Operational variable.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6142",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Family Planning",title:"Family Planning",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Women with unmet need for family planning are those who are fecund but are not using any method of contraception, not wanting any more children, or wanting to delay the next pregnancy. This notion points to the gap between women?s reproductive intentions and their contraceptive behavior. The need for contraception remains too high. This circumstance is made worse by both a growing population and a shortage of family planning services. It is important that family planning is widely available and easily accessible. This book is intended as an aid to substance that all health workers interested in becoming more effective practitioners will consult on many occasions during their clinical practice. It provides views that the readers can test their experiences against. It presents sound and clear advice on some of the most practical guidance applicable to family planning.",isbn:"978-1-78923-277-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-276-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-300-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68266",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"family-planning",numberOfPages:324,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4993c79cffba3126a9ca1ef7c9902c7e",bookSignature:"Zouhair O. Amarin",publishedDate:"June 13th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6142.jpg",numberOfDownloads:26347,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:51,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:89,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 10th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 31st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 27th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 25th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 26th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"101551",title:"Prof.",name:"Zouhair Odeh",middleName:null,surname:"Amarin",slug:"zouhair-odeh-amarin",fullName:"Zouhair Odeh Amarin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101551/images/system/101551.jpg",biography:"Zouhair Amarin is a Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the Jordan University of Science and Technology. He was previously a lecturer at the University of Glasgow, senior lecturer at the University of Nottingham, and dean of the Faculty of Medicine at Mutah University. \n\nProfessor Amarin is a fellow of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists and the Faculty of Public Health, London. He holds master’s degrees in Medical Science and Medical Education. \n\nHe is a pioneer in IVF and was the first to develop microsurgical epididymis sperm aspiration for clinical use. He also discovered a surgical procedure for critical ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. \n\nProfessor Amarin has published more than 120 papers and has received 8 awards.",institutionString:"Jordan University of Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Jordan University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Jordan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1134",title:"Population Health",slug:"population-health"}],chapters:[{id:"61630",title:"Introductory Chapter: Family Planning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76418",slug:"introductory-chapter-family-planning",totalDownloads:1071,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Zouhair Amarin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61630",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61630",authors:[{id:"101551",title:"Prof.",name:"Zouhair Odeh",surname:"Amarin",slug:"zouhair-odeh-amarin",fullName:"Zouhair Odeh Amarin"}],corrections:null},{id:"58463",title:"From Eugenicists to Family Planners: America’s Religious Promoters of Contraception",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72378",slug:"from-eugenicists-to-family-planners-america-s-religious-promoters-of-contraception",totalDownloads:856,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Early proponents of contraception among American religious groups were staunch eugenicists who promoted birth control in the hopes of curtailing the “runaway fertility” of poor Catholic and Jewish immigrants. By the early 1930s, their campaign to legalize contraception was largely successful, but eugenics would soon go from being a sign of progressive politics and enlightened scientific understanding to a dirty word associated with Hitler. By examining the statements of all of the early liberalizers on contraception from 1920 to 1965, this paper demonstrates that although these groups purged their statements on contraception of the word eugenics by the end of WWII, the fertility of “poor others” remained their focus for the next few decades. Talk of “race suicide” changed to talk of “responsible parenthood” as their focus moved away from the whitening Irish, Italian, and Jewish immigrants to the poor in the Third World and Americans in the inner cities.",signatures:"Melissa J. Wilde and KaJaiyaiu Hopkins",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58463",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58463",authors:[{id:"227331",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Melissa",surname:"Wilde",slug:"melissa-wilde",fullName:"Melissa Wilde"},{id:"227332",title:"Ms.",name:"Kajaiyaiu",surname:"Hopkins",slug:"kajaiyaiu-hopkins",fullName:"Kajaiyaiu Hopkins"}],corrections:null},{id:"58916",title:"Factors Affecting the Attitudes of Women toward Family Planning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73255",slug:"factors-affecting-the-attitudes-of-women-toward-family-planning",totalDownloads:8553,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Everyone has the right to decide on the number and timing of children without discrimination, violence and oppression, to have the necessary information and facilities for it, to access sexual and reproductive health services at the highest standard. Deficient or incorrect family planning methods, wrong attitudes and behaviors toward the methods and consequent unplanned pregnancies, increased maternal and infant mortality rates are the main health problems in most countries. Individuals’ learning modern family planning methods and having positive attitude for these methods may increase the usage of these methods and contributes the formation of healthy communities. It is considered important to examine the current attitudes and determinants in order to spread the choice of effective method.",signatures:"Nazli Sensoy, Yasemin Korkut, Selcuk Akturan, Mehmet Yilmaz,\nCanan Tuz and Bilge Tuncel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58916",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58916",authors:[{id:"216377",title:"Prof.",name:"Nazli",surname:"Sensoy",slug:"nazli-sensoy",fullName:"Nazli Sensoy"},{id:"216589",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",surname:"Korkut",slug:"yasemin-korkut",fullName:"Yasemin Korkut"},{id:"216595",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcuk",surname:"Akturan",slug:"selcuk-akturan",fullName:"Selcuk Akturan"},{id:"216596",title:"Dr.",name:"Canan",surname:"Tuz",slug:"canan-tuz",fullName:"Canan Tuz"},{id:"216598",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilge",surname:"Tuncel",slug:"bilge-tuncel",fullName:"Bilge Tuncel"},{id:"216599",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"mehmet-yilmaz",fullName:"Mehmet Yilmaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"58216",title:"Pregnant and Out of Options: The Quest for Abortion in Latin America Due to the Zika Virus Pandemic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72377",slug:"pregnant-and-out-of-options-the-quest-for-abortion-in-latin-america-due-to-the-zika-virus-pandemic",totalDownloads:1135,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Latin America has some of the strictest abortion rules in the world, where the procedure is criminal in cases of rape, incest, or even to save the life of the mother. More than 97% of women in Latin America and the Caribbean live in countries where access to abortion is either restricted or banned altogether. As a result, unsafe abortion is widespread and causes 10% of all maternal deaths in the region. With the onset of the Zika virus pandemic in 2015, and the identification of the virus as causing poor pregnancy outcomes including fetal infection, microcephaly, and other malformations, there became an increased demand for abortions in Latin American countries. The response of many Latin American governments to Zika infection during pregnancy was to recommend that women avoid or postpone their pregnancies. These recommendations were not possible for many women at risk in the affected countries, especially those who were uneducated or living in poverty. As a result of the Zika pandemic, there has been an increased demand for abortion in many of the affected countries that, because of the clandestine and illegal nature of the procedure, carries the heightened risk for additional maternal morbidity and mortality.",signatures:"David A. Schwartz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58216",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58216",authors:[{id:"217490",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Schwartz",slug:"david-schwartz",fullName:"David Schwartz"}],corrections:null},{id:"58297",title:"Family Planning Services in Africa: The Successes and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72224",slug:"family-planning-services-in-africa-the-successes-and-challenges",totalDownloads:2183,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The world population is on the increase, and the majority of this increase will be from sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It is estimated that by 2030 the population of Africa will rise to 1.3 billion. Published peer-reviewed journals, abstracts, Gray literature (government documents, technical reports, other reports, etc.), internet articles and Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) reports were used as resource materials. Manual search of reference list of selected articles was checked for further relevant studies. Family planning (FP) programmes that started in 1960s across SSA have made steady progress with contraceptive prevalence rates still very low and unacceptably high unmet need. Despite near universal knowledge on contraceptives, there is an obvious knowledge-practice gap. There are barriers, personal, religious and community levels, to contraceptive use. Contraceptives have a lot of benefits to the mother, child and community. Thus, there is a need for publicity campaigns through information, education and communication (IEC) to address social and cultural barriers to FP including misconceptions and misinformation. Contraception should be vigorously promoted in SSA not only for its demographic dividends but also on socio-economic and health grounds and the attainment of sustainable development goals (SDGs).",signatures:"Alhaji A Aliyu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58297",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58297",authors:[{id:"217688",title:"Prof.",name:"Alhaji A",surname:"Aliyu",slug:"alhaji-a-aliyu",fullName:"Alhaji A Aliyu"}],corrections:null},{id:"59078",title:"Drivers of Unmet Need for Family Planning among Women of Advanced Reproductive Age in Urban Western Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72896",slug:"drivers-of-unmet-need-for-family-planning-among-women-of-advanced-reproductive-age-in-urban-western-",totalDownloads:1112,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Studies have examined unmet need for family planning among urban women in a number of countries, but women of advanced reproductive age have not been explicitly examined. This chapter examined drivers of unmet need for family planning among urban women of advanced reproductive age in selected West African countries. Data were extracted from individual recode of the most recent Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) implemented in the selected countries. The study analysed weighted sample sizes of 800 women in Guinea, 4928 women in Nigeria and 1253 women in the Gambia. The outcome variable was unmet need for family planning. Key explanatory variables are sets of individual and community characteristics. Three multilevel logistic regression models were fitted using Stata 12. Results showed that among urban women of advanced reproductive age, unmet need for limiting was dominant. Results further revealed that individual and community characteristics significantly drive variations in unmet need for family planning in the studied countries. Urban interventions to reduce unmet need for family planning in West African countries should target women of advanced reproductive age.",signatures:"Bola Lukman Solanke",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59078",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59078",authors:[{id:"217276",title:"Dr.",name:"Lukman",surname:"Solanke",slug:"lukman-solanke",fullName:"Lukman Solanke"}],corrections:null},{id:"57590",title:"Family Planning and Fertility Decline in Africa: From 1950 to 2010",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71029",slug:"family-planning-and-fertility-decline-in-africa-from-1950-to-2010",totalDownloads:1910,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The study analyzes the links between family planning programs, contraceptive prevalence and fertility trends in sub-Saharan Africa. It is based on case studies of countries with demographic surveys. The study reveals a variety of situations. Some countries have completed their fertility transition, while others have reduced their fertility level rapidly in urban areas, but less so in rural areas. In some countries, fertility remained very high, or declined very little, in rural areas, when population policies and family planning programs remained insufficient or almost non-existent. The role of family planning programs in fertility decline is highlighted by contrasting countries with similar characteristics, one of which experiencing a sharp drop in fertility, while the other one is showing a small decline or no decline at all. In each case, the political, economic, and social context is presented in order to explain the differences between family planning programs and their outcomes. These case studies make it possible to draw conclusions about the conditions of fertility control in African countries.",signatures:"Michel Garenne",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57590",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57590",authors:[{id:"213800",title:"Prof.",name:"Michel",surname:"Garenne",slug:"michel-garenne",fullName:"Michel Garenne"}],corrections:null},{id:"57849",title:"Contraceptive Failure among Women in Homa Bay County of Kenya: A Matter of User and Provider Deficiencies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72161",slug:"contraceptive-failure-among-women-in-homa-bay-county-of-kenya-a-matter-of-user-and-provider-deficien",totalDownloads:995,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although the Kenya family planning program appears successful at the national level—with contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR) in 2014 surpassing the 2015 target of 56%—sub-national variations suggest the need to understand the patterns at the local levels to inform programs to either sustain or improve further the levels that the country has attained. This chapter examines the reasons for contraceptive failure among 166 women aged 15–39 years in three sub-counties of Homa Bay County in Kenya. The findings show that failure of methods such as injectables, pills and condoms was mostly because of challenges with client adherence and inconsistent use. Failure of long-acting and permanent methods such as implants and female sterilization was partly due to limited provider capacity to offer the methods and partly due to inability to afford the costs of resupplies of implants. These patterns were further exacerbated by limited access to adequate information on the part of users, which could enable them make informed contraceptive choices. The experiences of women regarding contraceptive failures—including highly effective long-acting and permanent methods—suggest the need for targeted interventions to address challenges that might hamper the success of the family planning program in such localized settings.",signatures:"Francis Obare, George Odwe and Wilson Liambila",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57849",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57849",authors:[{id:"36647",title:"Dr.",name:"Francis",surname:"Obare",slug:"francis-obare",fullName:"Francis Obare"},{id:"211409",title:"Dr.",name:"George",surname:"Odwe",slug:"george-odwe",fullName:"George Odwe"},{id:"211411",title:"MSc.",name:"Wilson",surname:"Liambila",slug:"wilson-liambila",fullName:"Wilson Liambila"}],corrections:null},{id:"57964",title:"Interventions for Failed Family Planning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72239",slug:"interventions-for-failed-family-planning",totalDownloads:1061,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Despite the introduction of family planning services in most areas of the world, failures of contraceptive use often lead to unplanned pregnancies. These women often resort to unsafe methods to end their pregnancies, which contributes to the fourth leading cause of maternal mortality worldwide. Demographic variables that may affect the intention to discontinue the pregnancies would be demonstrated. Pros and cons of different types of induced abortions would be presented and discussed. Programs integrating counseling for women after failed family planning for future comprehensive reproductive health care will be shown. The gap between women’s reproductive desire to avoid pregnancy and altitude of contraceptive use may contribute to the prevalence of unintended pregnancy. Age, race/ethnicity, marital status, and socioeconomic characteristics should be considered in counseling women after failed family planning. Expanding the program that offers integrated abortion training would prepare more physicians to provide comprehensive care for family planning.",signatures:"Li-Wei Chien and Heng-Kien Au",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57964",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57964",authors:[{id:"216444",title:"Prof.",name:"Li-Wei",surname:"Chien",slug:"li-wei-chien",fullName:"Li-Wei Chien"},{id:"216445",title:"Dr.",name:"Heng-Kien",surname:"Au",slug:"heng-kien-au",fullName:"Heng-Kien Au"}],corrections:null},{id:"58794",title:"Causes of Visiting Teenagers in the Pediatric and Adolescence Examining Room",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72979",slug:"causes-of-visiting-teenagers-in-the-pediatric-and-adolescence-examining-room",totalDownloads:983,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adolescence is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood. Depending on female gonads’ function and on hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis activation, results in teenager’s body growth, in secondary sex characteristics’ development and finally in their reproductive potential. In adolescence, the negative feedback of gonadal steroids on gonadotropins is disturbed. Teenagers presenting with dysfunctional bleedings are usually suspected of hemorrhagic ovarian cysts or endometriosis and require gynecologic examination, evaluation, and hormone therapy. It is of great importance both for teenagers and their parents to understand that hormone therapy is the first line treatment for bleeding disorders in these ages. A detailed medical history is necessary to determine the appropriate treatment plan. Primary care includes the detection of adolescents with acute or chronic pelvic pain that may be associated with endometriosis or other pathologies like mullerian duct abnormalities, imperforate hymen, ovarian teratomas, ovarian torsion, and vaginal absence or atresia. Mullerian duct abnormalities are associated with increased rates of unexplained infertility, spontaneous abortions, and pathological conditions of pregnancy. Specialists, should help teenagers in getting familiar to their bodies, to their sexuality, inform them about the sexually transmitted diseases, and safety options including vaccination and guide them in contraception issues.",signatures:"Panagiotis Tsikouras, Theodora-Eleftheria Deftereou, Anna\nChalkidou, Xanthoula Anthoulaki, Anastasia Bothou, Bachar\nManav, Zacharoula Koukouli, Stefanos Zervoudis, George Iatrakis\nand Georgios Galazios",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58794",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58794",authors:[{id:"48837",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiotis",surname:"Tsikouras",slug:"panagiotis-tsikouras",fullName:"Panagiotis Tsikouras"},{id:"229224",title:"Ms.",name:"Theodora",surname:"Deftereou",slug:"theodora-deftereou",fullName:"Theodora Deftereou"},{id:"229225",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",surname:"Chalkidou",slug:"anna-chalkidou",fullName:"Anna Chalkidou"},{id:"229226",title:"Ms.",name:"Xanthoula",surname:"Anthoulaki",slug:"xanthoula-anthoulaki",fullName:"Xanthoula Anthoulaki"},{id:"229227",title:"Ms.",name:"Anastasia",surname:"Bothou",slug:"anastasia-bothou",fullName:"Anastasia Bothou"},{id:"229228",title:"Ms.",name:"Bachar",surname:"Manav",slug:"bachar-manav",fullName:"Bachar Manav"},{id:"229229",title:"Ms.",name:"Zacharoula",surname:"Koukouli",slug:"zacharoula-koukouli",fullName:"Zacharoula Koukouli"},{id:"229230",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefanos",surname:"Zervoudis",slug:"stefanos-zervoudis",fullName:"Stefanos Zervoudis"},{id:"229232",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Iatrakis",slug:"georgios-iatrakis",fullName:"Georgios Iatrakis"},{id:"229233",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Galazios",slug:"georgios-galazios",fullName:"Georgios Galazios"}],corrections:null},{id:"59002",title:"Contraceptive Methods and the Subsequent Search for a Pregnancy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72525",slug:"contraceptive-methods-and-the-subsequent-search-for-a-pregnancy",totalDownloads:1130,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many women are concerned about their future fertility, about pregnancy complications and about the health of their future child when choosing a contraceptive method and sometimes women want to interrupt the contraception – maybe after years of use – in order to attempt pregnancy. Return to fertility, has been thoroughly analyzed in the literature. This chapter provides evidence-based information and discusses the potential doubts of women. Return to fertility has been consistently found to be sure, albeit sometimes slightly slow in the short term: pregnancy rates after 1 year of contraceptive interruption are 79–95% for oral contraceptives, 79–96% for levonorgestrel IUD, 71–91% for copper IUDs, around 80% for implants and 75–80% for injectable contraceptives. About 50% women are pregnant 3–6 months after contraceptive discontinuation; around 90–95% of women had achieved pregnancy 2 years after stopping their contraceptive method. Some studies have found associated risks of fetal malformations when women take oral contraceptive pills after conception (though other studies disputed these results). However the offspring of women who used oral contraceptives before conception does not show an increased risk of fetal death, miscarriage, gestational hypertension, major newborn structural defects or hypospadias. The effect on birth weight seems small and inconclusive.",signatures:"Blanca Patricia Bautista Balbás, Luis Alfredo Bautista Balbás and\nAlicia Pouso Rivera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59002",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59002",authors:[{id:"217808",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Blanca Patricia",surname:"Bautista Balbás",slug:"blanca-patricia-bautista-balbas",fullName:"Blanca Patricia Bautista Balbás"},{id:"218164",title:"MSc.",name:"Alicia",surname:"Pouso Rivera",slug:"alicia-pouso-rivera",fullName:"Alicia Pouso Rivera"},{id:"232251",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Alfredo",surname:"Bautista Balbás",slug:"luis-alfredo-bautista-balbas",fullName:"Luis Alfredo Bautista Balbás"}],corrections:null},{id:"59797",title:"Postpartum Family Planning: Methods to Decrease Unintended Pregnancies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73534",slug:"postpartum-family-planning-methods-to-decrease-unintended-pregnancies",totalDownloads:1030,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Postpartum women are at high risk for unintended pregnancies and subsequent adverse perinatal outcomes often due to insufficient pregnancy intervals. There is a high burden of unmet family planning need caused by factors including inadequate education on postpartum contraception, limited access to healthcare professional in the immediate postpartum period, and lack of access to contraceptive options. This chapter will discuss the different contraceptive methods that can be utilized and their respective efficacies, venous thromboembolism (VTE) risk, and impact on lactation. Tubal ligation, lactation amenorrhea, barrier methods, the copper intrauterine device (IUD), and progestin-only pills (POP) have no clinically significant impact on VTE risk or lactation for the majority of women postpartum. Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) injection, implants, and levonorgestrel (LNG) IUDs are considered to have no impact on breastfeeding based on limited clinical evidence. Contraceptive methods that contain estrogens may increase a woman?s risk for VTE in the peri-partum period and should be deferred approximately 30 days postpartum. Sterilization and long acting reversible contraceptives (LARC), including IUDs and contraceptive arm implants, have been proven to be the most reliable and cost-effective methods, which also have high rates of patient satisfaction and continuation. Women have a range of safe contraceptive choices they can use to prevent pregnancy or to space their pregnancies. Health care systems should empower women to become educated about and gain access to postpartum contraception so as to address unintended pregnancy disparities among this group of women. Above all, counseling should be patient-centered when choosing the right method for the woman.",signatures:"Jessica Maria Atrio, Isha Kachwala and Karina Avila",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59797",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59797",authors:[{id:"211305",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica",surname:"Atrio",slug:"jessica-atrio",fullName:"Jessica Atrio"},{id:"239143",title:"Ms.",name:"Isha",surname:"Kachwala",slug:"isha-kachwala",fullName:"Isha Kachwala"},{id:"239749",title:"Dr.",name:"Karina",surname:"Avila",slug:"karina-avila",fullName:"Karina Avila"}],corrections:null},{id:"58267",title:"Birth Control and Family Planning Using Intrauterine Devices (IUDs)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72242",slug:"birth-control-and-family-planning-using-intrauterine-devices-iuds-",totalDownloads:2169,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Intrauterine devices (IUDs) represent one of the most important methods used for contraception. The methods vary in terms of efficiency, acceptability, costs, and potential complications. Early methods have been improved, and ultrasound (US) evaluation has become an important tool to diagnose the clear majority of IUDs complications. This chapter presents a comprehensive and up-to-date status regarding the use of intrauterine devices (IUDs) for birth control and family planning. The topics discussed in the manuscript will involve the current knowledge on the history, types, mechanisms, health benefits, and risks. More, the present paper presents the medical techniques for inserting and removing a IUD, and the role of US to confirm proper IUD placement. Also, this chapter offers practical guidance in managing problems of continuing users and discusses the clinical circumstances that require reconsideration of the contraception methods.",signatures:"Iliescu Dominic Gabriel, Ștefania Tudorache, Simona Vlădăreanu,\nNuți Daniela Oprescu, Maria Cezara Mureșan, Roxana Cristina\nDrăgușin and Iuliana Ceaușu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58267",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58267",authors:[{id:"209081",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefania",surname:"Tudorache",slug:"stefania-tudorache",fullName:"Stefania Tudorache"},{id:"212459",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",surname:"Iliescu",slug:"dominic-iliescu",fullName:"Dominic Iliescu"},{id:"212490",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragusin",surname:"Roxana",slug:"dragusin-roxana",fullName:"Dragusin Roxana"},{id:"215126",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",surname:"Vladareanu",slug:"simona-vladareanu",fullName:"Simona Vladareanu"},{id:"215135",title:"Prof.",name:"Iuliana",surname:"Ceausu",slug:"iuliana-ceausu",fullName:"Iuliana Ceausu"},{id:"216852",title:"Prof.",name:"Dana",surname:"Oprescu",slug:"dana-oprescu",fullName:"Dana Oprescu"},{id:"230814",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Maria Cezara",surname:"Muresan",slug:"maria-cezara-muresan",fullName:"Maria Cezara Muresan"}],corrections:null},{id:"57704",title:"Abortion and Family Planning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71772",slug:"abortion-and-family-planning",totalDownloads:999,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Abortion, a procedure by which the dead fetus is removed from the maternal organism and considered as a cultural trait, is found in all cultures of developed societies, as well as in the populations of aboriginal peoples. Moreover, it has long been a concern that has drawn social attention. It was only after in 1798, that the attention was drawn to the relationship between population and the production of goods. This concern has been accentuated by the birth rate and the longevity of human being. Abortion has undoubtedly interfered with population growth, the restriction of abortion advocated for human rights, or religious or economics reasons or by others. Family planning is a set of actions that help men and women plan for the arrival of their children, as well as prevent unwanted pregnancies. It is a project for couples to have offspring per their intentions and also the increase in world population that is worrying everyone has a decrease. For this, the Control of Birth is the method proposed to contain pregnancy. Abortion should only be recommended when a woman cannot or does not wish to give birth to a child or when the method used to control pregnancy has failed.",signatures:"Affonso Renato Meira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57704",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57704",authors:[{id:"217073",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Affonso Renato",surname:"Meira",slug:"affonso-renato-meira",fullName:"Affonso Renato Meira"}],corrections:null},{id:"58484",title:"Male Contraceptives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72163",slug:"male-contraceptives",totalDownloads:1164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Background: The world’s population has been growing exponentially, however, currently the choices for male contraception are limited. This review explores ongoing researches on male contraceptives.",signatures:"Eka Rusdianto Gunardi and Yohanes Handoko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58484",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58484",authors:[{id:"217138",title:"Dr.",name:"Eka Rusdianto",surname:"Gunardi",slug:"eka-rusdianto-gunardi",fullName:"Eka Rusdianto Gunardi"},{id:"217139",title:"M.D.",name:"Yohanes",surname:"Handoko",slug:"yohanes-handoko",fullName:"Yohanes Handoko"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"4641",title:"Approaches to Hysterectomy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a2a63bba8f7b17c10aff3d6d59ea0d08",slug:"approaches-to-hysterectomy",bookSignature:"Zouhair O. 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He has been responsible for several research projects sponsored by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT) and the National Technological Institute of Mexico (TecNM).",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Flores-Hernández holds a Ph.D. in environmental sciences from the Autonomous Mexico State University (UAEM). She is a member of the Mexican Composites Materials Association.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/107855/images/system/107855.png",biography:"José Luis Rivera Armenta has a BSc in Chemical Engineering, an MSc in Petroleum Technology and Petrochemicals, and a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from the Technological Institute of Madero City (ITCM), México. Since 2003, he has been a full-time professor in postgraduate programs at ITCM and head of the thermal analysis, injection, and extrusion laboratory. He has been responsible for several research projects sponsored by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT) and the National Technological Institute of México (TecNM). He has advised bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. theses. He has published fifty-six scientific articles and six book chapters and has edited three books and one special journal issue. 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The adoption of crypto assets has been a great concern for policy makers ever since Facebook announced its cryptocurrency, Libra, in June 2019 [2].
The technology behind these cryptocurrencies, a decentralized and open-source system named “blockchain” is often presented as one of the most innovative technology offering several many disruptive innovations in the next years [3, 4, 5, 6]. The crypto-currencies trading volume also has a granger-causality to energy consumption [7]. A crypto asset is an intangible digital asset whose issuance, sale or transfer are secured by cryptographic technology and shared electronically via a distributed ledger [8].
The era of digitalization of technology has given birth to the cryptocurrency Bitcoin (BTC) as a new exciting currency for the world community, including Indonesia. BTC is an alternative to complement the needs of global financial transactions that want convenience, efficiency and security. Use of the digital computing tools to process scientific, economic, and social information has changed the human capacity, considerably. Virtual space is being activated year over year being the result of efficient application of information resources [9].
The development of BTC is very rapid in Indonesia. Indonesia, which has a total population of 271,349 889 people in 2020 (BPS, 2021). The population of Indonesia is very potential for the growth of the investment climate for BTC.
Almost all countries in the world experienced a decline in economic growth in 2020 due to the 19 virus pandemic. However, BTC price growth showed a very significant increase in 2020. BTC prices recorded the best performance since 2013 amounting to 260 USD / BTC. The price of BTC is USD 12,310 in 2020 or an increase of 68.04% compared to 2019 amounting to USD 7,326 / BTC (investing, 2021). Table 1 shows the development of the value of BTC (USD / BTC) in 2010–2020.
Variable | Indicator | Measurement | Type of data | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
Stock | Indonesia Composite Index | Average Stock Price/Baseline* | Ratio | www.investing.com |
Exchange Rate | Convert from USD to IDR currency | IDR/USD | Ratio | www.investing.com |
Gold | Gold price in USD per 1 Troy Ounce | USD/Troy Ounce | Ratio | www.harga-emas.org |
Bitcoin | Bitcoin price in USD per Bitcoin | USD/BTC | Ratio | www.investing.com |
Operational variable.
The baseline used to calculate the composite stock price index is the average price of the shares on August 10, 1982.
Source: various sources, 2021.
Indonesians who start investing in bitcoin currency can change the existing financial asset structure. The development of bitcoin currency in Indonesia can disturb the stability of the rupiah as the only valid currency for domestic transactions. Therefore, Bank Indonesia as the determinant of monetary policy has not or has not legalized bitcoin currency as a virtual currency in Indonesia.
This research aims to examine bitcoin cryptocurrency as an investment instrument opportunity compared to other investment instruments, namely stocks, gold and the rupiah exchange rate. For the government as policy makers, this research is expected to be an input for the development of digital currency in the era of information technology. In addition, for investors, this research is expected to illustrate the returns and risks faced when investing in bitcoin (Figure 1).
Bitcoin cryptocurrency graph 2010–2020 (USD/BTC). Source:
The study and analysis of the cryptocurrency market is a relatively new area. A few works published in recent years have had the potential interest in this topic. Many scientists have been studying Bitcoin from different angles ever since it appeared. Cryptocurrency is a digital currency, whose creation and control is based on cryptographic methods. Some researchers claim that Bitcoin is just a bubble. The fundamental value of Bitcoin is difficult to reveal, and history shows that innovative assets are indeed more prone to bubbles [10].
Bitcoin is the first decentralized peer-to-peer payment network that is fully controlled by its users without any central authority or intermediary. Bitcoin is a digital currency residing in an open source P2P (peer-to-peer) payment network. P2P is a computer network model that consists of two or more computers, where each computer in the network environment can share. This network makes it easy for users to transact directly without the need for services from third parties.
The elements of Bitcoin are the existence of a peer-to-peer network, blocks, blockchain, and miners. The peer-to-peer network in Bitcoin allows users to transfer a certain amount of Bitcoin value, these transactions are stored in files called blocks, these blocks are intertwined with each other to form a block chain called the blockchain, and miners solve complex mathematical formulas. to prove ownership of Bitcoin.
Bank Indonesia responds to the existence of Bitcoin if it can be used, traded, or stored as an asset or a form of digital commodity by the people of Indonesia, but it cannot be used as a means of payment because only the Rupiah currency is the only legal means of payment in Indonesia.
Bitcoin is the first implementation of the concept of cryptocurrency, which was first described by Wei Dai in 1998. The proposes of cryptocurrency is a new form of money that uses cryptography to control creation and transactions rather than using a centralized authority.
Cryptocurrency is a digital asset designed to function as a medium of exchange that uses strong cryptography to secure financial transactions, control the creation of additional units, and verify asset transfers.19 Cryptocurrency is a type of alternative currency and digital currency. Cryptocurrencies use decentralized controls compared to centralized digital currencies and central banking systems.
Cryptocurrency is a virtual currency that circulates without being regulated by a particular central bank, is not “backed up” with gold as currency, and is not protected by any particular country. Distribution and use through the internet network media. With this crypto many benefits are obtained without exchanging it for real money, the value of crypto prices has international standards so that the value is the same everywhere, the transfer time is very fast, and crypto is not owned by a particular company. Crypto is a digital asset where transactions are carried out using an online network. Crypto assets are virtual so if one wants to see what the physical form of this currency is, then the answer is no. The form is not like a physical currency issued by a bank and also not the currency of a country.
Investors can maximize asset allocation through a combination of risky assets to reduce high risk. Investors who have an aversion to risk tend to reject investments that are more likely to have speculative content. Investors who do not like risk consider risk-free investments or speculate on investments that have a positive premium.
Research related to virtual currency, especially bitcoin cryptocurrency, is still rarely done in Indonesia. However, the development of bitcoin cryptocurrency has recently begun so that further studies are needed to provide an overview to the public and policy makers regarding bitcoin cryptocurrency investment. Some of the research results that have been carried out both domestically and globally can be summarized as follows:
Voskobojnikov et al. [11] identified and qualitatively analyzed 6,859 reviews pertaining to the user experience with top five mobile cryptocurrency wallets. They suggested that both new and experienced users struggle with general and domain-specific user experience issues that, aside from frustration and disengagement, might lead to dangerous errors and irreversible monetary losses. They reveal shortcomings of current wallet user experience as well as users’ misconceptions, some of which can be traced back to a reliance on their understanding of conventional payment systems. Based on their findings, they provide recommendations on how to design cryptocurrency wallets that both alleviate the identified issues and counteract some of the misconceptions in order to better support newcomers.
Hachicha and Hachicha [12] proved the efficiency of Markov Chain for our sample and the convergence and stability for all parameters to a certain level. On the whole, it seems that permanent shocks have an effect on the volatility of the price of the bitcoin and also on the other stock market. Our results will help investors better diversify their portfolio by adding this cryptocurrency.
Mikhaylov, A. [10] conclude that the cryptocurrency market has entered a new stage of development, which means a reduced possibility to have excess profits when investing in the most liquid cryptocurrencies in the future. However, buying new high-risk tools provides opportunities for speculative income.
Igoni et al. [13] concluded that market capitalization and volume of digital currency did not constitute the significant variables of policy to influence the monetary policies in the South African economy, hence they operate independently. A decision to adopt and regulate digital currency operation or not in Nigeria does not affect. They recommend the Nigerian to embrace the digital environment in terms of regulations for tax advantage.
Le Tran and Leirvik [14] shown that the level of market-efficiency in the five largest cryptocurrencies is highly time-varying. Specifically, before 2017, cryptocurrency-markets are mostly inefficient. This corrobo-rates recent results on the matter. However, the cryptocurrency-markets become more efficient over time in the period 2017–2019. This contradicts other, more recent, results on the matter. The reason is that they apply a longer sample than previous studies. Another important reason is that they apply a robust measure of efficiency, being directly able to determine if the efficiency is significant or not. On average, Litecoin is the most efficient cryptocurrency, and Ripple being the least efficient cryptocurrency.
Agosto and Cafferata [15] found that extremely rapid price accelerations, often referred to as explosive behaviors, followed by drastic drops pose high risks to investors. From a risk management perspective, testing the explosiveness of individual cryptocurrency time series is not the only crucial issue.
Rabbani et al. [16] identified that the sharia compliance related to the cryptocurrency/Blockchain is the biggest challenge which Islamic Financial Technology organizations are facing. During our review we also find that Islamic Financial Technology organizations are to be considered as partners by the Islamic Financial Institutions (IFI’s) than the competitors. If Islamic Financial institutions want to increase efficiency, transparency and customer satisfaction they have to adopt Financial Technology and become partners with the Financial Tech companies.
Hairudin et al. [17] indicated that public embrace of cryptocurrencies continues to lag as the masses currently show reluctance in embracing cryptocurrencies as a complement, let alone a substitute to fiat counterparts. Governments have also successfully defended their sovereignty in preserving legal tender status, structural seignior age and exclusivity. Market-based studies hint at consistent inefficiencies across the spectrum. The most promising areas of research for crypto-financial intelligentsia would be delving into establishing trial runs for central bank-backed cryptocurrencies.
Grobys et al. [18] indicated that a variable moving average strategy is successful when using the 20 days moving average trading strategy. Specifically, excluding Bitcoin the technical trading rule generates an excess return of 8.76% p.a. after controlling for the average market return. The results suggest that cryptocurrency markets are inefficient.
Amsyar et al. [19] concluded that cryptocurrency has the disadvantage of not having the authority responsible for dealing with all problems that occur in all transactions, and money laundering crimes also often occur, this is a challenge for how to utilize cryptocurrency and blockchain technology in the current era of globalization.
Vaz de Melo and Fluminense [20] indicated that indicate that the strength of dependence among the crypto-currencies has increased over the recent years in the cointegrated crypto-market. The conclusions reached will help investors to manage risk while identifying opportunities for alternative diversified and profitable investments.
Tu et al. [21] detected two sudden jumps in the standard deviation, in the second quarter of 2017 and at the beginning of 2018, which could have served as the early warning signals of two major price collapses that have happened in the following periods. They propose a mean-field phenomenological model for the price of cryptocurrency to show how the use of the standard deviation of the residuals is a better leading indicator of the collapse in price than the time-series’ autocorrelation. Their findings represent a first step towards a better diagnostic of the risk of critical transition in the price and/or volume of crypto-currencies.
Fang et al. [22] summarized the existing research papers and results on cryptocurrency trading, including available trading platforms, trading signals, trading strategy research and risk management. This paper provides a comprehensive survey of cryptocurrency trading research, by covering 126 research papers on various aspects of cryptocurrency trading (e.g., cryptocurrency trading systems, bubble and extreme condition, prediction of volatility and return, crypto-assets portfolio construction and crypto-assets, technical trading and others). This paper also analyses datasets, research trends and distribution among research objects (contents/properties) and technologies, concluding with some promising opportunities that remain open in cryptocurrency trading.
Drożdż et al. [23] found that A particularly significant result is that the measures applied for detecting cross-correlations between the dynamics of the BTC/ETH and EUR/USD exchange rates do not show any noticeable relationships. This could be taken as an indication that the cryptocurrency market has begun decoupling itself from the Forex.
Panagiotidis et al. [24] found that a significant interaction between bitcoin and traditional stock market. The increased impact of Asian markets on Bitcoin compared to other geographically-defined markets. Two years after the Chinese regulatory interventions and the sudden construction of CNY’s share in bitcoin trading volume.
Aysan et al. [25] found that bitcoin can be considered as a hedging tool against global geopolitical risk.
Krafft et al. [1] found that individual “buy” actions led to short-term increases in subsequent buy-side activity hundreds of times the size of our interventions. From a design perspective, we note that the design choices of the exchange we study may have promoted this and other peer influence effects, which highlights the potential social and economic impact of HCI in the design of digital institutions.
Panagiotidis et al. [26] found that search intensity and gold returns emerge as the most important variables for bitcoin returns.
Koutmos [27] found that the contribution of return shocks to transaction activity is quantitatively larger in magnitude.
Demir et al. [28] found that bitcoin can serve as a hedging tools again uncertainty.
Balcilar et al. [29] found that non-linear relationship between bitcoin returns and trading volume. The trading volume cannot help to predict the volatility of returns at any point of the conditional distribution.
Urquhart [30] found that bitcoin return significantly inefficient but in the process of moving towards an efficient market.
Based on the research objectives, the researcher wants to compare the returns obtained from bitcoin currency and others investment instrument, namely stocks, exchange rates and gold to see how rate of return behavior on bitcoin currency. Besides measure rate of return on bitcoin currency, the researcher also measures the risk of bitcoin currency investment. Standard deviation of bitcoin currency employee to measure the risk of the investment. Thus, the statistical hypotheses and research hypotheses used in this study are as follows:
Ho1: μ₁ = μ₂.
Ha1: μ1 ≠ μ2.
Ho2: μ1 = μ3.
Ha2: μ1 ≠ μ3.
Ho3: μ1 = μ4.
Ha3: μ1 ≠ μ4.
Ho4: μ₁ = μ2 = μ3 = μ4.
Ha4: At least one of the average returns are not equal.
where:
μ1 = average bitcoin returns.
μ2 = average exchange rate returns.
μ3 = average gold returns.
μ4 = average stock returns.
While the research hypothesis developed in this study is as follows:
H01: There is no difference between the bitcoin returns and the exchange rate returns.
Ha1: There is a difference between the bitcoin returns and the exchange rate returns.
H02: There is no difference between the bitcoin returns stock and the gold returns gold.
Ha2: There is a difference between the bitcoin returns and the gold returns.
H03: There is no difference between the bitcoin returns and the stock returns.
Ha3: There is a difference between the bitcoin returns and the stock returns.
H04: There is no difference between the bitcoin returns and the others investment instrument.
Ha4: There is a difference between the bitcoin returns and the others investment instrument.
This study compares the return and risk of bitcoin, stocks, gold and the rupiah exchange rate. This research is a type of quantitative research using secondary data. Secondary data used in the study were obtained from www.investing.com [31]; for bitcoin and share prices. Gold prices were obtained from www.harga-emas.org [32]; Rupiah exchange rate is obtained from www.bi.go.id [33]. The research period from 2010 to 2020 used monthly data or 132 observed data.
The return calculation uses the formula for the difference from the current value to the previous value divided by the value in the previous period. In general, the return formula can be written as follows:
where:
Rt = the return at period t.
Rt-1 = the return at period t−1.
In this study also measure risk of each investment instruments. Standard deviation is employed to measure the risk of investments. Standard deviation to measure how far the deviation from the average of each investment instruments. The higher standard deviation value means the higher risk of the investment. Here the formula to measure standard deviation (σ):
where:
σ = standard deviation of investment.
n = number of observation.
r(s) = return of investment.
r = average of investment.
Table 1 shows the operational variables used in this study include investment instruments, namely bitcoin, exchange rates, gold and stock.
Statistical descriptions include the average, minimum value, maximum value and standard deviation of each investment instrument, namely bitcoin, exchange rate returns, gold returns and stock returns during the study period 2011–2020. Bitcoin’s return has the largest average of 18% compared with returns from other investment instruments. In addition, the standard deviation of bitcoin returns has the largest value of 61.08% compared to other investment instruments. The range of bitcoin returns between −38.87% till 470.88%. Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics of the investment instruments studied.
Instrument | N | Min | Max | Mean | Std. dev. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bitcoin (μ1) | 120 | −0.3887 | 4.7088 | 0.1800 | 0.6108 |
Exchange Rate (μ2) | 120 | −0.0905 | 0.1367 | 0.0040 | 0.0258 |
Gold (μ3) | 120 | −0.1212 | 0.1363 | 0.0035 | 0.0472 |
Stock (μ4) | 120 | −0.1676 | 0.0944 | 0.0049 | 0.0415 |
Descriptive statistic.
Source: data processing, 2021.
The correlation matrix between investment instruments can be found in Table 3. The highest correlation is obtained from the return stock and return exchange rate (−0.602). The more the stock return increases, the lower the return exchange rate will be. In other words, the stronger the rupiah exchange rate, the more the composite stock price index will increase. The strengthening of the rupiah exchange rate had an impact on increasing domestic economic growth so that investors invested heavily in stocks. Therefore, stock returns also increase when there is an increase in the rupiah exchange rate. Meanwhile, bitcoin does not show a correlation with other investment instruments which is indicated by a correlation matrix value below 5%. This figure shows that the bitcoin returns are not affected by the others instruments investments returns namely exchange rate, gold and stock returns.
Instrument | Stock | Exchange Rate | Gold | Bitcoin |
---|---|---|---|---|
Stock | 1 | |||
Exchange Rate | −0.602 | 1 | ||
Gold | 0.218 | −0.258 | 1 | |
Bitcoin | 0.042 | 0.023 | −0.018 | 1 |
Correlation matrix.
Source: data processing, 2021.
An overview of the return fluctuations obtained from each investment instrument of stock return, exchange rate return, gold return and bitcoin return can be seen in Figures 2–5. Each investment instrument shows different return fluctuations. The lowest standard deviation is the exchange rate 2.58%, while the highest standard deviation is Bitcoin 61.08%. In other words, investment in bitcoin have the highest risk compared to the alternative investment instruments. The others investment instruments have low risk between 2.6% till 4.7%. Investment in foreign exchange rate has the lowest risk compared to the others alternative investments. Investment on gold and stock have similar risks around 4.2% to 4.7%.
The return stock 2011–2020. Source: data processing, 2021.
The return exchange rate 2011–2020. Source: data processing, 2021.
The return gold 2011–2020. Source: data processing, 2021.
Bitcoin return 2011–2020. Source: data processing, 2021.
The range of the largest fluctuation was obtained from the return on bitcoin investment, especially in the period 2012 to 2014. In 2013, bitcoin returns reached the highest point where returns increased from 10–70%. However, the return drastically decreased to (−5%) entering 2014. It means the investment in bitcoin get the highest return and also the highest risk compared to the others instrument of investment.
The next test was to compare the returns between each investment instrument through paired sample tests, namely stock-exchange rate, stock-gold, stock-bitcoin, exchange rate-gold, exchange rate-bitcoin and gold bitcoin. Table 4 shows the results of the paired sample test of each investment instrument.
Instrument | Mean | Std. dev. | Std. error mean | t | df | Sig. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bitcoin - Ex. Rate | −0.1760 | 0.6108 | 0.0558 | −3.156 | 119 | 0.002 |
Bitcoin - Gold | −0.1765 | 0.6135 | 0.0560 | −3.151 | 119 | 0.002 |
Bitcoin - Stock | −0.1751 | 0.6105 | 0.0557 | −3.143 | 119 | 0.002 |
Paired samples test.
Source: data processing, 2021.
The results of the paired samples test of returns between investment instruments can be seen in Table 4. The results of the paired sample test between bitcoin and the others investment instruments shows significant level less than 0.01. It means that is difference of return between bitcoin and the others investment instruments. The average means difference of bitcoin and the others investment instruments around −17.6%. Standard deviations show around 61% of investment on bitcoin. It means that the highest risk of bitcoin investments.
Based on the results of testing paired samples test return on investment between investment instruments and the explanation above, it can be concluded that the research hypothesis is as follows:
Ha1: There is a difference between the bitcoin and the exchange rate return (accepted at significance level 0.01).
Ha2: There is a difference between the bitcoin and the gold return (accepted at significance level 0.01).
Ha3: There is a difference between the bitcoin and the stock return (accepted at significance level 0.01).
One sample test is conducted to prove whether or not there are differences between the investment instruments used in this study. The one sample test results show that bitcoin returns provide a very significant difference (α < 0.01) compared to other investment instruments: exchange rate, gold and stock. The average return of stock, exchange and gold investment instruments.
Table 5 shows analysis of variance single factor for each investment instruments. The variance of bitcoin the highest (0.37) if compared to stock, exchange rate and gold returns (0.001–0.002). It means there us a big different between bitcoin returns and the others investment instruments.
Groups | Count | Sum | Average | Variance |
---|---|---|---|---|
Stock return | 120 | 0.585183 | 0.004877 | 0.001723 |
Ex-Rate return | 120 | 0.483912 | 0.004033 | 0.000663 |
Gold Return | 120 | 0.422361 | 0.00352 | 0.002228 |
Bitcoin return | 120 | 21.60168 | 0.180014 | 0.373122 |
Anova single factor summary.
Source: data processing, 2021.
Table 6 shows analysis of variance to test hypothesis 4 whether there is significant level of the return. The result indicates that F calculation (0.9826) is higher than F critical value (2,624). It means there is significant different between bitcoin and the others investment instruments.
Source of variation | SS | df | MS | F | P-value | F crit |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Between Groups | 2.783868 | 3 | 0.927956 | 9.826513 | 0.00000 | 2.623637 |
Within Groups | 44.95054 | 476 | 0.094434 | |||
Total | 47.73441 | 479 |
Anova single factor test.
Source: data processing, 2021.
Based on the results of the analysis of variance single factor test shows that there is a difference between the average return of all investment instruments. Thus, the statistical hypothesis and research hypothesis (Ha4) is accepted at significant level 0.01 or can be written down as follows:
Ha4: There is a difference between the investment instruments (accepted at significance level 0.01).
Based on the average test between the research instruments used, bitcoin has a very significant difference in return compared to other investment instruments. Meanwhile, stock investment instruments, exchange rate and gold have the same average return.
Based on the research results discussed in the previous chapter indicate that the investment in bitcoin still promising. The price of bitcoin rapidly increase during the study 2011–2020. The rate of return of bitcoin investment is the highest compared to the other investment instruments: stock, exchange rate and gold. Meanwhile, the bitcoin investment also has the highest risk compared the others investment instruments.
It can be concluded that bitcoin investment provides the highest return (18%) compared to other investment instrument returns. However, the very high return on bitcoin comes with high risk investment. The risk of investing in bitcoin is indicated by a standard deviation of 61%, while the standard deviation of other instruments: stock, exchange rate and gold less than 5%.
Based on the results of the paired sample test, it shows that the average return on bitcoin shows a very significant difference compared to the others instrument. Meanwhile, the return on the others instrument: stock, exchange rate and gold show the same return.
For the investors who love risk, then the investment in bitcoin could be an alternative for an investment. The investment on bitcoin promise higher return compare to the other investment instruments. For the investors who are risk aversion, an investment on bitcoin doesn’t fit since this investment have the highest risk.
This research has practical implication for the investors who require high return. In the same time, the investors also have to understand the risk along the investment on bitcoin.
The other implication for government of Indonesia as policy maker on crypto currency. The crypto currency quite develops rapidly in this crypto world era. The role and regulation on crypto currency are needed to secure investors and economic growth.
The poultry industry has witnessed significant improvements over the past several decades achieving higher market weight with improved feed efficiency, thus reducing production cost. During the past 60 years, the amount of time and quantity of feed per pound of meat required to reach broiler market weight had been reduced by 50% [1]; furthermore, according to the National Chicken Council [2], modern broiler chickens can achieve market weight 16 days earlier with 35% higher weight compared to the 1960s broiler chicken. These improvements have resulted from a combination of genetic improvement and progress in nutrition and poultry management.
The U.S. is considered the world’s largest producer of poultry meat; the U.S. provides approximately 17% of the global poultry meat output, followed by Brazil and China, mainly dominated by broiler meat followed by turkey meat and a small fraction for other poultry meat. The production and consumption of poultry meat have increased rapidly worldwide and are expected to continue to grow [3] due to its relatively low price compared to other meats, the absence of cultural or religious obstacles, and its dietary and nutritional properties as it has lower fat, cholesterol, and sodium content [4] with an increased preference of white chicken meat [5, 6].
Additionally, consumers have shifted from the consumption of whole chicken toward portioned (especially breast fillets) and further processed products [7, 8]. These changes were driven by the need for convenience with meal preparation in a fast-paced industrialized era and meeting consumer preference of specific carcass parts. The poultry industry has responded to these changing demands by further enhancing genetic selection for increased breast yield, faster growth rate, and improved feed efficiency. Meanwhile, feed cost has increased, and ethanol production has forced producers to use alternative feed ingredients such as the distiller\'s dried grains with solubles (DDGS) produced as byproducts of ethanol production. However, since the selection of broiler chickens initially focused on increasing growth performance and improving body composition [9], this has led to indirect and often deleterious effects on meat quality traits, such as excessive deposition of abdominal fat, the formation of which represented the inefficient use of feed [10, 11]. Coincidently, several studies have shown an increased incidence of abnormalities, mainly in breast muscles [12, 13]. In the early 1980s, Wight and Siller [14] recognized an abnormal condition in the pectoralis minor, in which the muscle is basically “suffocated” leading to ischemic necrosis; this condition known as deep pectoral muscle myopathy is only the first in a list of fast-growth-related muscle abnormalities that eventually affect meat quality and its functional properties.
In poultry meat, appearance and texture have been considered the two most important attributes responsible for initial consumer meat evaluation and final product acceptance [15], so consumers are expected to reject meat with observed defects such as bruises and hemorrhages. Several appearance defects have been reported in the poultry industry, such as pinking of raw and cooked meat, bone darkening, red/bloody discoloration, white striping, wooden breast, spaghetti meat, and pale, soft, exudative appearance of breast meat. However, many of the underlying causes of appearance defects have not been fully explained. Understanding the structural organization of the muscle fibers and physiology can help in explaining some of these defects.
The basic structural unit of a muscle has been defined as the muscle fiber, which is constituted of several myofibrils (contractile units). Each muscle fiber is surrounded by a connective tissue called the endomysium; muscle fibers are then grouped into fascicles and surrounded by another layer of connective tissue called the perimysium. Then, the whole muscle is made up of a group of fascicles and surrounded by epimysium that connected the muscle to bones. Collagen is the major constituent of these connective tissues. These connective tissues influenced muscle development and subsequent meat quality.
Skeletal muscles growth was achieved by increasing the size of preexisting muscle fibers (hypertrophy). The number, size, and type of fibers vary with the function and anatomical location of the muscle. Meat quality is also affected by these factors. A muscle that contained high proportion of oxidative fibers tends to have red color due to a greater amount of myoglobin (e.g., thigh muscles) as compared to glycolytic fibers, which tended to appear white in color, which affected the appearance of muscle/meat (e.g., chicken breast muscle). Glycolytic fibers are larger and have lower rate of protein turnover. Therefore, the white muscles are larger and more efficient. In poultry, genetic selection for increased breast yield resulted in pale breast meat color in broilers [16], ducks [17], and turkeys [18], which could result in poor meat quality.
Collagen is the most abundant protein in the body and in connective tissues. The structure of collagen supports its function of providing strength to muscle and other tissues with more than 20 different types of collagen identified in vertebrates [19]. Glycine constitutes about one-third of all the amino acids found in collagen, while proline, which has been classified as an imino acid, and its analog hydroxyproline also constituted about one-third of all amino acids in collagen [20]. Lysine has been considered to be another constituent of collagen where both proline and lysine are covalently modified to hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine, respectively. A collagen molecule (tropocollagen) is composed of three left-handed polypeptide helices coiled around each other to form a right-handed supercoil where glycine is found at every third residue [19].
The strength of the collagen fibrils is due to the covalent bonds formed between and within tropocollagen triple helices, where collagen is cross-linked by lysine side chains that contribute to the strength of the collagen in meat, which has an essential role in the development of meat tenderness [21]. Furthermore, in a recent study, it has been shown that muscle with spaghetti meat abnormality had an altered immunoreactivity to specifically procollagen type III (precursor of collagen type III) suggesting a possible defect in the collagen turnover and synthesis process [22], while Sanden et al. [23] reported that spaghetti meat has poorly packed thin, loose, and immature collagen fiber bundles.
The process of converting muscle to meat in poultry starts immediately upon sacrificing the bird. Exsanguination results in blood/oxygen supply removal, during which the muscle tries to maintain its functions even after oxygen depletion through the anaerobic glycolysis of its glycogen reserves to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), but in the absence of blood supply to remove waste, the accumulated heat and lactic acid in the muscle decreases the pH. Owing to ATP depletion, the muscle remains contracted due to actin and myosin binding that leads to muscle stiffness (rigor mortis). This marks the onset of rigor mortis and the conversion of muscle to meat, where muscle proteins start to denature due to high temperature and low pH. Temperature and pH are the main postmortem factors influencing meat quality through affecting the onset and progression of rigor mortis and subsequent resolution [24, 25, 26, 27]. During resolution, the proteolysis of Z-disk proteins takes place, and myofibrillar proteins degrade into myofibrillar fragments by proteolytic enzymes that affect meat tenderness. In chickens, the process of converting muscle to meat has been found to start immediately after slaughter and be resolved within 2–4 h. The extent of meat tenderization postmortem could be altered by the conditions under which the meat is processed. Factors include temperature and chilling duration, deboning time, postchill aging/holding duration, and marination.
Meat quality is a collective term used to describe the indicators of a meat product wholesomeness and freshness, such as color, texture, flavor, pH, and juiciness. The two most important quality attributes for poultry meat are appearance and texture since they influence the initial consumer selection of a product as well as final satisfaction [15]. Appearance quality attributes include skin color, meat color, and appearance defects such as bruises and hemorrhages. Any deviation from a normal appearance would result in meat product rejection, subsequently leading to consumer complaints. Despite the importance of these quality attributes, the poultry grading system used is still based on aesthetic attributes, such as conformation, presence or absence of carcass defects, bruises, missing parts, and skin tears, without taking into consideration the functional properties of meat [28], which have been important for the further processing industry that was mainly interested in the functional properties of meat; the importance of incorporating functional properties and quality indicators is becoming increasingly important as the recent muscle myopathies not only affect consumer acceptance based on appearance but also the quality of further processed meat manufactured using meat with such defects.
Many factors influence poultry meat quality, including sex, strain, age, environmental factors, exercise, diet, and processing practices mainly focused on chilling, deboning time, marination, and electrical stunning [29, 30, 31, 32].
Another important quality attribute that influences customer perception is the tenderness of the meat. This attribute comes second after appearance; consumers usually correlate acceptable appearance with better quality and tenderness. Tenderness development is a function of myofibrillar protein denaturation, connective tissue content, and juiciness. Deboning time, age, and strain are some of the major factors that affect poultry meat tenderness [31, 33]. Lyon and Lyon [34] reported that as the time before deboning increased from 0 to 24 h postmortem, consumer acceptability of the meat texture increased, with fillets deboned at 0 and 2 h postmortem considered tough by a consumer panel, and samples deboned at 6 and 24 h postmortem considered slightly tender to moderately tender. Liu et al. [35] reported a decreased shear force of chicken breast as deboning time increased from 2 to 24 h postmortem. Similar results were also reported by Cavitt et al. [33].
Furthermore, Mehaffey et al. [8] reported that fillets deboned 2 or 4 h postmortem from broilers raised to 7 weeks were significantly tougher than those raised to 6 weeks, indicating that age affected tenderness when deboning was performed shortly after harvest. Northcutt et al. [31] reported that breast fillets harvested at less than 2 h postchill aging were tenderer when taken from broilers slaughtered at 42 or 44 days of age than those harvested from birds 49 or 51 days of age, irrespective of any sex effect. On the other hand, Young et al. [36] reported that females had greater fillet yields than males.
Connective tissue content has been reported to increase with age and is correlated with tenderness; as mentioned earlier, collagen is the most abundant protein in the body, making up the majority of the connective tissue proteins [37, 38]. In young broilers (6–8 weeks), it is expected that connective tissue would not affect tenderness since mature cross-links should have not yet formed between tropocollagen molecules, which are the structural units of the collagen fibril. On the other hand, the contraction of myofibrillar protein, which depends upon time and rate of rigor mortis development after the bird is sacrificed, is related to processing rather than intrinsic factors [15]. Furthermore, tenderness, indirectly associated with connective tissue, is one of the quality attributes that are negatively affected by the emerging muscle myopathies emphasizing the importance of further investigating and attempting to mitigate the negative impacts.
Another important meat quality attribute is meat juiciness, or water-holding capacity, which refers to the ability of raw meat to retain its inherent water during force application and/or processing [39]. Water in muscle has been divided into three general types: bound, immobilized, and free. Bound water is held tightly via myofibrillar protein charges and represents 4–5% of water in muscle [39, 40]; it is resistant to freezing and could only be removed by severe drying processes, not including conventional cooking [41]. Immobilized water is found within the muscle ultrastructure (within the space between actin and myosin), but it is not bound to myofibrillar proteins as in the case of bound water. Immobilized water accounts for the largest portion of muscle-bound water (88–95%). Finally, free water is held within muscle by weak capillary forces [42].
Poultry has been determined to be the only species known to have muscles/parts with apparent differences in color, as meat from poultry has been classified as either white or dark. In chicken, fresh raw breast meat is expected to have a pale pink color, while the raw thigh and leg meat are darker and redder. Meat color plays a significant role in consumer purchase decisions [43, 44, 45]. Consumers tend to associate color with flavor, tenderness, safety, storage time, nutritional value, and satisfaction level [46], and as an indicator of freshness and wholesomeness.
Meat color is what the human eye sees as light is reflected from the meat surface. Poultry meat absorbs most blue and green color spectra and reflects most of the yellow, orange, and red color spectra, which is what the human eye perceives.
The most commonly used colorimetric scale is the CIE Lab [47], even though other color scales have been used, such as the Hunter L, a, b, and YXZ space. However, the accuracy of these instruments has depended upon thickness, background color, and illuminant wavelengths [48, 49].
The CIE Lab system components measures include L* that refers to lightness and has a range from 0 to 100 (black to white), component a* had a range from –60 to +60 (green if negative to red if positive), and b* has the same range as a* (blue if negative to yellow if positive) [50, 51]. Another more recent system used for color measurement is the computer vision system, which has been shown to give reproducible results with the ability to measure the color of the entire sample instead of specific spots, as has been the case with widely used colorimeters [52]; in fact, Tomasevic et al. [53] recommended using computer vision program as a superior approach for poultry color determination.
Meat color is mainly related to the myoglobin pigment present in the muscle fibers. Myoglobin consists of a protein (globin) and a nonprotein heme ring, which has an iron molecule in its center. Iron can bind one of several ligands (e.g., oxygen, carbon monoxide, and nitric oxide) on its sixth coordination site. The forms of myoglobin (deoxymyoglobin, oxymyoglobin, carboxymyoglobin, and metmyoglobin) differ depending upon the ligand bound to iron and on the redox state of the iron. Thus, myoglobin and iron states are the two main ways through which meat color changes.
Myoglobin (or deoxymyoglobin) has a red-purple color in its nature when not bound to any ligands; the state of myoglobin changes to oxymyoglobin when oxygen is present and to carboxymyoglobin when carbon dioxide is present. In both the forms, the color is bright red (bloom), and iron is in the reduced ferrous form (Fe++). The oxidation of myoglobin changes the form to metmyoglobin and the iron to the oxidized ferric form (Fe+++), which has a brown color. These myoglobin color changes are reversible; however, if heat-treated, metmyoglobin becomes denatured and color changes irreversibly to grayish-brown. Curing with nitrites/nitrates causes an irreversible color change to red color that, upon heating, converts to pink. The replacement of iron with zinc results in a stable red color of myoglobin due to the formation of Zn-protoporphyrin IX (ZPP), which has been shown to give Parma ham its stable, bright red color [54, 55]. Within a chicken carcass, chicken breast muscles are mainly composed of white fibers (glycolytic) that have low myoglobin content. Thus, breast meat appears white, while thigh muscles are composed of red fiber (oxidative) and appears darker. Fleming et al. [56] reported a myoglobin concentration of 0.16 and 0.30 mg/g in broiler breast and thigh muscles, respectively. Furthermore, Miller [57] said a lower myoglobin content of 0.01 and 0.40 mg/g in white and dark meat of 8-week-old broilers, respectively.
Froning [58] classified the factors influencing meat color into three main categories (Table 1). Smith et al. [59] investigated the effect of age, diet (carbohydrate source), and feed withdrawal on broiler meat color by slaughtering birds each day from 42 to 45 and 49 to 52 days of age with a carbohydrate source that was either corn, milo, or wheat, with feed withdrawal times of either 0 or 8 h. Color was not affected by age. Still, feed withdrawal increased fillet lightness (L*) from an average of 46.1 to 48.9, decreased redness (a*) from 4.1 to 3.1, and increased yellowness (b*) from 2.8 to 3.7. Fillets from the birds fed the wheat diet were lighter than fillets from the corn or milo fed birds. The milo diet resulted in redder fillets than corn or wheat diets, while the corn diet produced more yellow fillets than milo or wheat diets.
Heme pigments |
|
Preslaughter factors |
|
Slaughter, chilling, and further processing |
|
Factors influencing poultry meat color [58].
In addition to meat color, skin color has been considered a critical quality attribute, mainly in a whole carcass and skin-on cuts sale. The color of poultry skin has varied from cream-colored to yellow. This variation is primarily the result of genetic variation and natural pigments in feed. Birds had differed in their ability to deposit the black melanin pigment in the epidermis and dermis layers of the skin and varied in their ability to deposit carotenoids from the feed as the combinations of different amounts of melanin and carotenoids produced different skin colors. However, in commercial strains, the ability to deposit melanin has been eliminated through genetic selection. Different skin colors as adopted from [60] are illustrated in Table 2.
Skin color | Dermis | Epidermis |
---|---|---|
White | None | None |
Black | Melanin | Melanin |
Yellow | None | Xanthophyll |
Green | Melanin | Xanthophyll |
Blue (Slate) | Melanin | None |
Combination of possible skin colors due to dietary xanthophyll deposition in epidermis or melanin production in either dermis or epidermis [60].
However, considerable variation in color and discoloration of poultry meat has occurred and remains of great concern for the industry. Discoloration may occur in the entire muscle or only in a portion of a muscle due to bruising or broken blood vessels [58]. Possible poultry color defects are presented in Table 3.
Defect | Description | Possible causes |
---|---|---|
Bruises and hemorrhages | Classic bruises, pin-point blood spots in meat, blood accumulation along bones and in joints | Physical trauma, nutrient deficiencies, mycotoxins, stunning |
Overscalding | Incomplete removal of epidermis, cooked discoloration on surface of meat | Too high scalding temperature, too long in scalder |
Surface drying | Mottled appearance of skin or meat due to surface dehydration | Incomplete removal of epidermis, exposed meat, poor packaging, freezer burn |
Heme reactions | Normal color ranges from raw pink meat, tan to brown raw meat, grey to brown cooked meat, pink cooked meat, cured meat color | Oxidative or redox state of the myoglobin, myoglobin complexing with nitrates/nitrites or other compounds such as carbon monoxide |
Dark meat | Darker than normal appearing meat, possible mottling | High muscle pH due to antemortem depletion of muscle glycogen |
Light meat | Pale breast meat | Low muscle pH (PSE-like condition) |
Dark bones | Dark brown to black bones | Freezing, blood accumulation around bone |
Summary of poultry color defects [60].
The pinking of cooked white meat has been an undesirable color defect found in poultry; its occurrence was noticed sporadically and has negatively influenced consumer purchasing decisions (Maga, I994). According to Maga [61], pink color might have resulted from the presence of high levels of myoglobin that were not completely denatured during heat processing, incidental nitrate/nitrite contamination either in feed or water or during processing. The presence of carbon monoxide and nitric oxide gases in oven gas while roasting has caused pink color on the surface of turkey meat, with carcasses from younger turkeys more susceptible than older ones [62]. The proposed mechanism for pink color development of fully cooked is related to the ligands to which the denatured myoglobin was bound, such as amino acids, denatured proteins, and nitrogen-containing compounds that form denatured hemochromes globin. Therefore, depending on the ligand to which the denatured heme will bind, different pink shades would result.
Binding of nitric oxide to myoglobin from preslaughter contamination (feed and water and gases from the truck exhaust) or during/after processing (processing water, ice, spice mix, and oven gas) has formed the pink nitric oxide myoglobin that, upon cooking, was converted to pink nitrosohemochrome. Furthermore, carbon monoxide binding to myoglobin has led to pink carboxymyoglobin developing upon cooking in oven gases or during irradiation.
Cooking meat harvested from birds before rigor mortis resolution could also cause pink color when meat is cooked when pH was higher than 6.0. At this high pH, myoglobin is not denatured, and cytochrome C (electron transport protein), which is heat stable, increases and contributes to the delayed denaturation of myoglobin since cytochrome C is still able to deliver electrons to myoglobin. Ahn and Maurer [63] showed that a pH above 6.4 leads to binding of myoglobin and hemoglobin with most naturally present ligands, such as histidine, cysteine, methionine, nicotinamide, and solubilized proteins, which leads to pink color of the meat. At high pH, amino acids and protein ligands can donate electrons to Fe, resulting in stable pink ferrohemochrome. High pH also reduces the susceptibility of meat pigments and lipids to oxidation resulting in a cooked pink color [64].
Bone darkening has been described as a dark reddish brown or black discoloration on the surface of bone and muscle adjacent to the bone after cooking. The darkening was due to bone marrow passing from inside the bone onto the bone surface and adjacent tissue, usually after freezing the meat [65, 66] and after cooking of the frozen meat [67]. Lyon and Lyon [30] described the variation in bone discoloration due to different preparation methods (precook, freeze, and reheat). They found that freezing before cooking increased the severity of discoloration more than cooking followed by freezing and reheating. Lyon et al. [65] demonstrated that meat and bone darkening of thigh pieces was related to pigment migration from the femur to muscle tissue. The commercial further processing industry has reported that redness was usually accompanied by blood in bone-in chicken carcasses and parts, which consumers could reject as the product appears undercooked and unsafe for consumption [59].
The migration of pigments from the femur to muscle tissues has created darkening that was more prevalent in younger birds since their bones were less calcified, were more porous, and had more red marrow than older birds. The epiphysis of long bones in older birds is more calcified than young birds, so the pigment is more difficult to escape from bones onto surrounding tissue. However, bone darkening only affects the appearance and not the organoleptic properties of the meat product [67].
Smith and Northcutt [59] studied discoloration prevalence in commercially fully cooked breasts, thighs, and drumsticks from various market sources. They speculated that about 11% of products could face consumer complaints or rejection since they were severely discolored. Furthermore, cooking chicken breast samples with bone marrow collected from femurs increased the darkness and redness of both raw and cooked broiler meat [68].
Red and/or bloody discoloration of poultry meat, raw or cooked, has been a chronic yet sporadic problem for the poultry industry. Raw breast meat with red discoloration is objectionable to many customers, and cooked white or dark meat with red defect is unacceptable to consumers due to the perception that it is undercooked. Red discoloration of white meat is closely related to bone darkening but with higher redness. Little research has been available concerning this red discoloration defect in poultry meat [59]. According to Smith and Northcutt [66], bone marrow is an effective inducer of red, bloody discoloration in breast meat samples. In a previous investigation conducted concerning the color of different parts of chicken, Lyon et al. [65] reported that the initial color of breast was lighter and less red than thighs because breasts had a lower proportion of total bone area to muscle mass, fewer large, calcified bones, a lower proportion of blood vessels per muscle mass (less hemoglobin), or lower myoglobin content than thighs or drums [66].
The bright red color development has been investigated in Parma ham, where this north Italian traditional dry-cured ham “Prosciutto di Parma (Parma ham)” has been made from only the legs of fattened pigs and was salted with sea salt, dried, and matured over 1 year [69]. It was initially postulated that sea salt used was contaminated with nitrate/nitrite. However, that was later investigated, and results showed that this pigment was also formed in a nitrate/nitrite-free environment and that endogenous enzymes as well as microorganisms were involved in this pigment formation [54, 55]. These results suggested that the bright red color in Parma ham is caused by Zn-protoporphyrin IX (ZPP), in which the iron in heme was substituted by zinc heme separated from the native heme protein. Investigations on this lipophylic myoglobin derivative showed that it was a stable red pigment that increased with aging [70]. This process has now been patented for producing red pigments for food use that were heat-stable [71]. The addition of salt accelerated the reaction and increased redness [72]. The process has also occurred in live animals, including humans, as lead poisoning and iron deficiency caused an increase of ZPP in blood as zinc replaced the iron in hemoglobin. The level of ZPP can be evaluated with a simple screening test using a hematofluorometer. The measurement of ZPP has been used with ducks to test for lead poisoning [73]. An increased ZPP/heme ratio indicates that Zn has replaced Fe in the heme, thus changing the color of hemoglobin and myoglobin. Based on findings in Parma ham, ZPP may be responsible for the red discoloration in poultry meat, which could be formed in myoglobin found in muscles or hemoglobin stored in bone marrow. Thus, ZPP leaking out of the bones could cause the increased stable redness observed in white meat.
Green discoloration of live muscles, raw meat, and cooked deli products can be produced by various mechanisms that lead to condemnation by the industry and consumers. In live muscles, green muscle disease (deep muscle myopathy) is caused by the lack of blood supply to the deep pectoral muscle that results in the death of the muscle fibers, thus giving the muscle a green appearance. The bruising of live birds has caused a rupture of blood capillaries and blood accumulation under the skin or in the meat. The color of the bruise subsequently developed over time and turned either yellow or green depending upon heme degradation. Using lactic acid as a decontamination approach resulted in the greening of chicken skin color [74]. The irradiation of fresh beef and pork meat has been thought to affect the stability of iron in the myoglobin and cause the breakdown of the porphyrin molecule and/or the formation of sulfmyoglobin that caused green pigments to appear [75].
In cooked meat, contamination with microorganisms such as Pseudomonas fluorescens has produced a shiny transparent greenish exudate on the meat surface due to microbial degradation of the heme pigment. In sausage-type products, the presence of green rings is an indicator of microbial contamination where the microorganisms oxidized the heme pigment before applying thermal treatment.
Iridescence, which is the appearance of a green-orange color on the surface of meat products such as deli meat, is mainly associated with the meat surface microstructure that could be interpreted as a color diffraction problem related to the ability of certain muscles to split the white light into its component. Thus, the reflection of the meat surface would appear in green-orange. If a sharp knife was used to cut the meat, the smooth surface resulting from the cut causes this color diffraction, but if a dull knife was used instead, this problem would be eliminated.
Deep pectoral muscle myopathy, also known as green muscle disease and Oregon disease, was first identified in turkeys [76] and later in broiler breeders [77] and 7-week-old broiler chickens [78]. This disease affected the wing elevating muscle (
The pectoralis minor muscle is confined in a tight space between the sternum and the pectoralis major muscle (large breast fillet). It is also encased in a rigid fibrous sheath that restricts any increase in muscle volume in response to any physiological changes caused by muscle exercise such as wing-flapping [79] which requires increased blood flow to supply the oxygen and nutrients needed by the muscles. The incidence of green muscle disease has also been reported to be higher in high yielding crosses, especially males.
On the other hand, the incidence of focal pectoral myopathy has increased, and it has been associated with increased growth rate and muscle size [12, 80]. Further investigation is required to determine the causes of this muscular defect since focal myopathy has an even more detrimental effect on the poultry industry. It has affected the pectoralis major muscle leading to consumer complaints and industry economic loss.
The incidence of pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) meat has been well-documented in swine, where meat has a very light gray color, soft texture, and cannot hold water [81, 82]. This condition has been associated with heavy muscling [83]. In poultry, similar PSE characteristics have been reported in turkey meat [84, 85], chickens [86, 87], and ostriches [88]. However, it is more difficult to distinguish and identify these characteristics in poultry meat compared to pork. This condition has been referred to as PSE since characteristics were similar to PSE in pork, which is misleading since both conditions were not exactly the same. Poultry researchers have preferred to refer to the condition in poultry as “PSE-like” or “Pale poultry muscle syndrome” [86, 89]. The PSE and PSE-like conditions are detrimental to the industry profitability since it affects important meat quality attributes involved in the production of value-added products and further processed meat. Affected muscles have been reported to lose their rheological properties and become unable to hold water. For example, mortadella prepared with PSE-like chicken meat has reduced water-holding capacity, altered texture, diminished emulsion stability, and required additives to restore the functional properties of normal meat [90]. In addition, poultry processors have been concerned with the appearance of PSE-like meat in fresh tray packs. The pale color affected color uniformity within the package and, thus, consumer acceptance. The occurrence of PSE-like in poultry meat has been believed to be the result of accelerated postmortem glycolysis (rapid pH decline), while the carcass was still warm [91]. In poultry, normal pH values at 15 min postmortem (pH15) are around 6.2–6.5 [92, 93], whereas normal ultimate pH (pHu) values are approximately 5.8 [60, 88, 94]. If the pH15 value is low (below 6.0) when the muscle is still warm, the proteins are subject to denaturation, which leads to a decreased water-holding capacity and a lighter color of the meat.
The reasons for PSE-like condition have remained unclear, but up to 30% of broiler breast meat and up to 40% of turkey breast meat have shown this defect in commercial processing plants [95, 96, 97]. Furthermore, it has been reported that the occurrence of PSE-like meat in birds may be affected by alteration to the intracellular calcium homeostasis caused by a mutation in the ryanodine receptor gene, which is different from the ryanodine receptor gene in swine, and also depends upon the several aspects of preslaughter and postslaughter management practices [98, 99]. It is thought that the application of “snow chilling” with carbon dioxide intensified meat quality abnormalities [100]. In addition, other factors have been thought to contribute to this problem, such as heat stress during the finisher period or the preslaughter period [86], and stress and struggling before slaughter [101].
Differentiating PSE-like meat from normal meat has been based on the instrumental or visual assessment of color lightness (L*). However, the cutoff value for classifying meat as PSE-like has differed among researchers. Petracci et al. [102] considered an L* value of 56 as the cutoff, while Barbut [28, 103, 104] suggested classifying turkey breast meat as PSE-like when L* values were greater than 52 at 24 h postmortem. Fraqueza et al. [105] classified breast meat as PSE-like when the L* was greater than 50 and pHu was less than 5.8, while Woelfel et al. [106] used L* values greater than 54 in broilers as their standards.
Using L*
White striping, woody breast, and spaghetti meat can be collectively referred to as the myopathies of modern broiler. These nomenclatures were simply based on the appearance of the defective muscles. White striping is a condition described in broiler chickens and characterized by white striations parallel to the direction of muscle fibers on both breast fillets and thighs of broilers. White striping is considered to be an emerging issue by the poultry meat industry that could be associated with enhanced growth rate and heavier body weight in birds [110, 111, 112], especially in the age of 6–8 weeks [110], and higher fat content in broiler breast fillets [111]. The incidence of white striping was evaluated under commercial conditions, and the overall incidence in broiler breast meat was 12.0%, of which 3.1% had severe striping [113]. It is possible that the intense selection for rapid growth rate in birds could have accidentally been accompanied by the selection for inadequate capillary/fascial growth or muscle fiber defects leading to myopathic changes referred to as growth-induced myopathy [13], under which these three different myopathies can be classified.
The precise etiology of white striping has not been defined yet [114]; however, several speculations have been reported. In turkeys, Wilson et al. [80] reported that rapid growth rate may have led to the limited ability of muscle support systems leading to a condition called focal myopathy, which affected the major pectoral muscle.
Ischemia could also result from a rapid growth rate and lead to muscular damage in turkeys [115]. It is also possible that reduced oxygen supply to breast muscle resulted from lower capillary density in fast-growing chickens [116]. A higher growth rate could also lead to defective cation regulation in muscles leading to an increased sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium in muscle tissue [117]. An increased level of calcium in muscle tissue could initiate several tissue changes, including the activation of intracellular proteases or lipases resulting in myopathic changes [13, 118, 119, 120]. Kuttappan et al. [114] reported that breast fillets showing severe white striping had reduced protein content and myopathic lesions, while Petracci et al. [113] observed poor cohesion beneath the striation area.
Poultry producers started noticing and complaining about woody breast in the late 1990s [12, 121]. The woody breast muscle is usually characterized by increased firmness in all or parts of the pectoralis major muscle that can start in the live birds and can be detected by palpating the breast muscle. Sihvo et al. [121] reported that woody breast might result from fibrosis, which leads to an accumulation of interstitial connective tissue. This myopathy affects consumer acceptability and meat quality; even when trying to mitigate by diverting to further processed poultry products, woody breast meat is still required to be mixed with normal meat to maintain the quality of the further processed product [122, 123].
Spaghetti meat, or previously known as mushy breast, is the most recent emerging myopathy of breast meat in poultry. As the name implies, the breast muscle loses its structure and firmness. One distinct feature the spaghetti meat has that would differentiate it from white striping and woody breast is the loss of endomysial and perimysial connective tissue that compromises the fiber bundles cohesion, coupled with a loose connective tissue deposition [124] leading to the separation of the fascicles into “spaghetti” strings.
Sanden et al. [23] investigated the collagen of muscles with either woody breast or spaghetti meat abnormalities. They showed that collagen in woody breast muscle was a mix of thin and thick fibers, whereas spaghetti meat had thinner, fewer, and shorter. However, both myopathies generally resulted in a higher content in connective tissue (mainly in perimysium) compared to normal muscle.
Several researchers have investigated these myopathies to understand their etiology and effect on meat products quality [114, 121, 124, 125]. It is believed that cellular stress and hypoxia (ischemia) caused by muscle hypertrophy are the main triggering factors behind white striping and woody breast, in addition to being strapped within a relatively rigid connective tissue that limits the hypertrophy capabilities. However, what is interesting is that spaghetti meat, where the opposite issue is faced concerning connective tissue, started appearing. It is possible that geneticist, while trying to reduce the rigidness of the connective tissue, led to the emergence of the most recent abnormality of spaghetti meat, which is worth investigating in the future with poultry strain companies.
Researchers have investigated multiple factors that may have either contributed or helped in eliminating the emerging myopathies starting at different incubation conditions [126] all the way to management during growing [127, 128] and nutritional manipulations [129, 130, 131, 132, 133].
Several white muscle defects and myopathy have been reported. According to the literature, these problems spiked in the 1970s and 2000s concurrent with increased feed prices. It was suggested that producers were driven to use less expensive feed and use alternative feed ingredients (e.g., DDGS) to control costs. One significant consequence of feeding less expensive feed was that the essential amino acids (e.g., lysine and methionine) became a primary concern when formulating these diets, while the nonessential amino acids (e.g., arginine, glycine, and proline) were neglected despite their essential role in connective tissue formation, which may have contributed to the emerging of muscle defects as genetics for enhanced growth and muscle accretion were improved even further.
The spectacular advancements in genetics witnessed by the broiler industry have resulted in broilers with a higher growth rate, while the role of nutrition has become even more critical in supporting the increased growth demands of what may have become a relatively fragile animal. Profit-driven decisions about formulating feed in a least-cost manner while neglecting the essentiality of nonessential amino acids in nutrition would eventually be evidenced by increased condemnation at the processing plant and increased consumer complaints.
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Cabanelas"}]},{id:"53973",doi:"10.5772/66927",title:"Phenolic Compounds in Water: Sources, Reactivity, Toxicity and Treatment Methods",slug:"phenolic-compounds-in-water-sources-reactivity-toxicity-and-treatment-methods",totalDownloads:7324,totalCrossrefCites:77,totalDimensionsCites:170,abstract:"Phenolic compounds exist in water bodies due to the discharge of polluted wastewater from industrial, agricultural and domestic activities into water bodies. They also occur as a result of natural phenomena. These compounds are known to be toxic and inflict both severe and long‐lasting effects on both humans and animals. They act as carcinogens and cause damage to the red blood cells and the liver, even at low concentrations. Interaction of these compounds with microorganisms, inorganic and other organic compounds in water can produce substituted compounds or other moieties, which may be as toxic as the original phenolic compounds. This chapter dwells on the sources and reactivity of phenolic compounds in water, their toxic effects on humans, and methods of their removal from water. Specific emphasis is placed on the techniques of their removal from water with attention on both conventional and advanced methods. Among these methods are ozonation, adsorption, extraction, photocatalytic degradation, biological, electro‐Fenton, adsorption and ion exchange and membrane‐based separation.",book:{id:"6029",slug:"phenolic-compounds-natural-sources-importance-and-applications",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Natural Sources, Importance and Applications"},signatures:"William W. Anku, Messai A. Mamo and Penny P. 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In addition, the postharvest conditions may modify several phytochemical substances. Phenolic compounds are referred to as phytochemicals found in a large number of foods and beverages. The relative high diversity of these molecules produced by plants must be taken into account when methods of preparation are employed to obtain industrial or homemade products. Phenolic compounds comprise one (phenolic acids) or more (polyphenols) aromatic rings with attached hydroxyl groups in their structures. Their antioxidant capacities are related to these hydroxyl groups and phenolic rings. Despite the antioxidant activity, they have many other beneficial effects on human health. However, before attributing health benefits to these compounds, absorption, distribution, and metabolism of each phenolic compound in the body are important points that should be considered.",book:{id:"5609",slug:"phenolic-compounds-biological-activity",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Biological Activity"},signatures:"Igor Otavio Minatel, Cristine Vanz Borges, Maria Izabela Ferreira,\nHector Alonzo Gomez Gomez, Chung-Yen Oliver Chen and\nGiuseppina Pace Pereira Lima",authors:[{id:"146379",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"giuseppina-lima",fullName:"Giuseppina Lima"},{id:"194002",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristine",middleName:null,surname:"Vanz Borges",slug:"cristine-vanz-borges",fullName:"Cristine Vanz Borges"},{id:"194003",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor Otavio",middleName:null,surname:"Minatel",slug:"igor-otavio-minatel",fullName:"Igor Otavio Minatel"},{id:"194004",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"maria-izabela-ferreira",fullName:"Maria Izabela Ferreira"},{id:"194005",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Gomez",slug:"hector-gomez-gomez",fullName:"Hector Gomez-Gomez"},{id:"194006",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yen Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chung-yen-oliver-chen",fullName:"Chung-Yen Oliver Chen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55500",title:"Interpretation of Mass Spectra",slug:"interpretation-of-mass-spectra",totalDownloads:12503,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"The chapter includes an introduction to the main ionisation techniques in mass spectrometry and the way the resulting fragments can be analysed. First, the fundamental notions of mass spectrometry are explained, so that the reader can easily cover this chapter (graphs, main pick, molecular ion, illogical pick, nitrogen rule, etc.). Isotopic percentage and nominal mass calculation are also explained along with fragmentation mechanism. A paragraph emphasises the ionisation energy issues, the basics of ionisation voltage, the developing potential and the energy balance. A frame time of the main theoretical milestones in both theory and experimental mass spectrometry is highlighted here. In the second part of the chapter, the molecular fragmentation for alkanes, iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, halogen, alcohols, phenols, ethers, carbonyl compounds, carboxylic acids and functional derivatives, nitrogen compounds (amines, nitro compounds), sulphur compounds, heterocycles and biomolecules (amino acids, steroids, triglycerides) is explained. Fragmentation schemes are followed by the simplified spectra, which help the understanding of such complex phenomena. At the end of the chapter, acquisition of mass spectrum is discussed. The chapter presented here is an introduction to mass spectrometry, which, we think, helps the understanding of the mechanism of fragmentation corroborating spectral data and molecular structures.",book:{id:"5735",slug:"mass-spectrometry",title:"Mass Spectrometry",fullTitle:"Mass Spectrometry"},signatures:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu",authors:[{id:"196775",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodor Octavian",middleName:"Octavian",surname:"Nicolescu",slug:"teodor-octavian-nicolescu",fullName:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu"}]},{id:"57909",title:"Validation of Analytical Methods",slug:"validation-of-analytical-methods",totalDownloads:6989,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Method validation is a key element in the establishment of reference methods and within the assessment of a laboratory’s competence in generating dependable analytical records. Validation has been placed within the context of the procedure, generating chemical data. Analytical method validation, thinking about the maximum relevant processes for checking the best parameters of analytical methods, using numerous relevant overall performance indicators inclusive of selectivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, linearity, range, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), ruggedness, and robustness are severely discussed in an effort to prevent their misguided utilization and ensure scientific correctness and consistency among publications.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Tentu Nageswara Rao",authors:[{id:"220824",title:"Dr.",name:"Tentu",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara Rao",slug:"tentu-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Tentu Nageswara Rao"}]},{id:"55440",title:"Solubility Products and Solubility Concepts",slug:"solubility-products-and-solubility-concepts",totalDownloads:3090,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The chapter refers to a general concept of solubility product Ksp of sparingly soluble hydroxides and different salts and calculation of solubility of some hydroxides, oxides, and different salts in aqueous media. A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"62736",title:"Radioisotope: Applications, Effects, and Occupational Protection",slug:"radioisotope-applications-effects-and-occupational-protection",totalDownloads:4543,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"This chapter presents a brief introduction to radioisotopes, sources and types of radiation, applications, effects, and occupational protection. The natural and artificial sources of radiations are discussed with special reference to natural radioactive decay series and artificial radioisotopes. Applications have played significant role in improving the quality of human life. The application of radioisotopes in tracing, radiography, food preservation and sterilization, eradication of insects and pests, medical diagnosis and therapy, and new variety of crops in agricultural field is briefly described. Radiation interacts with matter to produce excitation and ionization of an atom or molecule; as a result physical and biological effects are produced. These effects and mechanisms are discussed. The dosimetric quantities used in radiological protection are described. Radiological protections and the control of occupational and medical exposures are briefly described.",book:{id:"5903",slug:"principles-and-applications-in-nuclear-engineering-radiation-effects-thermal-hydraulics-radionuclide-migration-in-the-environment",title:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering",fullTitle:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering - Radiation Effects, Thermal Hydraulics, Radionuclide Migration in the Environment"},signatures:"Sannappa Jadiyappa",authors:[{id:"239626",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sannappa J.",slug:"sannappa-j.",fullName:"Sannappa J."}]},{id:"58596",title:"Linearity of Calibration Curves for Analytical Methods: A Review of Criteria for Assessment of Method Reliability",slug:"linearity-of-calibration-curves-for-analytical-methods-a-review-of-criteria-for-assessment-of-method",totalDownloads:8095,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"Calibration curve is a regression model used to predict the unknown concentrations of analytes of interest based on the response of the instrument to the known standards. Some statistical analyses are required to choose the best model fitting to the experimental data and also evaluate the linearity and homoscedasticity of the calibration curve. Using an internal standard corrects for the loss of analyte during sample preparation and analysis provided that it is selected appropriately. After the best regression model is selected, the analytical method needs to be validated using quality control (QC) samples prepared and stored in the same temperature as intended for the study samples. Most of the international guidelines require that the parameters, including linearity, specificity, selectivity, accuracy, precision, lower limit of quantification (LLOQ), matrix effect and stability, be assessed during validation. Despite the highly regulated area, some challenges still exist regarding the validation of some analytical methods including methods when no analyte-free matrix is available.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi and Sussan Ghassabian",authors:[{id:"216099",title:"Dr.",name:"Sussan",middleName:null,surname:"Ghassabian",slug:"sussan-ghassabian",fullName:"Sussan Ghassabian"},{id:"216101",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyed Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Moosavi",slug:"seyed-mojtaba-moosavi",fullName:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"8",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83005",title:"Catalytic Behavior of Extended π-Conjugation in the Kinetics of Sensitizer-Mediator Interaction",slug:"catalytic-behavior-of-extended-conjugation-in-the-kinetics-of-sensitizer-mediator-interaction",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106511",abstract:"This chapter discusses the catalytic effect of extended π-conjugation on the electron transfer process between ferricyphen-ferrocyanide and ferricypyr-ferrocyanide in an aqueous medium. Ferricyphen and ferricypyr may be feasible options for the sensitizer in dye-sensitized solar cells due to their high reduction potential, stability, capability as an outer-sphere oxidant, and photosensitivity. Meanwhile, ferrocyanide could be used as a mediator in DSSCs instead of iodide to avoid iodate production and achieve a similar reduction potential and stability. This chapter compared the ability of competent putative sensitizers to oxidize the likely mediator in water. In contrast to the 2,2′-dipyridyl chelate, the extended π-conjugation in 1,10-phenanthroline accelerated the redox process by increasing the electron affinity of ferricyphen as compared to ferricypyr. The reactions had the same kinetics but different rate constants, indicating that the ferricyphen-ferrocyanide reaction was several times faster than the ferricypyr-ferrocyanide reaction, revealing and confirming the catalytic influence of extended π-conjugation on the redox process.",book:{id:"11217",title:"Recent Advances in Chemical Kinetics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11217.jpg"},signatures:"Rozina Khattak"},{id:"83004",title:"Pyridine Heterocycles in the Therapy of Oncological Diseases",slug:"pyridine-heterocycles-in-the-therapy-of-oncological-diseases",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106406",abstract:"Oncological diseases pose a major challenge for modern medicine. Heterocyclic compounds play a vital role in modern medical and pharmaceutical science as most medicinal substances incorporate them. Nitrogen-containing heterocycles serve as the basis of numerous drugs and, therefore, are deeply involved in the design and synthesis of promising new therapeutic agents. Pyridine or pyrimidine scaffolds, with a number of substituents attached, comprise a large portion of FDA-approved drugs. They are chemically stable in the human body, manifest an affinity for DNA via hydrogen bonding, and present an opportunity for the development of novel anticancer agents. A large number of pyridine-based molecules are synthesized and tested for anticancer activity each year. The present chapter aims to introduce the most current synthetic approaches, published in scientific literature, and would also elaborate on structure-activity relationships described therein.",book:{id:"11562",title:"Chemistry with Pyridine Derivatives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11562.jpg"},signatures:"Lozan T. Todorov and Irena P. Kostova"},{id:"82969",title:"Utilizing Photocatalysts in Reducing Moisture Absorption in Composites of Natural Fibers",slug:"utilizing-photocatalysts-in-reducing-moisture-absorption-in-composites-of-natural-fibers",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106543",abstract:"Due to growing environmental consciousness and the depletion of oil supplies, numerous efforts have been made to replace synthetic fibers in fiber-reinforced composites with natural fibers (NFr). The low cost and abundance of NFr and its biodegradability and low density have encouraged researchers worldwide to study their potential applications in several industrial sectors. However, NFr has several disadvantages: excessive moisture absorption and subsequent swelling and degradation, low chemical and fire resistance, and insufficient interfacial interactions with polymers. Consequently, there is great interest in modifying the surface of NFr using a variety of methods. This chapter presents an overview of the NFr, its characterization, the problems associated with adding NFr to polymer composites. This literature survey suggests an in-depth review of photocatalysis by utilizing photocatalysts nanoparticle (PHNPs) aimed at increasing the hydrophobicity and interfacial bonding between the NFr and the matrix Using a photo-induced oxidation mechanism to disassemble water molecules, pollutants, and bacteria in a wet environment. Additionally, we reviewed the effects of these PHNPs on the moisture absorption, mechanical characteristics, and dimensional stability of NFr composites. As a result, this review article may make a valuable contribution to researchers interested in coating and treating NFr to further enhance their surface characteristics.",book:{id:"11559",title:"Photocatalysts - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11559.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammed Mohammed and Rozyanty Rahman"},{id:"82853",title:"Revealing Retention Mechanisms in Liquid Chromatography: QSRR Approach",slug:"revealing-retention-mechanisms-in-liquid-chromatography-qsrr-approach",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106245",abstract:"One-factor-at-a-time experimentation was used for a long time as gold-standard optimization for liquid chromatographic (LC) method development. This approach has two downsides as it requires a needlessly great number of experimental runs and it is unable to identify possible factor interactions. At the end of the last century, however, this problem could be solved with the introduction of new chemometric strategies. This chapter aims at presenting quantitative structure–retention relationship (QSRR) models with structuring possibilities, from the point of feature selection through various machine learning algorithms that can be used in model building, for internal and external validation of the proposed models. The presented strategies of QSRR model can be a good starting point for analysts to use and adopt them as a good practice for their applications. QSRR models can be used in predicting the retention behavior of compounds, to point out the molecular features governing the retention, and consequently to gain insight into the retention mechanisms. In terms of these applications, special attention was drawn to modified chromatographic systems, characterized by mobile or stationary phase modifications. Although chromatographic methods are applied in a wide variety of fields, the greatest attention has been devoted to the analysis of pharmaceuticals.",book:{id:"11557",title:"Chemometrics - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11557.jpg"},signatures:"Jovana Krmar, Bojana Svrkota, Nevena Đajić, Jevrem Stojanović, Ana Protić and Biljana Otašević"},{id:"82796",title:"A Revisit of the Underlying Fundamentals in the Laser Emission from BODIPYs",slug:"a-revisit-of-the-underlying-fundamentals-in-the-laser-emission-from-bodipys",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106334",abstract:"This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of the laser performance of commercially available laser dyes based on the boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY) chromophore in a liquid state, as well as to remark the main underlying photophysical signatures triggering such photonic behavior. First, we describe their light absorption and fluorescence properties in solution. This spectroscopic study is supplemented with quantum mechanics calculations and electrochemical measurements. Afterward, the dyes are tested as active media of tunable lasers under transversal pumping. The recorded laser efficiencies and photostabilities are correlated with the registered photophysical properties identifying the main structural guidelines and photonic parameters, which rule the laser bands’ position, intensity, and stability. As a result, we provide a comparative dataset of the laser performance, not available hitherto. Besides, the unraveling of the complex molecular structure-photophysics-laser relationship should help in the rational design of new tunable dye lasers with an improved photonic response along the entire visible region and reaching eventually the near infrared.",book:{id:"12081",title:"Dyes and Pigments - Insights and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12081.jpg"},signatures:"Alaitz Peñafiel, Ainhoa Oliden-Sánchez, Edurne Avellanal-Zaballa, Leire Gartzia-Rivero, Rebeca Sola-Llano and Jorge Bañuelos"},{id:"82706",title:"Applications of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) in Fish Value Chain",slug:"applications-of-near-infrared-spectroscopy-nirs-in-fish-value-chain",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105736",abstract:"Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has undergone a significant evolution in the last years due to the numerous scientific studies that revealed its potential for industrial applications, attracting a growing interest in the food sector. Furthermore, new advances have allowed the reduction in size and cost of the NIR devices, making them appropriate for on-site determinations. The complex structure of the fish value chain, combined to its high market value, makes this sector particularly vulnerable to fraud and adulteration practices. Also, the perishable nature of fish and fish products, as well as the lack of traceability, arises the urgent need for a fast, reliable and portable tool capable of precisely characterizing the quality and authenticity of the product while also ensuring its safety. In this chapter, the capabilities of NIRS combined to several chemometric techniques for quality, authenticity and safety applications are presented through an extensive review of the most recent research works.",book:{id:"11564",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11564.jpg"},signatures:"Sonia Nieto-Ortega, Rebeca Lara, Giuseppe Foti, Ángela Melado-Herreros and Idoia Olabarrieta"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:58},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. 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