmental contaminants like potentially-toxic elements, organic compounds and radioactive compounds in soil or water, thanks to their transport capacity and accumulation of contaminants [42, 43]. The use of plants for in situ treatment of contaminated soils was suggested for first time in the early 1990s [44]. The term phytoremediation was then introduced early in the same year to describe the use of plants for extracting PTE from soils [45]. Phytoremediation can be applied to inorganic as well as organic contaminants. As stated by [46], plants are kind of “chemical factories” that exercise great influence on their environment not only by uptake of substances but also by exudation of many molecules that are produced in primary and secondary metabolism. This lively chemical and physical interaction of plants with their environment are of great utility often use for the remediation of contaminated sites; refers to as phytoremediation.
\nThe successful application of phytoremediation techniques is dependent on many parameters among which, contaminants must be bioavailable and ready to be absorbed by roots. The bioavailability of metals depends from solubility of the metals in soil. Nevertheless, mechanisms and efficiency of the phytoremediation depend not only on the bioavailability of metals but also on several others factors such as the nature of contaminant, soil properties, and plant species [47]. The plants which are generally considered for this purpose are those that exhibit great efficiency in phytoremediation processes. They are commonly named as “hyperaccumulator”, macrophytes capable of tolerating and accumulating metals present in the soil ≥10 g kg−1 (1%) Mn or Zn, ≥ 1 g kg−1 (0.1%) As, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se or Tl, and ≥ 0.1 g kg−1 (0.01%) Cd of the dry mass of shoots on soils rich in PTE in the aerial organs from soils without suffering phytotoxic damage [48]; while yielding low biomass [49]. The List of hyperaccumulators plant species for phytoextraction and phytostabilization has been already in a previous review by Mahar and his co-workers [50].
\nOtherwise, the extraction efficiency of the pollutants also depends on the biomass produced by the plant. Indeed, the bigger is the biomass the higher the ability of the plant to uptake big quantity of metals. However, more harvests, time and effort will be required to remove the plants after treatment. This will determine the total cost of the entire operation, including disposal, incineration or composting of biomass [51]. Phytoremediation is a reliable reclaiming treatment, because it does not interfere with the ecosystem, it requires less manpower and therefore cost-effective compared to traditional physicochemical methods. This technic knew some significant advancement in recent years thanks to the use of modern biotechnology such as phytoextraction and phytodegradation [51, 52]. Phytoremediation techniques could be applied for the recovery of the industrial sites heavily contaminated with low to moderate concentration.
\nThe removal of inorganic pollutants and even organic using phytoremediation is made possible following diverse mechanisms summarized in the Figure 1 below.
\nDifferent mechanisms involve in phytotechnology.
Phytoextraction: metals are extracted from the soil by the plant and transferred to the plant’s shoot and leaves. Plants which are often used in this process are selected based on their ability to accumulate contaminants and produce a high biomass [51, 52].
\nPhytoimmobilization/Phytostabilization: in this process, pollutants are absorbed and immobilized in the root system and it is reduces their mobility. It has been used for the removal of Pb, As, Cd, Cr, Cu and Zn [70, 71].
\nPhytovolatilization: pollutants are absorbed at root level and converted in a less toxic forms as a result of metabolic modification and released in atmosphere from the aerial parts of plant. We can thus state that this mechanism only relocate the pollutants from the soil to the air [46]. However, in anyway, the soil has been sanitized.
\nPhytodegradation: this mechanism is mainly for the sequestration of organic contaminants in the soil. It involves Plant enzymes to degrade organic contaminants [51, 52]. Various enzymes are involve in the mechanism among which: (i) dehalogenase (sequestration of chlorinated compounds); (ii) peroxidase (sequestration of phenolic compounds); (iii) nitroreductase (sequestration of explosives and other nitrate compounds); (iv) nitrilase (sequestration of cyanated aromatic compounds); (v) phosphatase (transformation of organophosphate pesticides) [53, 54]. At this level, phyto and bioremediation cannot be separated from one another, as microorganisms play an important role in these phytotechnologies. In fact, plants are in continuous interaction with microorganisms, some of which form close associations or symbiotic relationships. This phenomena is what explain the symbiosis that form mycorrhizal fungi with almost all land plants [55] and nitrogen-fixing rhizobia with legumes [56].
\nRhizofiltration: this mechanism is commonly applied for the removal of pollutants from surface water or wastewater through adsorption or precipitation on the roots. It has been used for metals and even radioactive elements removal from soil, wastewater and contaminated water with satisfactory results [57]. This technique requires the adjustment of the pH of the medium a better efficiency of the operation; this is seen as a disadvantage of the technique.
\nRhizodegradation: just like phytodegradation, this mechanism permit to degradation of organic pollutants in the rhizosphere through rhizospheric microorganisms. It involves a continuous interaction between plants and microorganisms; and thus it cannot be separated from bioremediation. Overwhelming number of research studies has already demonstrated the fact that the number of microorganisms in the rhizosphere is 100 times greater than present on the surface. The latter fetch their nutrients from the root exudates of the plant, which acts as carbon source.
\nPhytodesalination: this technique is really not used for remediation of contaminated-coil with PTE or persistent organic pollutants but used for the removal of slat from salt-affected soil; it is made possible using halophyte plants (Artemisia argyi, Limonium bicolor, Melilotus suaveolens and Salsola collina). Halophytes are plants with great ability to tolerate high concentrations of Na+ and Cl− ions; making them able to reclaim excessive saline soil [58]. To be noticed, it is reported that saline soils cover about 6% of the world’s land [59] and it well known that salinity is the main environmental factor limiting plant growth and productivity.
\nIn comparison to many other remediation technologies, phytoremediation is found to be of low costs, it protects the soil from erosion (reduction of erosion rate), improves the chemical, physical and biological soil properties, and enhances land esthetic. Phytoremediation is a technology that meets consensus and is highly accepted by the population. It is suitable for sites with low to moderate contamination and where contaminants diffused over large areas, and where there are no temporal limits to the intervention, and finally, it requires less human power. However, despite all this advantages, phytoremediation presents also some limitations which are worth to be mentioned. Indeed, it is time consuming, strong dependence upon: climatic conditions, contaminant(s) concentration and bioavailability, plant tolerance to contaminants, contamination area extent and depth (limited by the rhizosphere or the root zone). The disposable of harvested wastes is another challenge of phytoremediation. It is also not suitable for severely contaminated site such as e-waste contaminated site where potentially-toxic elements and persistent co-exist (the growth of plant would be inhibited), it is also not suitable when arable land (usable land for agricultural production is limited) [60]. Therefore, at this stage, another technology would be need to tackle the remediation of the site. For a better performance of phytoremediation, it could also be combined to electrochemical process. However, the challenge is that the combination would somehow inhibit some phytoremediation processes such as phytodegradation, rhizodegradation which only take place with continuous soil’s microorganisms. Indeed, the electrochemical process which includes the induction of low level direct current in the soil via electrodes, would provoke the rising of soil’s temperature and the change of soil pH; and thus disturb or inhibit the activity of bacteria. As a consequence, the performance of plant to remove the contaminants will be affected. The detail about electrochemical process, would later be discussed, as it is part of our goal in this chapter.
\nChemical leaching is one of the traditional remediation technologies used for contaminated soil remediation; and it involves dissolution, extraction and separation of the pollutants. Chemical leaching is one of the common and widely used methods for soil and sludge’s PTE removal. Through the precipitation, ions exchange, chelation or adsorption, the PTE in soil are transferred from soil to liquid phase, and then separated from the leachate [61]. The separated pollutants are then converted to the appropriate form before disposal or can be reinserted in the recycling circle. For the dissolution and extraction process, there must be a step of breaking the bound between metals and soil constituents. The success this operation requires the use of acids, oxidants and complexants. Originally, contaminated soil is treated with strong inorganic acids such as HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4 [62]. Unfortunately, the application of the above-strong acids have been found to be environment and ecological disastrous. Indeed, strong acids have a strong capacity of destroying soil structure, and killing soil’s microorganisms. Otherwise, in the process of sanitizing the soil using strong acids, there also occur the loss of soil constituent which is of great concern for the ecological consideration. Such situation is not in line with the protection of the environment on one hand, and does inhibit the productivity of the treated soil on the other hand. As a consequence, the use of strong acids is not environmental friendly. Thus, the integrated utilization of acids or reagents should be deliberately selected to fulfill the requirement of target contaminants removal on one hand, and soil ecological protection on the other hand. This justifies the introduction of Low molecular weight organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, which constitute a group of weak organic acids [63] and chelating reagents such as nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) [33], sodium tripolyphosphates (STPP) and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) [33, 63]. The use of weak acids showed mitigated results even though promising. On the other hand, chelating agents develop great affinity with the metals ions and possess prominent properties of oxidizing and forming complexes with metals cations; which could improve their extraction efficient. The use of the mentioned organic chelators has been widely investigated and results are satisfactory; mainly EDTA is well known for its excellent ability to recover metals from soil (25–80%) depending on the type of soil [64, 65]. However, these chelators seem to be refractory to the environment, and not easily biodegradable and thus can pose a secondary pollution via leaching to the groundwater [66]. As a consequence, there is a need to find more suitable chelators for the replacement of the refractory ones. In line with this objective, the use of organic acids and new generation of chelating agents are increasingly been investigated as an alternatives to above-mentioned washing reagents. N, N-bis(carboxymethyl) glutamic acid (GLDA), a chelator with excellent biodegradability [67], more than 60% degradable within 28 days. According to the OECD 301D test [68] with lowest ‘eco-footprint’ characteristics in comparison to EDTA and STPP; has been suggested due to it exceptional chelating capacity towards different divalent metal ions [69]. It was successfully used by [35] and [36] for the recovery of Cd Co, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn from dewatered sewage sludge. The removal efficacy was comprised between 60 and 86% and 70–94% for both studies, respectively. In addition, it comparison with citric acid during the work of [36] showed great efficacy and efficiency of GLDA compared to citric acid. The more a chelators possesses a carboxyl group (-COOH), the higher its performance would be during soil washing process. However, to be noticed, the overwhelming number of research work carried out on this topic which can be found in the literature are lab scale experiments, which is much easier to proceed comparing to field demonstration, mainly in situ application. It is only used in an ex-situ remediation technology, which create too much disturbance of soil system and its microorganisms. Here below (Table 1) are some organic chelators used in soil washing technology.
\nSome organic chelators often used for soil washing, EDTA and NTA are commonly used, while others in the table are known as new generation of chelators [69].
During chemical leaching, the use of significant amount of chelating agent is essential for the mobilization of PTE within the soil system. The addition of chelants to soils not only promote metals mobilization and transfer from the soil to the chelants’ solutions but it also increases the total concentration of the soluble metals. A better mobilization of metals in the soil, requires up to hundreds of mill molar per liter concentration of the chelating agents in the soil solution. The issue is that the process can recover only part of the concentration of the dissolved metals, and leaching will be unavoidable [70]; which could lead to the possible contamination of the ground water and slow (several weeks or months) decomposition of the synthetic organic acids. Following the application of chelate forming agents, the removal of metals may continue for a long time. Besides, the use of chelating agents could exercises adverse effects on the soil microorganisms [71].
\nOtherwise, except the fact that during the soil washing/leaching process, soil minerals and other constituents are washing away together with the target pollutants, the in situ application of this technology at the large scale would be very challenging. Indeed, the injection of washing reagent in the soil is really challenging as it would not be easy to control the flow direction; and the solution will tend to flow vertically (leaching towards ground water) rather than in the desired direction, generally horizontal. As a consequence, the in situ field applicability of the technology at the large scale is limited; only ex-situ application are widely known. Otherwise, the technology is solvent consuming and involve longue processes and post treatments of the treatment waste and thus time consuming with high requirement of human power. Otherwise, it is soil generate too much soil disturbance (soil returning). One of the alternative to make valuable this technology is to combine it with other technology which permit the control of the solvent flow with less soil disturbance such as electrochemical process. This combination has given birth to the electrokinetic remediation technology.
\nElectrokinetic remediation is a technique that consists in displacing or moving pollutants in contaminated soil from their contaminated points towards a specific controlled extraction points which are generally the electrodes cells. This technique is made possible by the application of a direct low current between electrodes well-disposed in the soil in order to optimize the electric field. The principle of pollutants cleanup is controlled by some key processes such as electroosmosis, electromigration and electrophoresis [72]. These mechanisms involve different mechanism. Electroosmosis knows as electroosmotic flow, consists of the displacement of the liquid in the porous soil as result of the application of the electric field. During this movement, the pore fluid carries along organics and neutral molecules. Electromigration consists of the transport of charged particles (anions and cations) towards the opposite electrode cell. As for the electrophoresis, it is the movement of dispersed particles in the medium relative to a fluid as result of a spatially uniform electric field. These mechanisms are of great importance in pollution remediation (soil and sediment treatment) when using electrokinetic approach.
\nDuring electrokinetic remediation, there occur electrochemical reactions of which, electrolysis of water represents one of the most important and influential reactions. These reactions take place on the surface of the electrodes as the result of the application of low direct electric current. During electrolysis process, there occur a generation of protons \n
Mechanism of electrokinetic remediation approach.
The pH profile is a key parameter during soil treatment with electrokinetic approach. Indeed, the changes of pH induce beside electrokinetic processes, physicochemical processes among which precipitation/dissolution of minerals and metals, adsorption/desorption of pollutants and ion exchange between the soil solid and the pore water. As it is well known, pH exercises strong influence on the chemical speciation of the compounds mainly inorganic present in the soil system. It determines the state or ionic forms in which a compound is found in the soil. This will indirectly condition the predominant transport mechanism by which this compound will move during the treatment.
\nEspecially the change in pH affects the surface charge of soil particles and metal ions mobility. The generated acidic conditions help mobilize sorbed metal ions, prevents formation of metal hydroxide and carbonate precipitates; and thus facilitate their electromigration via the electroosmotic flow of the liquid. However, highly acidic conditions cause electroosmotic flow to stop or reverse, whereas alkaline condition results in PTE precipitation and increases electroosmotic flow. Thus, to maintain this parameter within a suitable range, pH control if often performed in both anode and cathode by adding sodium hydroxide (0.1 and 1 M) and acetic acid/citric acid (0.1 and 1 M) respectively [74, 75]. The in-situ acidification, however, may not be adequate if the soil possesses high buffering capacity. Moreover, the generated base front causes metal ions to precipitate, impeding their final arrival at the cathode [76]. Consequently, external/artificial acidification is often required even necessary during electrokinetic soil remediation [77]. However, the use of strong inorganic acids such as HCl, HNO3 is not is not recommended as it can damage the soil structure. In addition, it would be costly and is not environmentally acceptable. Generally, water or chemical solutions [(0.1 M) EDTA or acetic acid, citric acid, etc.] are continuously injected at the anode to maintain optimal remediation conditions; contaminated water is removed at the cathode by pumping [78].
\nThis technology has been successfully used in single for the treatment of various wastes/sites such as wastewater, sewage sludge, soil and sediments contaminated with inorganic and organic pollutants [76, 77, 79]. However, to optimize its efficacy, it has also been used in the combinations with other technologies [80, 81, 82]. The combination of electrokinetic remediation method with other technologies has been tested and is still on the hotspot of scientific research in environmental filed. It includes electrokinetic-microbe joint remediation, electrokinetic-chemical joint remediation [82], electrokinetic-oxidation/reduction joint remediation [83], coupled electrokinetic-phytoremediation [81], electrokinetics coupled with electrospun polyacrylonitrile nanofiber membrane [80], and electrokinetic remediation conjugated with permeable reactive barrier [79].
\nVarious inert electrodes made of ceramic, carbon, graphite, titanium, stainless steel, are generally used during electrokinetic remediation of contaminated-soil. Each electrode has its level of stability, the choice of electrode depends on the use and purpose. The electrode are configured in order to optimize the electrical field in the treated area. Generally, they are disposed in the contaminated soil at 1.0–1.5 m spacing, with imposed DC current at 1.0–3.0 V cm−1 or 100–500 kWh m−3 [84].
\nElectrokinetic extraction of PTE involves desorption/dissolution followed by transport. When the concentration of PTE in the soil solution becomes below the soil sorption capacity, chemical additives are typically needed to help mobilize and sorb metals. Also poor conductivity-pollutants (in the form of sulfides) or present in metallic form (Hg) cleanup involve a primary step of dissolution. This step generally involves the use of some appropriate electrolytes such as distilled water, organic acids or synthetic chelates; which aims to enhance the efficiency of the remediation. Several chemical have been tested as additives and include acetic acid (CH3COOH), citric acid ((HOOC-CH2)2C(OH)(COOH)), nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA), ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic acid (EDTA), ethylenediaminedisuccinic acid (EDDS), diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA), and potassium iodide (KI). These additives also known as enhancement fluids mobilization efficiencies varies from one to another and depending on the type of metal species in soil [85, 86, 87]. It is worth to mention that the removal efficiency varies not only depending on the type of the chemical used (anolyte) and metal remediated [88] but also on the type of electrode. Indeed, the use of KH2PO4 as an anolyte permitted to enhance the removal efficiencies of As species by >50% and ∼ 20% for Cu species. Meanwhile, it did not enhanced the removal of the Pb and Zn (< 20%) [89, 90]. Also reported that adding ethylene diamine disuccinate (EDDS) in the anolyte enhanced Pb and Cd removal efficiencies in the contaminated soil.
\nElectrokinetic technology has many advantages among which, it applicability for in-situ/ex-situ remediation, applicable to low-permeability soils and a mixture of contaminants where other technologies cannot be applied, applicable to a wide range of pollutants, and applicable to heavy and severely contaminated sites. However, the main limiting factor for direct electrokinetic remediation is the fluctuation in soil pH; because it cannot maintain soil pH value. Therefore there is a need to control the soil pH by external intervention through the addition of buffer solutions in cathode and anode cells. In fact, controlling the pH in the electrode cells remains the main challenge of this technology. Electrokinetic remediation has shown promising results and is still under development stage [91].
\nThe comparison of the three technologies involved in the present chapter is summarized in the Figure 3 below.
\nComparison of phytoremediation, chemical leaching and electrokinetic technologies.
Soil contamination is one of the greatest challenges threatening the world as it lowers soil productivity and compromises food security. Contaminated soil/sites remediation or restoration is among the top list objectives of Food and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) agenda. Phytoremediation, chemical leaching and electrochemical remediation are three techniques commonly used for the remediation of contaminated sites. Each of these techniques has its advantages and limitations. Due to the non-availability of enough arable land, the use of phytoremediation, though it is eco-friendly, would lead to food insecurity as it takes long period to clean a target site. Moreover, it takes too much agricultural space for its implementation. As for chemical leaching, it is an ex-situ treatment technique, it thus disturbs too much the soil and its microorganisms; it leads to the loss of much soil minerals and reducing soil fertility (non-suitable for agricultural land). In addition, it introduce much chemical in to the soil, some of which may be refractory to biodegradation and leach to underground water. Electrokinetic approach is less time consuming and less disturbs the treated site; the main challenge is how to control the pH during the process; this could be monitor by external intervention. However, additives which include surfactants, chelants and organic acids must be carefully chosen having in mind their biodegradability and the protection of the soil structure and ecosystem. None of these techniques, when applied in single, is able to properly achieve the soil depollution; thus their combination is highly recommended. The combination of these technologies still suffer some lack of information which need to be explored in order to appreciate their feasibility. In order to enhance the efficiency of soil remediation, it is recommended to investigated and develop more environmental friendly flushing reagents to replace refractory existing ones on one hand; and to promote phyto-electrokinetic remediation approach on the other hand.
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