Different infections and involved microorganisms [11].
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83962-547-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-546-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-548-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e5ba02fedd7c87f0ab66414f3b07de0c",bookSignature:"Dr. John P. Tiefenbacher",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10765.jpg",keywords:"Managing Urbanization, Managing Development, Managing Resource Use, Drought Management, Flood Management, Water Quality Monitoring, Air Quality Monitoring, Ecological Monitoring, Modeling Extreme Natural Events, Ecological Restoration, Restoring Environmental Flows, Environmental Management Perspectives",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 12th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 10th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 29th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 28th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"20 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A geospatial scholar working at the interface of natural and human systems, collaborating internationally on innovative studies about hazards and environmental challenges. Dr. Tiefenbacher has published more than 200 papers on a diverse array of topics that examine perception and behaviors with regards to the application of pesticides, releases of toxic chemicals, environments of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, wildlife hazards, and the geography of wine.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",middleName:null,surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73876/images/system/73876.jfif",biography:"Dr. John P. Tiefenbacher (Ph.D., Rutgers, 1992) is a professor of Geography at Texas State University. His research has focused on various aspects of hazards and environmental management. Dr. Tiefenbacher has published on a diverse array of topics that examine perception and behaviors with regards to the application of pesticides, releases of toxic chemicals, environments of the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, wildlife hazards, and the geography of wine. More recently his work pertains to spatial adaptation to climate change, spatial responses in wine growing regions to climate change, the geographies of viticulture and wine, artificial intelligence and machine learning to predict patterns of natural processes and hazards, historical ethnic enclaves in American cities and regions, and environmental adaptations of 19th century European immigrants to North America's landscapes.",institutionString:"Texas State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Texas State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194667",firstName:"Marijana",lastName:"Francetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194667/images/4752_n.jpg",email:"marijana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Holography is the technique that deals with the interference and diffraction of the visible light in order to record the three-dimensional (3D) information of the objects into the amplitude or phase holograms on the holographic material and reconstruct the 3D visualization of the object. The holographic optical elements (HOEs) are the very interesting applications of the holography where many institutes work and develop for them. The first HOE concepts of holographic application, a holographic mirror, have been described by Denisyuk in 1962 [1]. Then, the point-source hologram which acts as lens was demonstrated by Schwar et al. in 1967 [2]. And, Latta et al. analyzed the compensate aberrations for HOE, the quantitative consideration [3]. Hence, a lot of institutes and companies work for the practical application of the HOE, and it is still a hot research topic in holography-based fields.
\nA HOE is the technique using a principle of holography, is a kind of diffraction optical elements (DOE), to replace heavy and complicated optical element has been highlighted as a useful technique. HOEs can be a mirror, lens, or directional diffuser, because it can implement various functions on a single material according to high diffraction efficiency and narrow-band frequency characteristics. Therefore, the HOEs are widely applied in many fields such as a hologram memory, holographic projection screen, holographic printer, 3D head-mounted display (HMD), and so on.
\nIn this chapter, first, the principle of HOE, the basic concept of recording and reconstruction for HOE, and the characteristic of the HOE are described in detail. Then, several examples of applications of HOE such as waveguide and wedge-shaped waveguide-based HMD, HOE lens array, and solar concentration are reviewed.
\nThe HOE is an optical element (such as a lens, filter, beam splitter, or diffraction grating), i.e., produced by using holographic imaging process or principles [4]. \nFigure 1\n shows the basic concept of HOE. The two beams from the laser are interfering in recording materials. One beam is the object beam reflected or scattered from the object, and another beam is reference beam. The object beam and the reference beam intersect and interfere with each other to record an interference pattern in recording materials. This interference pattern records the information of the object. When the object is a lens, the interference pattern reconstructs the optical element, which has function of lens as shown in \nFigure 1\n.
\nHOE principle: (a) recording and (b) reconstruction.
Generally, HOEs are classified into two main types, thin and volume HOEs. In the case of a thin HOE, the efficiency is low due to the incident light beams that are diffracted by grating in various directions, and the diffraction efficiency is changed so much when the incident angle is changed. Then, for the volume HOEs, the incident light beams are diffracted by grating only at the particular angle, so the high diffraction efficiency can be achieved. Also, HOEs can be classified into transmission and reflection types depending on the geometry of the recording, as shown in \nFigure 2\n.
\nHOE classification: (a) transmission HOE and (b) reflection HOE.
In a transmission HOE, the object beam and the reference beam are on the same side of the recording material. The diffracted beam emerges on the opposite side from the incident beam; the beam goes through the entire thickness of the materials. In a reflection HOE, the object beam and the reference beam are on the different side of the recording material. The diffracted beam is on the same side as the incident beam. The fringes due to interference between the object beam and the reference beam are perpendicular to the grating plane for transmission gratings or parallel for reflection gratings.
\nHOEs have some characteristics as follows [5]. Multiple holograms can be recorded on a single recording material; spatially overlapping elements are possible. General optical elements are obtained by surface processing. However, HOEs are obtained by recording interference patterns from two coherent light beams on high-resolution photosensitive materials.
\nTherefore, it is easy to fabricate and duplicate, and it is possible to enter mass production. The production and functioning of HOEs are based on the implementation of the diffraction and interference of light; it is easy to utilize in the narrow bandwidth. Axial synthesized holograms serve the functions of standard, power, and compensating optical elements. The direction of the diffracted beam is determined by fringe of interference pattern on the surface, while the efficiency of diffracted beam is determined by the direction of interference pattern and refractive index in its inner structure. These characteristics and interactions provide both advantages and disadvantages for any particular application.
\nThe characteristics of the recording material have significant effects on the many applications and the development of holography. The properties of ideal holographic material should be good light sensitivity, flat spatial frequency response, bright hologram, no haze, no absorption, no shrinkage or detuning, industrially available, fast hologram formation, unnecessary post-processing, and stability (environmental and light). To fabricate the HOE, it is necessary to understand the optical characteristics of the recording material.
\nTypically, different materials, such as silver halide emulsion [6], dichromated gelatin [7], photoresist [8], photorefractive [9], or photopolymer [10], are used for manufacturing of HOEs. A photopolymer is one of the hologram recording materials, which has high diffraction efficiency, low cost, and excellent signal-to-noise ratio [10, 11]. Furthermore, it does not require any chemical or wet processing after recording the holograms. Because of such advantages, the photopolymer has been used widely in several research fields, which include optical elements [12, 13], holographic storage [14], holographic display [15], etc.
\nBayer MaterialScience is developing its photopolymer to be easy to handle, with high diffraction efficiency, polychromatic, durable, and customizable. This material will be simple to expose, with no wet or heat processing. The ease of use and simple processing requirement allow these materials to be amenable to mass production of holographic optical elements [16–19].
\nBayfol HX film 102 consists of a four-layer stack of a backside cover film of the substrate, the substrate itself, the light-sensitive photopolymer, and a protective cover film as shown in \nFigure 3\n. A polycarbonate (PC) substrate with a thickness of 175 ± 2 μm and polyethylene (PE) are used as backside cover foil and protective cover foil, which are both 40 μm in thickness. The protective cover film can be removed. The photopolymer layer itself has a thickness (d) of 16.8 μm.
\nBayfol HX 102 film structure.
Bayfol HX 102 photopolymer can be used to manufacture reflection and transmission volume-phase holograms with appropriate laser light within the spectral range of 440–660 nm.
\nIn \nFigure 4\n, the basic product characteristics are depicted. The transmission spectrum of the unrecorded photopolymer film was recorded after removal of the protective cover film. In this material, the dye-related absorption peaks are located at 473, 532, and 633 nm, with associated transmittance of 56%, 45%, and 31%, respectively.
\nTransmission spectra of the unrecorded RGB-sensitive Bayfol HX 102 film.
Generally, there are some important properties of a HOE that should be known. They are diffraction efficiency, wavelength selectivity, and angular selectivity. Of the many methods [20] to describe grating behavior, the couple wave theory as presented by Kogelnik [21, 22] will be the primary method used in this study, due to its simplicity and applicability.
\nIn 1969, Herwig Kogelnik published the coupled wave theory, analyzing the diffraction of light by volume gratings. It assumes that monochromatic light is incident on the volume grating at or near the Bragg angle and polarized perpendicular to the plane of incidence. This theory can predict the maximum possible efficiencies of the various volume gratings and the angular and wavelength dependence at high diffraction efficiencies.
\n\n\nFigure 5\n shows the model of a transmission volume hologram grating with slanted fringes. The x-axis is parallel to the recording material on the plane of incidence, the y-axis is perpendicular to the paper, and the z-axis is perpendicular to the surface of the recording material. The grating vector K is oriented perpendicular to the fringe planes and is of length K = 2π/Λ, where Λ is the period of the grating (spatial frequency f = 1/Λ). The angle of incidence measured in the material is θ\n\nR\n. The fringe planes are oriented perpendicular to the plane of incidence and slanted with respect to the material boundaries at an angle φ.
\nModel of a transmission volume grating with slanted fringes.
\n\nFigure 6\n shows the fringe formations according to the recording process. The fringes are perpendicular to the grating plane for transmission gratings or parallel for reflection gratings.
\n(a) Volume transmission gratings, (b) volume reflection gratings, and their associated vector diagrams for Bragg condition.
The volume record of the holographic interference pattern usually takes the form of a spatial modulation of the absorption coefficient or of the refractive index n(r) of the material, or both. For the sake of simplicity, here is the analysis restricted to the holographic record of sinusoidal fringe patterns. The grating is assumed dielectric, nonmagnetic, and isotropic. Hence, once the recording process has taken place, the resulting modulation may be described at the first order by the following relations:
\nwhere x represents the radius vector x = (x, y, z), whereas n\n0 is the average reflective index, α\n0 is the average absorption coefficient, and Δn and Δα are the amplitudes of the spatial modulations of the index and absorption coefficient, respectively.
\nGenerally, wave propagation in the grating is described by the scalar wave equation:
\nwhere E (x, z) is the complex amplitude of the y-component of the electric field, which is assumed to be independent of y and to have a wavelength λ. The wave number is equal to the average propagation constant β:
\nand the coupling constant κ can be simplified to
\nThe coupling constant is the central parameter in the couple wave theory as it describes the coupling between the “reference” wave (R) and the “signal” wave (S). If κ = 0, there is no coupling; therefore, there is no diffraction.
\nThe propagation of two coupled waves through the grating can be described by their complex amplitudes: the incoming wave R(z) and the outgoing wave S(z), which vary along the z axis. The total field within the grating is written as follows:
\nwhere r is the position vector and the symbols k\n\ni\n and k\n\no\n are the wave vectors of the incoming and outgoing waves, respectively, which are related to each other by
\nThe vector relation from Eq. (7) is shown in \nFigure 7\n together with the circle of radius β. \nFigure 7(b)\n shows the general case that the length of k\n\no\n differs from β and the Bragg condition is not met. \nFigure 7(c)\n shows the special case that the length of both k\n\ni\n and k\n\no\n is equal to the average propagation constant β at the Bragg angle θ\n0. And the Bragg condition is obeyed:
\nVector diagram: (a) the relation between the propagation vector and the grating vector, (b) near at Bragg condition, and (c) exact Bragg incidence.
For fixed wavelength, the Bragg condition may be broken by angular deviations Δθ from the Bragg angle θ\n0. Analogously, for fixed angle of incidence, detuning takes place for changes Δλ with respect to the Bragg wavelength λ\n0. Differentiating the Bragg condition, we obtain
\nthat relates the angular selectivity to the wavelength selectivity of a volume hologram grating; small changes in the angle of incidence or the wavelength have similar effects. High-performance devices, typically, should have a large selectivity and large diffraction efficiency.
\nKogelnik introduced the parameter of mismatch constant Γ for evaluating the effects of deviations from the Bragg condition:
\nWhen the Bragg mismatch is due to the angular detuning Δθ and wavelength detuning Δλ, the mismatch constant expressed as
\nSubstituting Eqs. (1), (2), (4), and (6) into Eq. (3), R(z) and S(z) must individually satisfy the following equations in order for the wave equation to be satisfied:
\nwhere the obliquity factor cos θ\n\nS\n = cos θ\n\nR\n − K cos φ/β = − cos(θ\n\nR\n − 2φ). Solving Eqs. (12) and (13), the diffraction efficiency η is defined as
\nIn transmission volume grating, the fringes are perpendicular to the surfaces of the recording material, and the incoming “reference” wave (R) and the outgoing “signal” wave (S) are on the opposite side of the recording material.
\nIn lossless volume gratings, α\n0 = Δα = 0, and the coupling constant is κ = πΔn/λ. Diffraction is caused by spatial variation of the refractive index; the diffraction efficiency of the slanted lossless transmission volume grating is as follows:
\nwhere ν and ξ are given by
\n\n\nFigure 8\n shows the diffraction efficiency of the lossless transmission volume gratings as a function of the parameter ξ for three values of the parameter ν. The diffraction efficiency of the volume grating is 100% for ν = π/2, 50% for ν = π/4 and ν = 3π/4. It can be observed that for a fixed value of ξ the diffraction efficiency drops to zero if there is slight deviation from the Bragg condition.
\nTransmission grating: diffraction efficiency η of lossless volume grating as a function.
When the wavelength and the angle are gradually out of the Bragg condition, the parameters ξ is obtained as follows:
\nFrom the above Eqs. (16), (17), and (18), it is clear that the diffraction efficiency of the volume grating is influenced by angular deviation Δθ and wavelength deviation Δλ through the parameter ξ.
\nIf there is no slant (φ = π/2) and if the Bragg condition is obeyed, then cos θ\n\nR\n = cos θ\n\nS\n = cos θ\n0, and Eq. (15) becomes
\nAs thickness d or the variation of the refractive index Δn increases, the diffraction efficiency increases until the modulation parameter ν = π/2. At this point η = 100 %, and all the energy goes into the diffracted light. When ν increases beyond this point, the energy is back-coupled into the incident wave, and η decreases.
\nThe angular selectivity of un-slanted transmission volume grating could be determined by substituting Eqs. (16), (17), and (18) into Eq. (15) at Δλ = 0:
\nIt is important to note that Eq. (20) requires the following criterion for equalizing of diffraction efficiency to zero:
\nwhere j = 1, 2, ⋯n, ⋯. Angular selectivity in the volume grating at the half width at first zero (HWFZ) level, Δθ\n\nHWFZ\n, as the angle between the central maximum and the first minimum at the diffraction efficiency curve. For the volume Bragg grating with 100% diffraction efficiency, the following expression for the HWFZ angular selectivity could be given at j = 1:
\nIt should be noticed that the HWFZ angular selectivity \n
\n\nFigure 9\n shows the angular selectivity of a transmitting volume Bragg grating. The parameters are varied from more than 100 mrad to less than 0.1 mrad. According to spatial frequency of grating, the value of refractive index modulation Δn can provide 100% diffraction efficiency. And, it should be optimized with equation d\n0 = λ cos(φ − θ\n0)/2Δn.
\nAngular selectivity (HWFZ) of transmitting volume gratings at λ = 532 nm and n\n0 = 1.5 on spatial frequency for optimal refractive index modulation with grating thickness in 0.5, 2, 5, and 10 mm.
Just as the description for angular selectivity, the wavelength selectivity Δλ\n\nHWFZ\n can be determined as a distance between the central maximum and the first minimum in wavelength distribution of diffraction efficiency. It could be expressed by substitution of Eqs. (16), (17), and (18) into Eq. (15) at Δθ = 0. In the case of un-slanted transmission volume grating, this expression is simplified by the use of Eq. (18) when φ = π/2:
\nWavelength selectivity has the same structure as angular selectivity due to their linear interrelationship described by Eq. (9). For un-slanted transmitting volume gratings with 100% diffraction efficiency, \n
\n\nFigure 10\n shows dependence of wavelength selectivity on spatial frequency for different grating thicknesses. HWFZ wavelength selectivity of transmitting volume grating could be easily varied from values below 0.1 nm to more than 100 nm by proper choosing of grating parameters.
\nWavelength selectivity (HWFZ) of transmitting volume gratings at λ = 532 nm and n\n0 = 1.5 on spatial frequency for optimal refractive index modulation with grating thickness in 0.5, 2, 5, and 10 mm.
In reflection volume grating, the fringes are more or less parallel to the surfaces of the recording material, and the incoming “reference” wave (R) and the outgoing “signal” wave (S) are on the same side of the recording material. \nFigure 11\n shows the model of a reflection volume hologram grating with slanted fringes. It is expressed in the coupled wave analysis by negative values of the obliquity factor cos θ\n\nS\n(cos θ\n\nS\n < 0).
\nModel of a reflection volume grating with slanted fringes.
The diffraction efficiency of slanted lossless reflection volume grating can be written as
\nwhere ν and ξ are given by
\n\n\nFigure 12\n shows the diffraction efficiency of the lossless volume gratings as a function of the ξ, for the values of ν = π/4, π/2 and 3π/4. The figure shows the sensitivity of a grating with ν = π/4 and a peak efficiency of 43%, a grating with ν = π/2 and η = 84 %, and the corresponding values for 3π/4 and η = 96 %. For ν = π/2, the diffraction efficiency drops to zero in all cases when ξ ≈ 3.5.
\nReflection grating: diffraction efficiency η of lossless volume grating as a function of the parameter ξ for various values of the parameter ν.
When the wavelength and the angle are gradually out of the Bragg condition, the parameters ξ is obtained as follows:
\nFor an unslanted grating (φ = 0), the Bragg condition is obeyed; then cos θ\n\nR\n = − cos θ\n\nS\n = cos θ\n0, the Eq. (25) becomes to
\nBy increasing of grating thickness d or refractive index modulation Δn, the diffraction efficiency asymptotically approaches the 100% value with the hyperbolic tangent function.
\nIf the diffraction efficiency η\n0 could be predetermined at a certain level, the value could be used for designing a reflection volume grating. The interrelationships between refractive index modulation, thickness, and incident Bragg angle θ\n0 could be expressed by Eq. (29):
\n\n\nFigure 13\n illustrates the interrelation between refractive index modulation, thickness, and predetermined diffraction efficiency η\n0. The three values of predetermined diffraction efficiency are 90% which correspond to 10 dB transmitted beam attenuation, 99% (20 dB) and 99.9% (30 dB) at λ = 532 nm, respectively. As shown in \nFigure 13\n, refractive index modulation Δn is less than 1000 ppm when the grating thickness is more than 1 mm with η\n0 = 99 %. Therefore, reflecting volume gratings should be thick enough with relatively low values of refractive index modulation to secure predetermined diffraction efficiency.
\nDependence of refractive index modulation which secured predetermined diffraction efficiency on the grating thickness. Diffraction efficiency: η\n0 = 90 %, 99%, and 99.9%. Normal incidence, λ = 532 nmand n\n0 = 1.5.
The angular selectivity of unslanted reflection volume grating could be determined by substituting Eqs. (26) and (28) to Eq. (25) at Δλ = 0 :
\nTo determine angular selectivity Δθ\n\nHWFZ\n at HWFZ level, the diffraction efficiency reaches zero value at multiple points when ν is not equal to ξ:
\nwhere j = 1, 2, ⋯ n, ⋯. The HWFZ angular selectivity could be considerably simplified for unslanted gratings with diffraction efficiency of Eq. (28) at j = 1:
\n\n\nFigure 14\n shows the dependence of angular selectivity on volume grating thickness at different incident Bragg angles θ\n0 for a 99% efficiency grating. As one can see, the thicker the grating, the wider the angular selectivity is. For instance, 7 mrad HWFZ selectivity is secured at θ\n0 = 2° for 1 mm thick grating or at θ\n0 = 10° for 2.01 mm grating thickness.
\nAngular selectivity (HWFZ) of reflecting volume grating with 99% diffraction efficiency at λ = 532 nm and n\n0 = 1.5 on spatial frequency for optimal refractive index modulation with grating thickness in 0.5 mm, 2 mm, 5 mm, and 10 mm.
By the same way as it was described above for angular selectivity, spectral selectivity could be expressed by substitution of Eqs. (26) and (28) to Eq. (25) at Δθ = 0:
\nThe HWFZ wavelength selectivity also could be considerably simplified for un-slanted gratings with diffraction efficiency of Eq. (29):
\n\n\nFigure 15\n shows dependence of wavelength selectivity on spatial frequency for different grating thicknesses. HWFZ wavelength selectivity of reflection volume grating could be easily varied from values below 0.1 nm to more than a dozen nm by proper choosing of grating parameters.
\nWavelength selectivity (HWFZ) of reflecting volume grating with 99% diffraction efficiency at λ = 532 nm and n\n0 = 1.5 on spatial frequency for optimal refractive index modulation with grating thickness in 0.5, 2, 5, and 10 mm.
HMD is a display device, worn on the head or as part of a helmet that has a small display optic in front of one or each eye. HMD has been widely used in virtual reality and augmented reality applications [23–25]. There are two main kinds of HMD: “curved mirror”-based HMD and “waveguide”-based HMD. The curved mirror HMD uses semi-reflective curved mirrors placed in front of the eye with an off-axis optical projection system. This system suffers from a high mount of distortion which needs to be corrected optically or electronically adding cost and reducing image resolution. Moreover, a small heavy “eye motion box” will be needed, which is uncomfortable and requires mechanical adjustment, further adding to cost. The waveguide HMD removed the side electronics and display using a waveguide; it reduces the cumbersome display optics and provides a fully unobstructed view of the scenes. Among the waveguide techniques, the holographic waveguide method focuses on the advantage of having a small volume, low price, and command of angular and spectral selectivity of optical elements. In this chapter, we will mainly talk about the holographic waveguide HMD based on HOE. Note that among a lot of types of recording materials, these holographic waveguide HMD techniques are utilized the photopolymer which is high-efficiency material and most widely used in various research fields. In addition, other HOE-based techniques which will be reviewed in next sections, section 3.2 and 3.3, also used the photopolymer.
\nAndo et al. proposed and fabricated an HMD using HOEs instead of half mirror [26]. The benefit of this system is that all functions of lens, combiner, and binocular stereoscopy can be kept within single HOE. However, this method has limited size reduction, because they did not use waveguide-type HMD. As shown in \nFigure 16\n, two small LCD displays are replaced in both sides of the head and prevent the reflection light from the HOE to the human eyes. The HOE was recorded in 120° of recording angle between an object beam and a reference beam. The binocular images are modulated by illumine light for reconstruction.
\nThe optical specification of HOE for binocular stereoscopy-type HMD.
Amitai et al. and Kasai et al. reported a monochrome eye display using a volume hologram or grating [27] as the optical combiner in front of the eyes on a waveguide [28, 29]. Although the size of the optics is minimized, this method did not yield high diffraction efficiency. Subsequently, full-color eyewear display was proposed by Mukawa et al. [30]. In this method, the issue of color uniformity should be solved. \nFigure 17\n shows the basic structure of the HOE for waveguide-type HMD. As shown in this figure, the system has three optical parts, the couple-in part, couple-out part, and waveguide plate. In couple-in part, an image is magnified by micro-display, and the light is refracted into the waveguide; then the light was reflected by the first HOE guided in the waveguide plate with the total internal reflection. In couple-out part, the guided light refracted by the second HOE projects the image to the observers.
\nA basic structure of the HOE for waveguide-type HMD.
Recently, Piao et al. proposed a reflection-type HOE with high diffraction efficiency for a waveguide-type HMD using a photopolymer and present a laminated structure method for fabricating full-color HOE [31]. A photopolymer is one of the hologram recording materials that has high diffraction efficiency and low cost. Furthermore, it does not require any chemical or wet processing after recording the holograms. As mentioned earlier, the photopolymer is applied in various fields such as optical elements, holographic storage, holographic display and so on. Piao et al. analyzed the optical characteristic of the photopolymer using three lasers operated at 473, 532, and 633 nm, respectively. \nFigure 18\n shows the efficiency of full-color HOEs: (a) combined structure, (b) three-layer laminated structure, and (c) two-layer composited structure.
\nEfficiency of the full-color HOEs for (a) combined structure, (b) three-layer laminated structure, and (c) two-layer composited structure.
In this experiment, the diffraction efficiencies of the photopolymer were more than 90% for each R, G, and B color that provides wide angular selectivity. And, the output efficiencies of full-color HOEs are 40%, 44%, and 42% for R, G, and B colors. The proposed method reduced the volume of the system by using photopolymer, and the system also has good color uniformity, brightness performance, and high diffraction efficiency. \nFigure 19\n shows the experimental results for the full-color HOEs which were fabricated using the proposed two-layer composited structure.
\nExperimental results (a) using full-color HOE for HMD system, (b) input image, and (c) output image.
However, based on the design configuration of the system, the thickness, weight, color uniformity, and field of view (FOV) issues of the system were not solved entirely.
\nAccording to the previous work, M. Piao et al. designed waveguide glass specifications for the HMD system in accordance with wedge-shaped waveguide design [32]. \nFigure 20\n is the designed waveguide structure. This system includes a lens positioned proximate to the micro-display and two reflection holographic volume gratings (HVGs) in HOEs attached on either side of a waveguide.
\nStructure of the wedge-shaped holographic waveguide wearable display.
Unlike the previous method [31], the both ends of waveguide are wedge-shaped by the certain angle and the HOEs are mounted onto the wedge-shaped sides. Structurally, the thickness of the waveguide can be reduced by a large angle of total internal reflection. In addition, the wide angular selectivity of the HVGs allows for a large FOV, and the narrow spectral selectivity can be used with broad spectral sources, such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs). By observing the optical path of light in the waveguide, they theoretically analyzed the angular and spectral selectivity of the HVG, presented the correlation of the spatial frequencies of the HVG with the slope of the wedge-shaped waveguide, and determined the specific waveguide structure. According to the Bragg condition, Kogelnik’s theory [21], their experiment shows θ\n1 = 40∘ and θ\n2 = 30∘ are suitable for recording the incident angle of the HVGs (\nFigure 21\n), which were attached on both sides of the wedge-shaped waveguide, because the large total internal reflection angle leads to a thin waveguide design.
\nDesigned angle of the light path in the waveguide.
The fabricated holographic waveguide using a photopolymer was tested using the optical setup shown in \nFigure 22\n. To confirm the light path in the designed waveguide, each monochromatic holographic waveguide HMD system was investigated. And the plane wave of the three combined beams (633 nm, 532 nm, 473 nm) illuminated a reflection-type spatial light modulator (SLM).
\nExperimental setup for testing the fabricated wedge-shaped holographic waveguide using SLM. M, mirror; DM, dichroic mirrors; SF, spatial filter; L, collimating lens; and PBS, polarizing beam splitter.
The image illuminated by an LED captured by the demonstration system is shown in \nFigure 22\n. \nFigure 23(a)\n shows the original test image. Figure 23(b–d) shows each monochromatic HVG of the input image with accurately guided in the designed waveguide. \nFigure 23(e)\n shows that the results of the full-color HVG fabricated using a GBR sequential recording on one photopolymer layer with good quality. The image clearly was reproduced with a white color, the same as the ideal one shown in \nFigure 23(e)\n.
\nExperimental results captured from the wedge-shaped waveguide wearable display: (a) the original test image; output image fabricated by (b) 633 nm, (c) 532 nm, and (d) 473 nm; and (e) GBR sequential exposure in the DMD system.
In addition, they successfully fabricated a compact full-color HVG, which performed with high levels of optical efficiency, using one layer of photopolymer based on a color analysis of the HVG.
\nRecently, Yeom et al. proposed a bar-type waveguide 3D holographic HMD using HOE with astigmatism aberration compensation [33]. Here, a conventional bar-type waveguide HMD structure is used, and 3D holographic images are displayed in both SLMs without the accommodation-vergence mismatch. Also, the ray tracing based on the H. Kogelnik-coupled wave theory has been analyzed. Figures 24(a) and 24(b) show the simulated footprint image of in-coupling and out-coupling HOEs on the waveguide, respectively, where the light rays which come from the SLM are diffracted on the in-coupling HOE and go to the out-coupling HOE through the waveguide glass. When the light rays are transmitting between two HOEs, in-coupling and out-coupling, too much of distortion occurs due to the asymmetric diffraction of HOEs, i.e., the optical path length of the light ray experience in the waveguide. Naturally, this issue makes the astigmatism in the final images. In order to eliminate the distortion, a constant difference Δzparameter is added in the hologram generation process as the following:
\nFootprint of ray on the bottom side of the waveguide: (a) in-coupling HOE and (b) out-coupling HOE.
\n\nFigure 25\n shows the reconstructed image from the hologram which is applied in holographic compensation. \nFigure 25(a)\n shows the 3D image generated from the hologram without compensation; the aberration is visible. Then, in \nFigure 25(b)\n, the 3D image reconstructed from the hologram with compensation is presented. \nFigure 26(a)\n shows the experimental setup, and \nFigure 26(b)\n shows the combined visualization for real object and holographic images displayed on the HOE-based HMD.
\nReconstructed image of holographic compensation: (a) without compensation and (b) with compensation.
(a) Experimental setup and (b) real object and holographic images with the holographic compensation.
Integral image is one of the most attractive ways to create autostereoscopic 3D display providing real-time full parallax information without requiring special glasses [34]. However, integral image still has a problem with limitation of resolution, viewing angle, and depth of field. Among these, the narrow viewing angle is the main disadvantage. Several methods have been proposed to increase the viewing angle of integral imaging displays. Curved lens array and curved screen can be one solution, though the necessary physical configurations make these systems difficult to implement.
\nA wide-viewing-angle 3D display system using HOE lens array is proposed by H. Takahashi et al. where the system consists of a projector and HOE lens array [35]. Here, the main role of HOE lens array is virtual curved lens that each individual axis is not perpendicular to HOE plane. The basic procedure of the display system is that the elemental images are projected as parallel beams to the corresponding elemental lens areas; the HOE lens array reconstructs the 3D image. As mentioned above, the HOE lens array has manufactured that all of the transmitted light rays through the elemental lenses can be crossed onto the single point, similar with the curved-type lens array, so the viewing angle of reconstructed image is much wider than original object’s viewing angle acquired into the elemental images. \nFigure 27\n shows the schematic configuration of HOE lens array-based wide-viewing-angle 3D display system, where p is the pitch of elemental lens recorded onto HOE, r is the radius of virtual curvature of HOE lens array, and ψ is viewing angle of the reconstructed image.
\nThe scheme of HOE lens array-based 3D display system.
In the experiment, HOE lens array consists of 17 × 13 elemental lenses, as shown in \nFigure 28\n, where each of them is 4.4 × 4.4 mm, the focal length of the central elemental lens is 18.3 mm, and the radius of virtual curvature of HOE lens array, i.e., the distance from HOE lens array to reconstructed image, is 50 mm. Here, the viewing angle of central elemental lens is approximately 7° on each side of the individual axis, and the entire viewing angle of reconstructed image is much wider, approximately 35°, where the theoretical angle is 37°. Note that if the common lens array has been used in the reconstruction, the reconstructed image viewing angle would be approximately 7°, because the elemental lens axes are parallel with each other. Also, the HOE lens array reconstructs the flipped ray-free 3D images, and if the virtual curvature of HOE lens array is desired by 2D lens array configuration, the full viewing angle, horizontal and vertical, can be widened.
\nHOE virtual lens array in experimental system.
Recently, Hong et al. proposed a full-color 3D display on the basis of a projection-type integral imaging for the optical see-through AR by making use of a full-color lens-array HOE as the image combiner [36]. Here, the HOE lens array has been manufactured by the interference pattern which includes all of characteristics of the given common lens array recorded onto the photopolymer where the interference pattern is formed by spherical-wave-type object beam and plane-wave-type reference beam. The photopolymer is provided from Bayer MaterialScience AG, and the thickness of the photopolymer is 14–18 μm. Then, the wavelength multiplexing and spatial multiplexing methods in order to display the full-color virtual 3D images and record the large-sized HOE lens array are proposed [37]. \nFigure 29\n is showing the schematic diagram of experimental setup for recording the full-color lens-array HOE. And, experimental setup for displaying 3D virtual images in the proposed optical see-through AR system is shown in \nFigure 30(a)\n. \nFigure 30(b)\n shows the computer-generated elemental images of S, N, and U, which were used in experiment. They used a telecentric lens with the relay optics for collimated light of projection to avoid the Bragg mismatch.
\nThe schematic diagram of experimental setup for recording the full-color lens-array HOE.
(a) Experimental setup for displaying 3D virtual images in the proposed optical see-through AR system. (b) The elemental images for three characters (S, N, and U) projected on the lens-array HOE for 3D virtual imaging.
The collimated reference beam in the recording setup and the imaging device for a display setup should also project collimated light on the full-color lens-array HOE to avoid the Bragg mismatch.
\n\n\nFigure 31\n shows the results of see-though 3D virtual images captured in the display experiments from five different viewing points relative to the proposed optical see-though AR system. It is clearly confirmed that the disparities among the images captured from top, left, center, right, and bottom provided a binocular disparity and give a 3D perception to the observer.
\nPerspective see-through 3D virtual images of three characters (S, N, and U) with a real object cube for a background, which were captured from five different view positions in the display experiment.
Recently, HOEs have been studied for use in various solar applications to substitute optical mechanisms in solar concentrators [38–40]. The recording material of HOEs is usually flat and thin. It is possible to multiplex several holographic elements into the same material and collect solar energies with different incidence angles. Moreover, HOEs have the ability to diffract the light in a specific direction, and they also have the potential to provide angular or wavelength multiplexing. By applying the angular multiplexing method to the HOE recording, the angular multiplexing-based HOEs could act as the sun tracker. The HOEs that operate at specific wavelengths are able to diffract the desired specific wavelengths and remove other unwanted wavelengths, such as UV rays.
\nHOEs were suggested to be used in solar applications for the first time in 1982 [38]. The major attraction of holography is that it appears possible to make a holographic concentrator that has no moving parts and is able to track the daily movement of the sun and concentrate the sun’s rays onto an absorber. Afterward, a variety of designs have been suggested over the years [41, 42]. For example, it was demonstrated that a volume holographic lens allows a single-axis tracking over 55° angular variation [43, 44].
\nDesigns of multiplexed holographic lenses have been also proposed by Naydenova et al. [45]. Here, the multiplexed HOEs are recorded in the same photopolymer layer. \nFigure 32\n shows the optical setup for recording the holographic lens in the photopolymer plate with focusing lens. Then, the recorded HOE has the characteristic of focusing the light in the recording direction.
\nA schematic configuration of experimental setup for recording a holographic lens.
For focusing the light from the multiple directions, a schematic configuration for recording multiplexed HOEs is illustrated in \nFigure 33\n. The reference beam reflects the light in five different mirrors to record the multiplexed transmission gratings with the object beam. The object beam and the different reference beam are recorded by adjusting the photopolymer material to bisect the inner beam angle. By variability of exposure time and intensity, the multiplexed HOEs can obtain optimum diffraction efficiencies.
\nA schematic configuration of experimental setup for recording multiplexed HOEs.
Recently, the angular multiplexed holographic solar condensing lens has been proposed by J. H. Lee et al. [46]. In order to combine the solar concentrator and sun tracking functions in a single photopolymer, a convex lens was used as a recording object while multiplexing the incident beams of three angles. Generally, the performance of a HOE is determined by the diffraction efficiency. The diffraction efficiency is defined as the ratio of the intensity of the diffraction beam to the sum of the intensity of diffraction beam and transmission beam. However, it is difficult for the diffraction efficiency to evaluate the performance of the HOE as a solar concentrator. Therefore, they newly suggest the concentrated diffraction efficiency (CDE) calculation method that uses an effective concentration rate (ECR). ECR is a metric measure, i.e., already proposed for measuring the concentration rate of the solar concentrator. The ECR was calculated from the equation
\nwhere η\n\nopt\nis the optical efficiency which is the ratio of condensed light intensity to incident light intensity and R\n\nc\n is the geometric concentration rate which is the ratio of area of incident beam and condensed beam. The CDE, η\n\nc\n, is defined by ECR\n\nh\n of HOE and ECR\n\nl\n of the convex lens as follows:
\nEq. (2) shows the actual performance of the recorded HOE as a solar concentrator. \nFigure 34\n shows the schematic diagrams of the hologram recording for the solar concentrator. In this experiment, holograms are recorded by transmission geometry because it is advantageous for the HOE solar concentrator.
\nSchematic diagrams of the transmission hologram for the HOE solar concentrator on the photopolymer film.
In solar concentrator systems, the sun tracking systems are necessary owing to the movement of the planet. In order to realize the effective sun tracking system, an interval within 10 am–2 pm is widely used, as shown in \nFigure 35\n. This scheme shows the schematic diagram that condenses the light coming from three different angles to a fixed single point. Note that the interval degrees between each angle are decided as 10° because it matches the movement interval of the sun at 10 am–2 pm.
\nSchematic diagram for angular multiplexed holographic solar concentrator.
The iterative recording method is used to improve efficiency and uniformity. The iterative method is applied to make holograms through repetitive exposure in one photopolymer that each of the N holograms is recorded with a series of short exposure time within the material’s saturation time. At 0.5 second, 0.25 second and 0.125 second of the exposure time and from twice to six times of the iteration number were applied. And, the order of recording is A, B, and C. This schedule is laid out with consideration of saturating condition. And, the result is shown in \nFigure 36\n. It shows the possibility of increasing the efficiency by using iterative recording method.
\nResult of iterative recording at 0.25 seconds of exposure time.
HOE is an optical device able to include a variety of features in a transparent thin film or plastic. The biggest advantage of HOE is that the traditional optical element or the multifunctional devices which does not exist can be produced on single HOE. Therefore, it is investigated in various fields, such as optical device, communication, and display. Nowadays, the usage of 2D holographic projection screen is increased in advertisement, performance, AR fields, and so on, and the development trend of holographic 3D screen is turned into HMD from 3D TV. It has been certified that the HOE is much useful and an effective technique especially for simplified optical systems. In order to develop the HOE more practical and applicable, the manufacturing system for recording medium and the lossless replication technology for mass production are required. However, only few materials that are applicable in replication technology are suggested, and the perfect solution for replication technology has not been completed yet. Therefore, the medium recording and replication technology should be developed continuously, and the main issues of the full-color HOE, color uniformity, and chromatic aberration need more researches.
\nThis research was supported by the Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning (MSIP), Korea, under the Information Technology Research Center (ITRC) support program (IITP-2016-R0992-16-1008) supervised by the Institute for Information & communications Technology Promotion (IITP).
\nBiofilms are the aggregation of microbial cells, which are associated with the surface in almost an irreversible manner, i.e. cannot be removed by gently rising [1]. They are attached with a biotic or abiotic surface integrated into the matrix that they have produced [2]. An accustomed biofilm provides favorable conditions for genetic material mobility between the cells and has a defined architecture. It is also reported that these surface-associated microorganisms possess definite phenotype with reference to growth rate and gene transcription [1].
\nThe credit of discovery of microbial biofilm can be given to Van Leeuwenhoek who, with his simple microscope first observed the microorganisms on tooth surface [1].
\nA biofilm may be composed of one microbial species or many microbial species found on a variety of living or nonliving surfaces. However, mixed species biofilms form the majority in most of the environments and single species biofilms host the surface of medical implants and hence being the reason of infections.
\nThe initiation of biofilm formation have some requirements as the bacteria must be capable of attaching itself to and moving on the surface, detecting their cell density and ultimately to form a 3-D mesh of cells enclosed by exo-polysaccharide [3]. There is also an important role of cell membrane proteins, extracellular polysaccharides and signaling molecules [2] (\nFigure 1\n).
\nStages of biofilm development.
\nStep1. Attachment: Conditioning layer is formed which have a loose collection of carbohydrates and proteins which gets unite with minerals in hard water. It attracts the microbial cells to get attached with the surface.
\n\nStep2. Irreversible attachment: As soon as conditioning layer formed, electrical charge accumulates on the surface which attracts the bacteria having opposite charge that result in irreversible attachment of microbial cells. The charges are sufficiently weak that microorganisms could be easily removed by the mild cleanser and sanitizers.
\n\nStep3. Proliferation: In this phase, bacteria get attached to the surface as well as with each other by secreting EPS (an extracellular polymeric substance) that entraps the cells within a glue-like matrix.
\n\nStep4. Maturation: The biofilm environment consists of the nutrient-rich layer which supports the rapid growth of microorganisms. Complex diffusion channels are present in a mature biofilm to transport nutrients, oxygen and other components required for bacterial growth and removes waste products and dead cells [4, 5].
\n\nStep5. Dispersion: It is the process of dispersal of biofilm in which actively growing cells gradually sheds daughter cells [1]. Because as long as fresh nutrients are kept providing, biofilm continues to grow and when they get nutrient deprived, they return to their planktonic mode by detaching themselves from the surface [3]. This process probably happens to allow bacterial cells to get sufficient nutrients [2]. There is also a possibility of the detachment process to be species-specific as Pseudomonas fluorescence recolonizes surface after approx. 5 hours, Vibrio harveyi after 2 hours and Vibrio parahaemolyticus after 4 hours [1].
\nBiofilm is primarily composed of bacterial micro-colonies which are nonrandomly distributed in a shaped matrix or glycocalyx [6]. Mostly, these micro-colonies are rod-like or mushroom-shaped or they can have one or more types of bacteria. Based on bacteria type, the composition of micro-colonies contains 10–25% (by volume) of microbial cells and 79–90% (by volume) of the matrix [2, 6]. Extensive bacterial growth assists in the rapid formation of visible layers of microbes accompanied by excretion of EPS in an abundant amount [6]. At bottom of most of the biofilms, a dense layer of microorganism is bound together in polysaccharide matrix with other organic and inorganic components. The successive layer is highly irregular and loose and may extend into surrounding medium [6].
\nThese are present in between the micro-colonies which act as the simple circulatory system for distributing nutrients and receiving harmful metabolites [2].
\nExopolysaccharide which is produced by the bacteria, are the major component of a biofilm. It constitutes about 50–90% of the total organic matter in a biofilm [6]. It is mainly composed of polysaccharides, some of which may neutral or polyanionic in case of Gram-negative bacteria or cationic as in case of Gram-positive bacteria. The anionic property of polysaccharide is confirmed by the presence of uronic acids (such as D-glucuronic, D-galacturonic, and mannuronic acids) or ketal-linked pyruvate. This anionic property plays an important role in the association of divalent cations like calcium and magnesium that have been shown to provide greater binding force in developed biofilm by cross-linking with polymer strands [1]. Along with the polysaccharide (which constitutes 1–2% of EPS), EPS also contains proteins [<1–2% (including enzymes)], DNA (<1%), RNA (<1%) as well as some lipids and humic substances [7].
\nThe microbial genetics and the environment in which bacteria grows are the determining factors for the composition of a biofilm. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus intermedius, Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus are the species in which eDNA was initially observed.
\nOne of the common mechanism by which eDNA is released is Autolysis. Released eDNA plays an important role in the development of the biofilm, biofilm structure stabilization as well as in gene transfer mechanisms. This genetic transfer is responsible for spreading of virulence and antibiotic resistance genes in circulating strains exposed to the selective pressure of medical treatment. Streptococcus pneumonia and related Streptococci are a good example of this [8].
\nIn a biofilm, rendering biofilm becomes ten to thousand times less prone to several antimicrobial agents than the same planktonic culture grown bacterium. As an example, it has been seen that there is an increase of 600-fold concentration in sodium hypochlorite (an oxidizing biocide that is counted in most effective antibacterial drugs) for killing biofilm cells of Staphylococcus aureus as compared with its planktonic form [9]. Moreover, as compared to planktonic form, bacteria in biofilms shows a discrete physiology like reduced metabolic rate and enhanced cell to cell communication which helps in developing resistance to antibiotics or reduce their effects [10]. In the attempt to describe the resistance of biofilms to antibiotics, three assumptions have been made:
Slow or partial diffusion of antibiotics into inner layers of biofilm. This is due to EPS matrix which has biofilm entrenched bacteria, act as a diffusive barrier [2].
In the biofilm microenvironment, some microbial cells fall into a state of slow growth or starvation due to nutrient limitation or accumulation of harmful metabolites. These are not vulnerable to many antimicrobial agents [2, 11].
The differentiation of a bacterial subpopulation resembles the process of spore formation. It has a distinctive and highly resistance phenotype (a biologically programmed response to bacterial sessile life form) that protects them from antibacterial effects [2].
Presence of neutralizing enzymes also contributes to the antibiotic resistance in the biofilm. These proteinaceous enzymes degrade or inactivate antibiotics by mechanisms like hydrolysis and modification of antimicrobials by different biochemical reactions [7].
\nAlthough, intensive and insistent treatment of antibiotic is effective in reducing the biofilm and controlling the exacerbations of chronic biofilm infections but are not able to eliminate biofilm infections it is possibly because the minimal concentration of antibiotic (required to eliminate a mature biofilm) is challenging to reach in vivo. Hence, if a bacterial biofilm infection is established, it becomes much difficult to eradicate [12].
\nExperimental studies suggested that in most of the cases antibiotic treatment alone is not sufficient to eliminate infections of biofilm [12]. In a study, a nanoparticle called ciprofloxacin-loaded poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid), that were functionalized with DNase I, were prepared to observe their antibiofilm activity against P. aeruginosa biofilms. It has been found that they release ciprofloxacin in a controlled manner, as well as they effectively target and disassemble the biofilm by degrading the extracellular DNA that stabilizes the EPS [10]. Biofilm combination therapy is usually recommended for treating biofilm infections as this is found to be substantially better than antibiotic monotherapy [12].
\nA number of factors such as substratum effects, hydrodynamics and various properties of cell surface play an important role in microbial attachment [1].
\nAs the surface roughness increases microbial colonization increases because as the roughness increases, surface area increases and shear forces get diminished. And considering extent and rate of attachment, it has been seen that microorganisms get attached to more rapidly to hydrophobic and nonpolar surfaces as Teflon and other plastics rather than to glass and other materials having hydrophilic properties.
\nWhen a material surface gets exposed to any aqueous medium, it gets immediately coated with polymers from that surface or become conditioned. The coating or film is found to be organic in nature formed within minutes of exposure. The nature of these films is found to be quite different for surfaces exposed in the human host. As an example, “acquired pellicle,” a proteinaceous conditioning film, develops on tooth enamel surface. A pellicle is composed of glycoprotein, lysozymes, phosphoproteins, albumin, lipids and gingival crevice fluid. Oral cavity bacteria get adhered within hours of exposure to this pellicle conditioned surface.
\nThe hydrodynamic flow layer is the zone of negligible flow which is found at the immediately adjacent to the substratum/liquid interface. The flow velocity of this zone is negligible and its thickness is inversely proportional to the linear velocity. Substantial mixing or turbulence is the main characteristics shown by the region outside the boundary layer. The hydrodynamic boundary layer can considerably affect the interaction between cells and substratum. The velocity characteristic of the liquid governs the association of cells with the submerged surfaces. At, very low linear velocities, the cells must navigate through the hydrodynamic boundary layer, and cell size and cell motility govern its association with the surface. The boundary layer decreases, as the velocity increases and cells will be exposed to progressively larger turbulence and mixing. Therefore, higher linear velocities would be supposed to form a more rapid association with the surface, at least until velocities become high enough to apply abundant shear forces on the attaching cells, that results in detachment of these cells [1].
\nCharacteristics of the aqueous medium such as temperature, pH, nutrient level and ionic strength possibly play an important role in attachment of microbes with the substratum. As an example, it has been found that the attachment of Pseudomonas fluorescens to glass surface is affected by an increase in the concentration of several cations (sodium, calcium, lanthanum, ferric iron), perhaps by reducing the repulsive forces between the negatively charged bacterial cells and the glass surfaces.
\nThe rate and extent of adherence of microbes depends on the properties of cells like cell surface hydrophobicity, as hydrophobic interactions tend to increase with an increasing nonpolar nature of one or both involved surfaces and adhesion increases with increase in hydrophobicity, presence of fimbriae and flagella as fimbriae contribute to cell surface hydrophobicity probably by overcoming the initial electrostatic repulsion barrier that exists between the cell and substratum and production of EPS. EPS might be hydrophobic, although mostly they are both hydrophilic and hydrophobic. Numerous bacterial EPS have the backbone of 1,3- or 1,4-β-linked hexose residues and tend to be less deformable, more rigid and inadequately soluble or insoluble in specific cases although other EPS molecules may be water soluble. Researches also showed that different organisms produce different amounts of EPS and the amount of EPS increases with age of the biofilm. Antimicrobial resistance properties in the biofilm are possibly mediated by the EPS by impeding the mass transport of antibiotics through the biofilm, which might be by binding directly to these agents [1]. EPS formation is an essential part of biofilm formation as studies on Staphylococcus epidermidis have shown that if genes responsible for the synthesis of EPS matrix are inactivated then bacteria lose the ability to form biofilm [2].
\nDifferent environmental factors affect the biofilm formation; listed below:
\nIt has been shown by studies on Listeria monocytogenes that an optimum level of phosphate is very important for biofilm formation and gets stimulated by the presence of carbohydrates mannose and trehalose.
\nPresence of oxygen regulates Biofilm formation in Escherichia coli. In the absence of sufficient oxygen supply biofilm does not form as bacteria could not adhere to the substrate surface.
\nEnvironmental pH effects were observed by studying on Vibrio cholerae. Optimal pH for multiplication of V. cholerae is 8.2 and below pH 7 i.e., in acidic environment the bacteria lose their ability to form biofilm as they lose mobility.
\nOn the other hand, bacteria like S. epidermidis and E. coli do not need an alkaline environment for multiplying hence they easily form a biofilm on urethral catheters where urine pH is acidic.
\nWhen temperature was kept high, L. monocytogenes did not form biofilm as the bacteria wasn’t able to adhere itself to the substrate surface [2].
\nBesides infecting the industrial pipelines, waste water channels, oral cavity, ventilators, catheters, and medical implants, they are a major cause of human diseases [11]. Infections and diseases in humans are mostly due to development of biofilm on or within indwelling implants or devices such as contact lenses, bio prosthetic and mechanical heart valves, pacemakers, intra-arterial and intravenous catheters, central venous catheters, peritoneal dialysis catheters, urinary catheters, joint prosthesis, voice prosthesis, penile prosthesis, ureteral stents, biliary stents, endotracheal tubes, nephrostomy tubes, intrauterine contraceptive devices (IUDs) [13, 14]. A biofilm may be composed of gram-positive or gram-negative microorganisms which may arise from the skin of a patient, health worker, tap water or any other environmental source [5].
\nBiofilm growth usually was seen in the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients causing chronic bronchopneumonia, in the middle ear in patients with chronic and secretory otitis media, in chronic rhino sinusitis, in chronic osteomyelitis and in chronic wounds [15]. Infections and then diseases occur because of these two reasons: (a) Implantation of any medical device cause tissue damage which attracts platelets and fibrin accumulation at the site of the attachment. The damaged tissue aids in colonizing the microorganisms [13]. (b) Drug resistance and inflammation in host might get stimulated by biofilm formation which results in sustained infections [16] (\nTable 1\n).
\nGram-positive microorganisms | \nSite of infections and diseases | \n
---|---|
Acidogenic gram-positive cocci (e.g. Streptococcus) | \nDental caries | \n
Gram-positive cocci (e.g. Staphylococci) | \nMusculoskeletal infections | \n
Group A Streptococci\n | \nNecrotizing fasciitis | \n
Viridans Group Streptococci\n | \nNative valve endocarditis | \n
\nS. epidermidis and S. aureus\n | \nSutures, exit sites and arteriovenous shunts | \n
\nS. epidermidis, E. faecalis\n | \nUrinary catheter cystitis | \n
\nS. epidermidis, S. aureus, Corynebacterium species, Micrococcus species, Enterococcus species, Candida albicans, Group B Streptococci\n | \nIUDs | \n
\nC. albicans, S. epidermidis\n | \nHickman catheter | \n
\nS. epidermidis, S. aureus, E. faecalis, C. albicans\n | \nCentral venous catheter | \n
\nViridans Streptococci, Enterococci\n | \nMechanical heart valves | \n
\nHemolytic Streptococci, Enterococci\n | \nOrthopedic devices | \n
\nS. epidermidis, S. aureus,\n | \nPenile prosthesis | \n
\nGram-negative microorganisms\n | \n\nThe site of infections and diseases\n | \n
Nontypable strains of Haemophilus influenzae\n | \nOtitis media | \n
\nE. coli (enteric bacteria) | \nBiliary tract infection, bacterial prostatitis | \n
\nP. aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepacia\n | \nCystic fibrosis pneumonia | \n
\nPseudomonas pseudomallei\n | \nMelioidosis nosocomial infections | \n
\nKlebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis\n | \nUrinary catheter cystitis | \n
\nK. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa\n | \nCentral venous catheter | \n
\nProteus mirabilis, Bacteroides species, P. aeruginosa, E. coli\n | \nOrthopedic devices | \n
Different infections and involved microorganisms [11].
Commonly found organisms on catheter biofilm are S. epidermidis, S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, C. albicans, P. aeruginosa, and E. faecalis. These might get emerged from patient’s skin microflora, exogenous microflora from health-care personnel, or infected infusates. It has been reported that inner lumen of long-term catheters (30 days) and an external surface of short-term catheters (<10 days) has more biofilm formation. Microbial growth may depend on the nature of fluid delivered through a central venous catheter, as it has been seen that gram-negative microorganisms grow well in the intravenous fluid than gram-positive organisms [17].
\nMany studies have been done to control or avoid biofilm formation in these devices. Few remarkable results are:
It has been found in a research that microbial colonies of the left arterial catheter can be eliminated by addition of sodium metabisulfite to the dextrose-heparin flush.
Less colonization was seen on catheters coated with minocycline and rifampin than those coated with chlorhexidine and silver sulfadiazine [5].
Microorganisms like S. epidermidis, S. aureus, Streptococcus species, Gram-negative bacilli, diphtheroids, Enterococci and Candida species develop biofilm on the components of mechanical heart valves and surrounded heart tissues, which lead to a condition called prosthetic valve endocarditis. Also, it more often develops on the tissue surrounding the prosthesis or on the sewing cuff fabric that attaches a device to the tissue than on the valve itself. The source of the microorganism somehow tells its identity as, if it gets originate from an invasive process like dental work then it possibly belongs to Streptococcus species or it also might get originated during surgery (early endocarditis, mainly due to S. epidermidis) or from an indwelling medical device.
\nTo prevent initial attachment of the microbes, anti-microbial agents are provided during valve replacement or any invasive process like dental work. It has also been found out that less inflammation was caused when silver coated sewing cuff of St. Jude mechanical heart valve was implanted than an uncoated one [5, 17].
\nOrganisms which develop biofilm on these devices are S. epidermidis, E. faecalis, E. coli, Proteus mirabilis, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumonia and other Gram-negative organisms [17]. These catheters are tubular latex or silicone devices that are inserted via urethra into the bladder. It may be of an open system in which catheter drains into an open collection center or close system in which it vacates into a securely fastened bag. In open system, catheter gets quickly contaminated and chances of UTI (Urinary Tract Infection) are much more than in closed system. The chances of microbes to develop biofilm and hence causing UTI is more as long as the catheter remains on its place as it has been found out that approximately 10 to 50% of the patients undergoing short-term catheterization (up to 7 days) and around all the patients undergoing long-term catheterization (>30 days) gets infected with UTI [5].
\nIt has been shown in studies that hydrophobicity of both organism and surface is responsible factors for microbial attachment on the catheter as a wide range of microbial colonies are found to be attached on the catheter’s surface which displays both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions [17]. Bacterial attachment is also enhanced by an increase in urinary pH and ionic strength by divalent cations (Mg and Ca). Urease is produced by some of the organisms of this biofilm which is responsible for hydrolyzing the urea to ammonium hydroxide. As a result, pH at the biofilm-urine interface gets higher, which causes precipitation of minerals such as struvite and hydroxyapatite. These biofilms having mineral components form encrustations which can completely block the catheter’s inner lumen [5].
\nSeveral approaches have been done to control biofilm formation on urinary catheters like the use of antimicrobial ointments and lubricants, bladder instillation, antimicrobial agents in collection bags, impregnation of catheters by silver oxides like antimicrobial agents or systemic antibiotics. Also, biofilm of many Gram-negative microorganisms can be reduced by exposing to mandelic acid in combination with lactic acid [17].
\nMicrobes get readily attached to the surface of both type of contact lenses i.e. soft contact lenses and hard contact lenses (differentiated according to the material used, design, wear schedule and frequency of disposal). Nature of substrate, water content, polymer composition, electrolyte concentration and type of bacterial strains governs the degree of adherence of microbes to the lenses. The storage case of a lens has been implicated as the primary source of contamination [5].
\n\nStaphylococcus, Serratia and Pseudomonas are some most common bacterial species obtained in contact lenses. Staphylococci are found affiliated with contact lens induced peripheral ulcer, blepharitis and conjunctivitis while Serratia and Pseudomonas species known to contribute in corneal inflammation and infection [18].
\nThe tail part of IUDs which is made up of a plastic microfilament surrounded by nylon sheath is possibly the primary source of infection. Microorganisms that contaminate IUDs are Lactobacillus plantarum, S. epidermidis, C. albicans, S. aureus, species of Corynebacterium, Enterococcus species [5].
\nDental biofilms, commonly known as plaque are the most studied biofilm in human. It involves hundreds of species of bacteria. Some significant microbes include Porphyromonas gingivalis, Bacteroides forsythus, Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Treponema denticola, and a number of Streptococci including Streptococcus mutans [11].
\nAfter a good oral wash or dental cleaning, the tooth enamel acquires a coating called as pellicle which is composed of various proteins and glycoproteins of host origin. Then with the help of adhesion molecules and pilli, first Streptococci then Actinomycetes colonizes the teeth surface. Bacterial cells start interacting with each other on the pellicle and a number of Streptococci and related organisms starts synthesizing insoluble glucan via glucan binding protein. After few successive colonization with few more organisms, demineralization of tooth enamel starts (which leads to caries) by the acids which are produced by fermentation of the dietary sucrose and other carbohydrates [11].
\nThis condition arises due to the interaction between bacteria, vascular endothelium and generally of mitral, aortic, tricuspid and pulmonary valves of the heart. The organisms responsible for these conditions are species of Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Pneumococci, Candida, Aspergillus, and some Gram-negative bacteria, which get access to the blood stream via the oropharynx, gastrointestinal, and urinary tract. When the intact endothelium gets damaged, microbes adhered to it and as a result nonbacterial endocarditis (NBTE) develops at the site of injury and thrombus (accumulation of platelets, fibrin, and red blood cells) formed [13]. Fibronectin which has been found as a thrombotic lesion of the heart valve can simultaneously bind to fibrin, collagen, human cell and bacteria. Fibronectin receptors are found in many bacterial species like Staphylococcus and Streptococcus [5].
\nMany antibiotic therapies are suggested depending on the organisms involved as Penicillin is recommended for normal treatment of Streptococcal endocarditis and for synergistic killing gentamycin may be supplemented. Fluconazole can successfully terminate the effect of Candida endocarditis [5].
\nIt is a condition of chronic ear infection caused due to inflammation of mucoperiosteal lining [5]. In the middle ear cavity, fluid gets accumulated which ultimately affects speech development and learning capability of the patient. However, its complete etiology is still under research [7]. Various organisms responsible for otitis media include S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, S. epidermidis, P. aeruginosa, etc. As due to limited penetration of antibiotic, its low concentration is present in middle ear fluid, hence strong antibiotics like amoxicillin, cefaclor, erythromycin, and clarithromycin are needed for combating otitis media [5].
\nProstatitis is the inflammation of the prostate gland which possibly occurs due to the microorganisms that have ascended from the urethra or by the reflux of infected urine into prostatic ducts which vacates into the posterior urethra. Once the microbe gets entered in the prostatic duct, they start multiplying rapidly and can form sporadic micro-colonies and biofilms which gets adhered to the epithelial cells of the system of ducts. Microbes responsible for this infection are E. coli, P. aeruginosa, species of Klebsiella, Proteus, Serratia, Bacteroides, etc. [5].
\nCystic Fibrosis is a chronic bacterial infection of intrapulmonary airways with P. aeruginosa [19]. Its consequences include thickening of mucus in many body systems which results in impaired mucociliary clearance of microorganisms and chronic infection in lungs. The infection gets punctuated by acute aggravation of disease and inflammation which will lead to lung failure and premature death [20]. According to the genetic etiology, one out of more than 1500 potential mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene results in its malfunction, as a result sodium absorption is inhibited through epithelial sodium channel. And due to hyper-absorption of water, airway surface liquid gets depleted, mucociliary clearance get depleted and inhaled bacteria are allowed to remain within airway [20, 21].
\nMicroscopic studies of sputum samples and lung tissue section have shown the presence of biofilm or micro-colonies in the airways. These biofilms are able to grow larger than 100 μm in diameter [22]. Some common cystic fibrosis pathogens include S. aureus, H. influenzae and ultimately predominant one P. aeruginosa [20, 21]. P. aeruginosa has some adaptive mechanisms which make it survive and persist for several decades in CF patient’s respiratory tract. Biofilm adaptation of P. aeruginosa makes it resistant to antibiotic therapy and inflammatory defense mechanism. This also makes it survive in different conditions like whether it is aerobic respiratory zone or the conductive zone of the lungs which have anaerobic sputum or the paranasal sinuses where mucus too has a lower concentration of oxygen [15].
\nEarly antimicrobial treatment (i.e. during early colonization period of microbes) for preventing chronic infection of P. aeruginosa may give a possibility for successful treatment of cystic fibrosis, as this chronic infection may postpone for several years by giving an early treatment with ciprofloxacin and colistin [5, 22].
\nPeriodontitis is the infection of supporting tissues of teeth, gums (gingiva) and periodontal tissues (gingiva, alveolar bone, and periodontal ligament). Its chronic form may lead to exfoliation of teeth. The primary site of periodontitis is sub gingival crevice which is the channel between the tooth root and the gum. Organisms responsible for this infection are Fusobacterium nucleatum, Peptostreptococcus micros, Eubacterium timidum, E. brachy, Pseudomonas anerobicus, and predominate one P. gingivalis. They can easily colonize the surface of the oral cavity which helps them in invading mucosal cells, altering calcium flux in epithelial cells and in releasing toxins. As a result, plaque (a climax biofilm community) is formed within 2–3 weeks. Calculus or tartar is the mineralized plaque which acts as a resistance against the antimicrobial activity of saliva in protecting tooth enamel, as a consequence of which dental carries and periodontal diseases occurs [5].
\nDental plaque or biofilm cannot be eliminated, only their pathogenic nature can be minimized by minimizing the bioburden and effectively maintain a normal oral flora via oral hygiene methods [6, 23].
\nOsteomyelitis is an inflammatory bone disorder characterized by infection in bone/bone marrow which leads to necrosis and bone destruction [24, 25]. When complex multi-resistant biofilm has established, treatment of osteomyelitis becomes more challenging. Due to increased bacterial resistance to antibiotics in biofilm mode, they cause persistent infections. It has been found that in more than 50% osteomyelitis cases, causative organisms are S. aureus and S. epidermidis [24].
\nAlthough, endoprostheses which are found to be an increasingly common source of infection, surgically implanted devices or other implants like orthopedic internal fixation devices also represents a remarkable risk factor for the development of osteomyelitis. Stainless steel, titanium, titanium alloys are most commonly used materials in implants in which stainless steel is found to be associated with greater infection rate as compared to titanium. A possible reason of this is might be that soft tissues get firmly adhered to a titanium-implant surface while a fibrous capsule is formed enclosing a liquid filled space around the steel implants. This un-vascularized space is less accessible to host defense mechanisms where bacteria can multiply and freely spread. Studies showed that S. aureus and S. epidermidis adhesion to the surface can be reduced by the use of coatings based on human proteins such as albumin or human serum. Coatings of poly(1-lysine)-grafted-poly(ethylene glycol) (PLL-g-PEG) when extensively studied for use in biomedical applications, it has been found to be highly effective in reducing the absorption of blood serum, blood plasma and single proteins like fibrinogen and albumin. Fibroblast and osteoblast cell adhesion get remarkably reduced by spreading of metal oxide surface coated with PLL-g-PEG in comparison to uncoated surfaces [25].
\nWe pride ourselves on our belief that scientific progress is generated by collaboration, that the playing field for scientific research should be leveled globally, and that research conducted in a democratic environment, with the use of innovative technologies, should be made available to anyone.
\n\nWe look forward to hearing from individuals and organizations who are interested in new discoveries and sharing their research.
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