Comparative characteristics of ontogenesis of a sexual individual and a biological species.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3837",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Geochronology - Methods and Case Studies",title:"Geochronology",subtitle:"Methods and Case Studies",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Chronology is the backbone of history, and there is a wise saying stating there is no history without a chronology. 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The Universe consists of discrete entities: elementary particles, atoms, molecules, planets, stars, galaxies. That is there are a limited number of configurations of matter that are fairly stable and lasting, the intermediate ones being volatile. The Universe is structuralized. It means that the world components and the Universe itself resist chaos. They are far from thermodynamic equilibrium. They exist. The existence is resistance to chaos. Many will agree that thermodynamic equilibrium means death for a biological entity, but it is true for any system as well. It may sound funny today that the Darwinian natural selection, acting by accumulation of tiny heritable changes, was initially supposed to produce an even continuum of the living beings. This expectation was never corroborated. The creationists still keep using the absence of this continuum as evidence against biological evolution. But the biological world follows the same global principle: organisms, populations, species are discrete stable entities, the intermediate configurations being volatile. Biological evolution cannot retain and does not retain everything that randomly emerges. The existence of the Universe depends on the mutual affinity of its constituents, their ability to interact with each other, thus resisting the general aspiration for evenness. This is, however, only one side of the coin. The interaction should prevent the dissipation, but not more than this. Any existence implies a balance between two opposite forces – dissipating and compressing, repulsion and attraction. Too strong interaction leads to collapse, disappearance in singularity.
There are two major forms of existence: inanimate and animate. Any existence is not perpetual. The second law of thermodynamics predicts final dissipation or destruction in collapse of everything in the Universe. What is the dissipating force? Generally speaking, it is energy. Why does the Universe not dissipate immediately? The components of the Universe
It gets increasingly evident that life is not a physical process. It is not just extended physics and chemistry. It is absolutely different form of existence, the higher form. The swallow, building its nest in my shed near Moscow, flies to South Africa and returns strictly to the same shed every year. I hope nobody will try to calculate the probability of such event proceeding from the physical causality and stochasticity. It is evident that swallow knows the route, there and back. Just as I know the route from my home to my work and back. And this knowledge is only a trifling part of the total knowledge any organism enjoys. This total knowledge is knowledge how to reproduce itself. I beg pardon of those who cannot stand anthropomorphisms. Human beings are biological entities and they share many defining characteristics with other living entities (and vice versa). Knowledge is one of them.
The autocracy of physics ends at the border between the inanimate world and the biosphere, where the world of sense and knowledge begins, and behavior of matter becomes expedient. The words: knowledge, memory, coding, transcription, translation, function, signaling, recognition, decision-making, governing, creation, which are impossible and needless in describing inanimate nature, become not only acceptable but unavoidable in the description of living systems [4].
An organization is a complex system that can perform certain functions by virtue of its particular assemblage of parts [7]. Organized systems must be distinguished from the ordered ones. Neither system is random, but the ordered systems are generated according to a simple algorithm and therefore lack complexity, whereas the organized systems must be assembled element-by-element according to an external program or plan. Organization is complexity endowed with function. It is not random due to design or selection, rather than to the necessity of crystallographic order [8]. Living entities (cells, organisms, populations, and species), and only living entities Machines may also be organizations but they are human made creatures.
“Life is based on semiosis, i.e., on signs and codes” [9], and it cannot be adequately described by means of physics and chemistry. Everything essential in biology is determined not by physical causality but by semantic rules and goal-directed programs. This principle operates on all levels of biological organization. Coding is not limited by the coding of polypeptide sequence by the nucleotide sequence. The entire life cycle is carried out by sequential development of the organic codes and interpretation rules for stepwise self-manufacturing of the entity. In contrast to the objects of the inanimate world that come into being as a result of stochastic interactions, the living entities and their components are
We are used to think that all the entire stuffing of the Universe is presented by two interconvertible essences: energy and substance or matter. Latterly, several bold guys [6,9,12-17] started talking about the third fundamental essence – organic information, which is neither energy nor matter. It is an attribute of life and only life. I think the term “information” may not be the most suitable one. It may be confused with the homonym used in the information theory. Shannon’s information is devoid of meaning whereas the meaning is just what we are interested in in context of biology. Most importantly, “the third fundamental essence” is not just information but behavior, which includes internal and external signaling, their interpretation and implementation in the form of organization with a function of survival. I think adequate name for this third fundamental essence would be “mind”. Four fundamental physical interactions prevent immediate dissipation of the inanimate world yet they cannot explain existence of living entities. The living world resists chaos by means of
In inanimate nature, all the processes are directed from a less probable state to a more probable state: movement to equilibrium. Life is a movement to a low-probable state. It is a river flowing upward. A stone falling down from a mountain is an example of a physical process; an alpinist climbing up a mountain is an example of a biological process. It needs not only energy, but intention (will) and knowledge; it needs mind. The laws of physics are not violated during this "climbing up". Instead, they are harnessed by the goal-directed programs of life in such a way that low-probable, virtually impossible events become the most probable. Hence, life is a form of existence that differs radically from any form of inanimate existence.
A living entity may disappear for two reasons: it may die or it may change. In both cases the previous entity ceases its existence. To exist means to exist long. Biological species know how to exist long. This is a miraculous knowledge because living entities are improbably complex things. It is not complexity in itself that is miraculous but the fact that the biological complexity is
The basic form of the biological existence is a cell. Prokaryotic cell is a minimal biological entity. Though any separate thing may be named “entity” in English, it would be heuristically important to name living or biological entity only the organization with the function of survival. The components of a cell (proteins, nucleic acids, membranes, ribosomes, viruses and the like) possess only particular functions, so they are not
The eukaryotic cell is a much more complex entity. It appeared on the Earth about one billion years ago as a result of cooperation between several prokaryotic cells [22,23]. As such, they created the enormous and abundant world of unicellular eukaryotes.
The high complexity of the eukaryotic cells enabled further cooperation and appearance of multicellular organisms. The multicellular organism is a monad. Providing it is asexual, it is substantive entity (see below) that can reproduce itself acting alone.
It occurred that the higher multicellular organisms with large genomes and complex development fail to reproduce themselves reliably across generations. This impediment brought about further cooperation: creation of
In accord with the above definition of living or biological entity, I am going to use here the notions of “substantive” and “attributive” existence. Substantive existence implies autonomy and self-sufficiency of the entity in its reproduction and evolution. Substantive entity is a sovereign player on the stage of life. Attributive existence implies existence as a part of a higher rank entity (host). Its survival and evolution is causally linked to survival and evolution of the host. In case of asexuality, an organism is a substantive entity, whereas a sexual individual is an attributive entity that exists as a part of a higher rank entity – deme. The attributive existence is a ubiquitous form of biological existence. For example, hepatocytes are entities that exist as an attribute of the animal organisms. They represent a class of polyphyletic entities. Hepatocytes of the different animals are much more similar to each other than, for example, to neurons or any other cells of the same organism. While demonstrating transspecific “epigenetic consanguinity”, they reproduce and evolve as an attribute of the host and for the good of the host. Other good instances of the attributive existence are organelles (mitochondria, plastids). I find the concept of substantive and attributive existence useful for description and understanding of biological organization and evolution. In context of this book, it must be quite important to keep in mind that the existence of a sexual individual organism is attributive.
As was stated above, evolution of the Universe automatically leads to replacement of ephemeral forms with more lasting ones. This result is inevitable in the ever changing world. Inanimate entities are the most probable configurations of matter at a given situation; their lasting is provided by their physical durability that is provided by the balance of dissipation and attractive power. Organisms are low-probable configurations of matter; they are physically flimsy, extremely complex, low-entropy systems. They cannot withstand entropy growth perpetually. The homeostatic mechanisms cannot be absolutely perfect. They make errors and they lose their robustness. Absolutely perfect homeostasis would require infinite energy expenses. Organisms inevitably die even in the most favorable environment, in the absence of any competition, with an abundance of energy and substance. They perish because of entropy.
It looks like organism as a form of existence reached the thermodynamic limit and is unable to further improve its homeostatic facility. The accuracy of the cell processes is tuned to the point where it is optimal. Both too little and too much accuracy will adversely affect organismal vitality. The energy expenses are concentrated on fidelity of DNA reproduction. And it is really high: one incorrect nucleotide is incorporated only once in 108–1010 events. Transcription and translation proceed with a much lower fidelity, with misincorporation rates of 1 in 104 and 1 in 103–104, respectively [24,25]. With this error rate, significant proportion of newly made polypeptides contains amino acid substitutions [26]. And it is not the whole problem. All biopolymers and supramolecular structures are continuously damaged and the defects are accumulated with time. Accumulation of errors must have self-accelerating dynamics inevitably leading to catastrophe. Living systems bypass the catastrophe by means of reproduction. They reproduce to avoid death. Sometimes, single-cell organisms are referred to as immortal. It is misunderstanding. They also save themselves by reproduction [27]. Even for the apparently symmetrically dividing cells of Escherichia coli, it was shown that the two supposedly identical cells produced during division are functionally asymmetric. The old pole cell should be considered an aging parent repeatedly producing rejuvenated offspring [28].
A characteristic property of life is that its stability is dynamic. Living entities continuously change during lifespan. In essence, this changing is self-regeneration, self-manufacturing, self-renewal. This is the content of life. Organisms and generations of species continuously reproduce themselves through the time. They are transient, renewable forms of existence. The lasting forms of biological existence are lineages and species. An individual organism and a generation of species is a transient link in the existence of lineage or species.
The reproduction may be coupled with multiplication, with increasing the number of organisms. This expansion is an important but contingent factor of species survival. The essence of the reproduction is the replacement of an old, worn-out body by a new one. It may not and, in a standard situation, should not lead to the increasing of the number of organisms to avoid the resource exhaustion. The genuine evolutionary success is stable reproduction [4].
Why does the reproduction, a more complex phenomenon than the simple existence of the individual, prevent entropy from growing up? The point is that reproduction is always coupled with selection. Natural selection is a quality control of reproduction. Imperfect copies are rejected while novelties have a chance to be saved This saving is memorizing new knowledge.
Ideally, reproduction should be precise; otherwise, the goal of immortalization is not got. Template-directed synthesis was the first and major invention of nature, from which life itself started. It is clear that the precision of DNA replication must be such that most progeny received unaltered genetic information. The real fidelity of DNA replication is remarkably high [33]. For unicellular organisms, the attained fidelity of DNA replication is enough for potential immortality of the lineages. However, in multi-cellular organisms with large genomes and complex development, the number of mutations per genome per generation is unacceptably high, up to three orders of magnitude higher than, for example, in yeast [34-35]). I.e.,
Why did the replication fidelity not evolve to a higher level? The matter is that faithful replication is a costly process. High accuracy needs too much energy. It looks like a further increase in fidelity of genome reproduction was not possible. Hence, higher organisms have to be able to fulfill ontogenesis successfully, and species must be able to persist in time despite never-ending mutational perturbations. This problem has no solution in the frame of asexual (“homeogenomic”) lineages. They would rapidly degrade and become extinct or blurred out in the course of the reckless evolution.
Earlier [4], I discussed what other means, besides the high fidelity of genome replication and purifying selection, were invented by evolution to avert or evade the fatal outcome of the mutational deluge. The phenomenon of canalization or robustness [36,37] is directly related to the problem. Robustness is generally defined as a property that allows a system to maintain its functions despite external and internal perturbations. In case of biological systems, it is an ability to perform successful ontogenesis despite environmental and mutational perturbations. Robustness is the retaining of function (meaning) despite changes in structure and environmental impacts. The resources of robustness are derived from all levels of biological organization. Global degeneracy of the link between structure and function is one of the definitions of canalization: there are more genotypes than phenotypes. Function, not structure, is selected during evolution. Different genotypes may correspond to the same phenotype. This principle operates on various levels of biological organization, including operation of multiple pathways leading to the same final result. This is possible owing to the fact that biological processes are determined not by physical causality but by semantic rules and goal-directed programs. Simple organisms, reproducing their genomes with high fidelity, have rather simple semantics with relatively simple hermeneutics. The language of higher organisms is much more complex, with rich synonymy and complex, context-dependent, hermeneutics. This helps to provide resistance of development to mutational and environmental perturbations.
Nevertheless, we have to admit that for the higher organisms with large genomes and complex development all these salutary efforts have appeared insufficient: they fail to reproduce themselves reliably across generations. Their lasting needed another instrument. This instrument was sexual reproduction, the creation of
For a long time, the problem of emergence and maintenance of sexual reproduction attracted little attention from evolutionists. The matter probably seemed too obvious. No one doubted Weismann\'s idea that sexual reproduction, creating genetic variability, produces material for natural selection and enhances the evolutionary potential of the species. A possibility of the acceleration of evolution at amphimixis was quantitatively substantiated by Fisher [23] and H.J. Muller [24]. The conception of the evolvability is still popular among population geneticists. It is frequently assumed that the capability for rapid and diverse evolution is a positive trait supported by natural selection, while a shortage of the evolutionary potential is fraught with extinction. The notion of evolvability as a selectable trait is in evident contradiction to the known efforts of evolution aimed at creating genetic stability of organisms and lineages [2-4]. It is obvious that the evolvability cannot be easily taken as a species homeostatic mechanism. Direct selection for evolvability is impossible conceptually, so the transition to sexuality needs another explanation, independent of the evolvability. Though sexual reproduction and genetic recombinations are a source of combinative variation in populations, they do not produce new alleles but only new combinations of the extant ones, which are, moreover, doomed to be destroyed in the next generation. If to think that the sexual reproduction was invented for acceleration of evolution (Lamarckian thought, by the way) than the continuous shuffling of the genomes (heedless of their merits) looks more than strange. I think we should not assume special mechanisms for the acceleration of evolution created by evolution. These would be suicidal mechanisms. A species with accelerated evolution would not exist long. All the organisms populating our earth today belong to species resistant enough to further evolution. Evolution is inevitable because the systems created by evolution for protection against evolution, species homeostasis, are not absolutely perfect, and the entropy pressure overcomes them now and then. All the species are capable of evolving just because they originated from the ancestors that were capable of evolving and inherited their imperfection, their "original sin". It is hard to avoid evolution.
There is some complication in delineating the self-reproducing unit in case of sexual reproduction. Two individuals of different sexes are enough to produce progeny. But it is known that the stable reproduction needs a rather large interbreeding population – deme. Small populations have low robustness because of inbreeding that leads to considerable homozygotization. The homozygous individuals usually have a drastically reduced vitality, and the populations they form also have low robustness because of lack of polymorphism and weak genotypic plasticity. Small population size is fraught with the risk of extinction. On the other hand, a species may consist of many demes with rare interdeme genetic exchanges because of geographical impediments or habitual preferences. Different species have various forms of intraspecies organization and sexual relationships. So the borders of a self-reproducing unit must be of necessity fuzzy. In context of this paper, this complication seems not to be principal. All the existential advantages of sexual reproduction are fully realized on the level of deme at any form of sexual relationships. The rare interdeme genetic exchanges may complicate the picture for the evolutionary theorists but not change it principally. Though demes are not completely closed entities, they are closed enough to depend in their survival primarily on the merits of their own.
The early group selection models were flawed because they assumed that genes acted independently, whereas now it is apparent that gene interaction, and more importantly, genetically based interactions among individuals, were an important source of the response to group selection. As a result many are beginning to recognize that group selection is potentially an important force in evolution. So I will try to avoid here the painful discussion related to group selection. I limit myself by the statement that a unit of selection and a unit of substantive reproduction are strictly the same units, the same monads. The notorious replicator/interactor discrimination was invented to save the selfish gene theory which I regard as erroneous. There are two great delusions in the evolutionary theory: gene as an ideal replicator and individual organism as a quintessential unit of selection. Gene is not a substantive entity. I am not even sure that ontologically it is an entity at all because it is definitely not organization. It even lacks any defining characters of an autonomous thing. It is a product of cell activity, even if the very important product. Functionally, it is a piece of text that acquires meaning only in context of the whole organism. It is getting clear that the concept of a selfish gene is not based on real premises. The linkage "one gene - one trait - one selection vector" is not observed: one gene may affect several traits, and most traits depend on many genes [12]. On the other hand, a sexual individual is not a self-replicating entity either, so it cannot be selected as such. Organisms are unique, inimitable parts of species manufactured as piece-goods during species reproduction. The selective meaning of an individual organism is appreciated in context of population via inclusive fitness. Generation of deme is a minimal entity that reliably reproduces itself with a high fidelity (according to the Hardy-Weinberg law). Deme and species are ontologically comparable entities. They differ only in the size and degree of cohesiveness. So we may say that generation of species is a self-reproducing unit. In most contexts, I use “deme” and “species” as equivalent terms.
Thus, substantive sexual entity is a generation of deme or generation of species. The term “generation” may need some clarification. Deme (and species) is a lasting form of existence; generation is a transient (extant) form of a species existence. Now and here we deal only with generation. I think it is heuristically useful to keep in mind that actually living spatiotemporally restricted entity is a generation, not a lineage, which is in fact a historical phenomenon. A lineage could be even comprehended as existing only in our consciousness. However, there must be something more substantial, more existential in the lasing existence than our human perception of the historical reality. “The defining characteristic of a living organism is that it is the transient material support of an organization” [36]. This definition is fully applicable to a species generation as well. The material support is transient. But what is lasting? According to Merser, organization is lasting. I.e., mind is lasting. The knowledge how to reproduce itself is lasting. Exactly and only this knowledge is transmitted from generation to generation. And of course, this knowledge is not just DNA sequence. Only entire substantive entity is a carrier of this total knowledge, not only genes and brains. I would like to stress that the “material support” and the mind are not separate things like the hardware and software of a computer (organism is not a Turing machine) [16]. They are aspects of the same whole [17].
A real extant population may contain organisms of different age, from new-born to mature to old individuals (overlapping generation) or it may be more or less synchronous. The lifespan of a generation is equal to the average lifespan of individual organisms that comprise the generation. The extant entity is an individual organism in case of asexuality and a generation of deme in case of sexual reproduction. When we speak that a species lives million years we may mean that an entity very similar to the extant entity lived million years ago and it is directly connected with the extant entity via sequence of reproductions.
Sexual organisms are constituents of a higher rank entity – biological species. The transition to sexuality, like all other major evolutionary transitions, is cooperation. Individual organisms forfeited their ability to autonomous reproduction and autonomous evolution. They exist and evolve as a part of biological species. Their existence is attributive. The transition to sexuality is ascension to a new and a higher quality. Sexual population is a coherent system able to self-reproduction. Species reproduction should not be confused with speciation. Species reproduction is not formation of another (daughter) species. Reproduction is a way of species existence. The reproduction must be precise. In case of stably existing species, the reproduction is really precise. One generation may somewhat differ from another generation in accord with the environmental variations owing to a species’ genotypic plasticity and the phenotypic plasticity of the organisms. These changes are reversible manifestations of species robustness. They are not evolutionary changes [12]. By the same token, speciation is not species reproduction, not continuation of the given species. Speciation is a macroevolutionary event that should not be confused with the reproduction. Reproduction is an essentially conservative process. Reproduction is renewal of the same whereas speciation is creation of the new. Similar to a sexual organism, a species is unique: it emerges on one occasion in the history of biosphere and never appears again. Therefore, it is not correct to regard a species as a segment of a species level lineage, as is suggested by De Queiroz [39]. There are no “species level lineages” just as there are no “organism level lineages” in case of sexuality. Lineage is a sequence of generations. In its totality, it represents species ontogenesis [12]. Speciation is not a pre-programmed stage in the species existence. Speaking metaphorically, the species is never “interested” in speciation. For the extant species, begetting a “daughter” species means begetting a competitor. Note that allopatry is a precondition for survival of a new-born species [40].
Reproduction of asexual and sexual organisms differs in many respects (Table). Asexual organism (typically it is a cell) is a self-reproductive unit by itself. Its ontogenesis is relatively simple, typically, the way from the young cell to the mature cell. The reproduction is perfect. It is precise and reliable. Prokaryotic lineages seem to exist billions of years [21]. The ordinary (i.e. reductionistic) viewpoint ascribes this stunning longevity to the high fidelity of DNA replication. According to the ontologically right (holistic) viewpoint, a prokaryotic cell
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Founding | \n\t\t\tBy fusion if two gametes | \n\t\t\tUsually, by geographic or ecological isolation of a small group of the individuals of different sex (founder) | \n\t\t
Probability of abortion | \n\t\t\tLow | \n\t\t\tExtremely high | \n\t\t
Process of ontogenesis | \n\t\t\tIndividual development | \n\t\t\tMicroevolution | \n\t\t
Genetic basis | \n\t\t\tNon-evolving genome | \n\t\t\tEvolving gene pool | \n\t\t
Contents of the ontogenesis | \n\t\t\tEmbodiment of the ontogenetic intention. | \n\t\t\tCreation of species robustness | \n\t\t
Causal mode | \n\t\t\tTeleonomy. Downward causation. The final result is determined by ontogenetic intention (boundary conditions) within the limit of the norm of reaction of the genotype | \n\t\t\tGroup selection The final result is not determined. The process is limited by the initial conditions (historical constrains) and by a necessity to create perfect species organization | \n\t\t
Unit of self-reproduction | \n\t\t\tSelf-reproduction is impossible | \n\t\t\tGeneration of a deme | \n\t\t
General attractor | \n\t\t\tAdult organism | \n\t\t\tStasis (ceasing of evolution) | \n\t\t
Ending of ontogenesis | \n\t\t\tObligatory death (probably programmed) | \n\t\t\tExtinction. Potential immortality is not excluded | \n\t\t
Comparative characteristics of ontogenesis of a sexual individual and a biological species.
Many give an import to the fact that asexual organisms can exchange genetic material now and then. However, the biological sense of such exchanges is quite different. There is sex but no sexual reproduction. Asexual entities do not form biological species sensu Mayr-Dobzhansky, an entity of a higher rank. They have no need in this complication just because they reproduce themselves with high fidelity acting alone. If a mutated individual survives, it initiates a new lineage that may compete with the previous lineage and may swap it.
Metaphysics of a biological species as an individual is an intricate philosophical and epistemological problem and its discussion has rather long history [12,39-55]. Here, I am interested in the ontological aspect of the problem: species as a form of existence. As the basic definition of species, I take that of Ernst Mayr [49]: "Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups". Both traits “interbreeding” and “reproductively isolated” are obligatory.
Many, including me, regard biological species as an ontological individual. This view was clearly formulated by Michael Ghiselin [43]. Similar to an individual organism, a species has ontogenesis: birth, infancy, adolescence, maturity, aging, and death [12]. This lasting existence is carried out as a sequence of generations. This sequence is commonly known as microevolution that may be confusing because the essence of the species ontogenesis is not an evolution. In case of success, a species’ ontogenesis culminates in stasis (i.e. cessation of evolution) that may last dozens of millions of years and more [4]. Theoretically, the potential immortality cannot be excluded. Generation of deme is a self-reproducing entity. It means that generation of deme, not the deme, is the ontological individual. So a deme is equivalent to an asexual individual organism in its role in survival and creation of the lasting entity, which is a lineage, sequential row of self-reproducing entities, sequential raw of generations of deme.
Species is organization. Bonding of the intra-species components (individual organisms) is carried out by means of behavior. I suggested the term "behavioral bond" to designate the interaction between organisms by analogy with ionic, covalent, hydrogen, etcetera bonds [12]. Behavioral bonds provide cohesiveness of species. Species-specific behavior implies operating of special connections between the individuals, which transform the species into organization with the function of survival. Primarily, these are the connections accountable for the interbreeding and reproductive isolation, which make a species a genetically closed monad. Reproductive isolation is determined by the mutual affinity of organisms. The affinity is not limited by choosing a mating partner; it includes all the intraspecies interactions as distinct from the interspecies ones. Reproductive isolation and preventing inbreeding are two opposite “forces”, analogous to the attraction and repulsion, the proper balance of which is a necessary precondition for a species existence. Both inbreeding and promiscuous sexual behavior are destructive for a species. What is “the proper balance”? What is the final state this balancing is aimed at? It is an optimal species gene pool.
Genetically, a species as a whole is a closed system. Parts of the species (groups, demes) are potentially capable for substantive existence in nature. This capability is analogous to the capability of plants and lower animals to regenerate the whole body from the parts. As such, this is not speciation. The absence of the physical skin hampers us to grasp a species as a unity. But it is only a matter of habit and imagination. Behavioral bonds are common in biology. They unite families, groups, tribes, armies, companies, states, and humankind.
The transition from genome to genetic pool is far from being the whole story. Genetic pool, similar to genome, is not a substantive entity. It is reproduced by a generation of the deme as its part, its attribute. The necessity to reproduce a genetic pool drastically changes the biological status of the individual organisms. An asexual organism is a self-sufficing sovereign player on the stage of life. It is a monad. It can reproduce itself through generations acting alone. A sexual individual is a law-obedient citizen of the multi-organismic realm. It has to cooperate. This cooperation is not limited by the finding of a sexual partner and rearing a progeny. The final goal is transmitting an
The above consideration makes it clear that Darwinian selection of individual organisms, the conquerors in the intraspecies competition, does not work in case of sexuality. There are a lot of objections to “the selection of the best”, and this one is one more: such selection would lead to the virtual annulling of the diversity.
A crucial feature of sexual reproduction is manufacturing individual genomes by picking them over from the continuously shuffled population gene pool instead of the direct copying of the ancestor’s genome. The main advantage of this way of reproduction is quite evident. Though large genomes cannot be precisely replicated, there always exists a possibility to manufacture one errorless genome from the two with errors. Moreover, degeneracy of the link structure-function implies that the functionally robust genomes may have various sequences.
This is the basic level of cooperation – genetic. Though the genome of a sexual organism cannot be replicated with an adequate accuracy, a genetic pool can be reproduced with an adequate accuracy. All the well-known complications and troubles of the sexual reproduction are justified by this capacity for an accurate reproduction because only accurate reproduction provides longevity.
The “picking over” mechanism of genome reproduction supports the diversity of genomes and individuals. It is evident, however, that this diversity inevitably includes a high proportion of genomes (and corresponding individuals) of low vitality doomed to perdition. Unfortunately, this was interpreted in the classic Darwinism (and in Neo-Darwinism as well) in the spirit of Malthus’s idea of exponential growth of populations leading to the competition for resources: struggle of everyone against everybody. The very idea of natural selection was based on the assumption that organisms produce more offspring than can survive. Organisms, therefore, have to compete with each other. This competition was construed as a moving force of biological evolution leading to continuous perfecting of the biological entities. It was stressed that a most fierce struggle must be between the individuals of the same species because they have identical needs.
This misleading interpretation begot most malignant forms of social Darwinism and, as a counterbalance, an antievolutionary attitude of many intellectual and spiritual leaders. In reality, the seemingly "extra" progeny is a compensation for the poor fidelity of genome reproduction and for random death of the organisms At r-strategy of reproduction the random death, i.e. associated neither with competition nor with genetic defects, may be massive.
The stability of the biotic entities is determined not merely by their physical durability but by their expedient behavior especially. They are organizations with the function of survival. The Universe evolves via the interaction and cooperation of the entities, whence its complexity and hierarchical structure come from. The major transitions in biological evolution (prokaryotic cell → eukaryotic cell → multicellular organism → biological species) are the steps of cooperation. Though a complex entity consists of the other simpler ones, it is not just an aggregate of the included entities. It is a qualitatively new form of existence; it is an organization of a higher rank. Hierarchy in biology doesn’t mean just complexity or heterogeneity. It implies a functional predestination of their parts for the sake of the whole. Survival of the parts crucially depends on survival of the whole. Hence, constituent entities are to be included into the higher entities only in an appropriately transformed configuration. The operating principles of the organization of the higher rank are not necessarily related to or derivable from the properties of the parts or to their internal operating principles. That is the principles organizing an upper rank are novelties. They are not necessarily predictable from the rank below. On the other hand, the organizing restrictions of the living entities, being emerged as a frozen chance, cannot be deduced from any general principle or law. They can be understood only retrospectively, in the context of their history. The above statements imply that the evolution of a higher entity cannot be adequately presented as self-sufficing evolution of its constituents. The prosperity of the whole is the vector of selection for the constituent entities.
Neo-Darwinism defines altruistic behavior of an individual organism as a behavior that diminishes its own fitness and enhances the fitness of other individuals. In its turn, fitness is defined as a relative fecundity of the individual. According to the same paradigm, “Evolution is based on a fierce competition between individuals and should therefore reward only selfish behavior. Every gene, every cell, and every organism should be designed to promote its own evolutionary success
Meanwhile, an altruistic behavior, which is ubiquitous among people and other animals, keeps being a headache for the evolutionary biologists. Hamiltonian pill has helped to alleviate the headache but the phenomenon remains enigmatic and gives food to unending and mostly fruitless discussions. It is really difficult not to see the numerous and various forms of cooperation, mutual aid, friendship, and love at every turn. For this, one must specially train his/her imagination in the reductionistic logics or reject the phenomenon ironically as did Michael Ghiselin [44]: “Scratch an ‘altruist,’ and watch a ‘hypocrite’ bleed”. Meanwhile, the problem of origin and maintenance of altruism is just a seeming problem begotten by the gene-centered point of view and reductionistic philosophy. The reductionistic methodology is not an adequate tool for operation with the hierarchically organized world of life.
The idea of gene as a replicator is bewildering. Gene is not a living entity. It is not a self-replicator. It is replicated. It is a replica or a template. Genes are manufactured by cell, just like all the other cell constituents: RNAs, polypeptides, organelles. Only self-reproducing substantive entity can serve as a unit of selection. By this I say of course in favor of deme (or group) selection as the only meaningful level of selection for obligatory sexual organisms. Deme is the lowest substantive entity that reproduces itself with a high fidelity. Opponents of the group selection reject it as a too slow process A successful species ceases to evolve [4]
The idea of multilevel selection has now received a substantial support [63]. It is a step in the right direction. However, I think that here remains some inconsistency. Given that the higher level of selection operates, the selection at the lower levels must be forbidden because it can produce nothing but casualties like a parasitic DNA or a malignant cell. The so called ultra-selfish genes are factual parasites with a net harmful effect on the host. They, along with other parasites and harmful mutations, are representatives of the destructive force of nature. Evolution in action is an unending struggle against this force. And the most productive way of this struggle is cooperation. Biological species is organization, which is the cooperation of individual organisms. A hierarchical organization presumes submitting behavior of parts in favor of the whole. Selection presumes the selection of genes but the vector of selection is “for the good of species”, not “for the good of gene”! Just because a gene is not a living entity, not organization with the function of survival! It is strange for me to insist on such a self-evident statement. These two goods coincide. If they not coincide, the gene will be rejected “for the good of species”. The reverse (rejection of species for the good of gene) is nonsense. For more discussion, see [12].
Once we took a population as a self-reproducing unit, once we have grasped the biological species as an individual of a higher rank, we see no enigma in altruistic behavior. It is simply inevitable. We do not wonder why cells of our body, e.g. those of skin, living only several days, do not fight for unlimited proliferation. We know very well what follows if they do. Let us define altruistic behavior as behavior of parts for survival of the whole. Sexual organism lost its status as a substantial biological entity. It places its genes into the common gene pool hereby demonstrating the hundred-per-cent altruism at the most basic genetic level. Organisms are unable to reproduce themselves. They are reproduced by species as a class of entities. So they just have to be altruistic or they will disappear along with the whole. This statement may look contra-intuitive. The vernacular understanding of altruism as disinterested aid to other organisms hampers us to see the altruism as a multifaceted biological phenomenon. Faces of the altruism are numerous and they may look unexpected. I remind that an altruistic behavior is the behavior for the good of group. It may sometimes look unfriendly, hostile, and cruel in relation to the other individuals, still being altruistic.
This nontrivial comprehension helps to interpret inter-individual relationships as largely altruistic. True selfish behavior of an individual organism would be a mistake, similar to the behavior of a cancer cell. Normal behavior of the parts is always aimed at survival of the whole. Let me present one example of apparently selfish behavior that is actually behavior for the good of group. Fighting for leadership is often presented as an example of a fierce struggle. Though the picture is slightly spoiled by the ritual character of such battles, the scene remains to be impressive. But is this fighting really selfish behavior? It is hard and dangerous. The transmitting of genes to the next generation does not look as a final cause. Every genome is unique and it is not transmitted as a whole. The semantic content of genetic information depends on the combination of genes. But the combination is not transmitted. Meanwhile, the meaning of the fighting is quite evident. A proper leader is extremely important for survival of the group. And if we give up our human envy to leaders, we will be able to recognize that the life of leaders is fairly altruistic. It is completely devoted to the group survival and often has a sacrificial character. The essence of interindividual conflicts in population is not the fighting for power but the verifying of the relative status. The correct status is an extremely important parameter for a proper organization of the population. An individual that lost in this fighting still did not lose in life. The correct status is important for getting a
Hence, altruism, as defined above, is not something special. The balance of two counter-forces is a prerequisite of any existence. In case of species, these two forces are behavior of the parts for survival of the whole and behavior of the parts for their own survival. They are two aspects of the sensible behavior, of which a disinterested aid of one individual to another is only a particular type of altruism. Classic Darwinism proclaimed the struggle for existence. And it was implied that it is mainly the struggle between individual organisms of the same species for resources. But a lack of resources is not the common cause of organism\'s death. The universal enemy of life, which acts everywhere and always, is entropy. And the only force that helps to resist it is the sensible behavior.
What do we mean when we speak about the behavior of such a complex entity as a deme? The overall content of this behavior is self-reproduction. The deme is a substantive entity. Its behavior is aimed at its own survival. So it is selfish (by definition).The behavior of all its parts, including individual organisms, which is aimed at survival of the whole, is
Suicide is the most common form of altruistic behavior. It operates on all the levels of biological organization, from molecules to organisms. One example of molecular altruism is the DNA damage repair by enzyme O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase, which transfers the methyl group of the damaged base to one of its own cysteine residues in a suicide reaction [64]. Numerous and diverse forms of cellular suicide are well known.
The evolution of the “picking over" mechanism of genome formation was necessarily coupled with the evolution of the intrinsic or internal selection. The intrinsic selection is a purifying selection. It begins to operate long before the organism is tested by the environment or came across the other members of population. Moreover, it starts operating even before the appearance of the individual, during the formation of generative cells (sperm and eggs). The overwhelming majority of the generative cells and their predecessors undergo programmed death. This mass suicide is aimed at selecting robust generative cells [31,65-68]. For example, in the testis of mice, the mutation rate declines five-fold during spermatogenesis: the heavily mutated cells commit suicide. During ontogenesis of multicell organisms, cells with damaged DNA also commit suicide (apoptosis). It is really suicide, not a killing. This behavior prevents malignisation.
One more phenomenon, inconceivable from the individual-centered view, is phenoptosis, the programmed death of organisms. In the most expressive form, it occurs in salmon: death of the adult individuals after spawning. It looks probable that an aging is a slurred form of the phenoptosis. The existence of a programmed altruistic ageing and death was suggested in [69]: “The similarities between the molecular pathways that regulate ageing in yeast, worms, flies and mice, together with evidence that is consistent with programmed death in salmon and other organisms, raise the possibility that programmed ageing or death can also occur in higher eukaryotes”.
The different longevity of the individual life is a manifestation of the same phenomenon. Both, mouse and man are mammals. Why does a mouse live only two years, while a man lives up to hundred years? The answer is: individual longevity must be optimal for the species survival. And this optimum is the integral constituent of the general strategy of species survival. The phenomenon of frustration may also be construed as a type of altruistic phenoptosis. From the individual point of view, frustration looks strange: it is evidently a programmed reaction to a stress, and it is definitely contra-adaptive, especially the destruction of the immune system. May be it is also a case of altruistic suicide, a form of intrinsic selection, self-elimination of the individuals with inadequate reaction to stress.
The intrinsic selection keeps operating over entire ontogenesis: in the process of fertilization, during embryo implantation, embryogenesis, at birth, during infancy, adolescence, maturity, aging. I would like to stress that this intrinsic selection, though it may look cruel and relentless, may have little relation to the competition between individual organisms. The doomed entities die primarily because of their own imperfection.
The intrinsic selection controls robustness of the individual organisms, their healthiness. This is the first, immediate quality control at the level of an individual. The final quality control is carried out at the level of generation of deme where robustness of the generation as a whole, perfection of the deme organization is checked. It is not easy to define specifically what a “good organization” is. The most evident parameters are diversity and genetic plasticity, which are crucially important for the stability of the deme reproduction. Real success is not maximal but optimal fecundity. So that even infertile individuals may occur useful for the population survival.
The general tendency in progressive evolution is diminishing fecundity. Ideally, one female should provide two healthy offspring, not less and not more. Only during a relatively short initial period of the species founding (during creation of the species robustness and territorial expansion), the exponential Malthusian increase of population in the number makes sense. A matured species needs stable reproduction. The principal "the more the better" stems from the capitalistic psychology that is well known to lead to economic crisis. Natural selection is wiser than the human leaders. Biological species know how to control their numerical strength and thus exist long. The numerical strength should not exceed the resources. The reproductive rate in most species had evolved through group selection to ensure populations remained below the threshold of over-exploitation of resources [70].
While the competition between asexual lineages or between different demes and species may be sometimes a real combating, such combating between the organisms of the same deme would be self-destructive. I do not discard competition, but I only think that its biological meaning should be reconsidered: it is an instrument for creating, fine-tuning and maintaining species organization, which is cooperation. A species is organized hierarchically. The hierarchy is continuously checked. This checking may look as a conflict or struggle for survival yet it is not. To make emphasis on the fierce struggle means to create the problem in theory that does not exist in reality. Scratch antagonism and you find
Other forms of altruism may look much more attractive: parental care, friendship, mutual aid, and other examples of the uninterested aid. They are well-known. I only would like to raise an objection against an opinion that an altruistic individual always fails in conflicts with a selfish one. This was postulated in the ”dove-hawk model” by Price and Maynard Smith [71]. I stress that it was not based on empirical observations. It was assumed. “Selfishness beats altruism within groups. Altruistic groups beat selfish groups. Everything else is commentary” [72]. It is a good phrase in favor of group selection. But in my opinion, the authors over-appreciate the selfish individuals. Why to think that an altruist is always a looser and an egoist is always a winner? I think opposite. A weak individual just cannot afford altruistic behavior. He needs a help itself. Let me cite a rhyme by Theodor Sologub (in my word for word translation):
Who could dare to respond to this call in the dead of night? Who will leave his warm and safe dwelling and help? Loser? By no means. Hero or Saint. They may not leave progeny of their own, yet they are certainly not losers, not weak and cowardly. Monks do not have children by definition; however, they are stably produced by the human populations during many centuries; quite similar to the stable production of, for example, hepatocytes or neurons, or worker bees though these entities never cross the frontier of generations. Altruists are stably reproduced across generations even if they happen to have no offspring of their own. It looks most probable that the altruistic/selfish phenotype of an individual is determined by numerous genes, and a population is characterized by a broad continuum of individuals, from the “pure altruistic” to the “pure selfish”. This distribution is a “species trait”. Owing to the gene pool shuffling, it is totally transmitted to the next generation, even if the extreme altruists do not produce their own offspring while extreme egoists have too little concern for their offspring. During evolution, the form of this distribution is optimized for the species survival. Of course, it is species-specific and must be coordinated with the
What about competition and struggle between the groups? Group is a substantive entity and its behavior is selfish. As such, this does not presume the survival at the expense of other groups of the same species. Groups also prosper or shrink in accord to the merits of their own. However, competition and struggle is possible and sometimes it may be really fierce. Unfortunately, evolution of Homo sapiens included such struggle in the most extreme forms. The history of humankind was the fighting of the tribes that often acquired a character of genocide. But this is quite another story.
Years ago, I asked once my fellow student about meaning of sexual reproduction. She was a romantic person and she quickly replied: "possibility of the love". And we both laughed at the joke. But now, being an old and wise man, I take it quite seriously. The love is a rather good term for designation of the intraspecific interactions not only between the sexual partners or the parents and children, but for intraspecific interactions in general. The sexual reproduction is a real cooperation not only at the level of gene pool, but at the level of entire inter-individual relationships. The apparent hostility and competition should not hide the basically cooperative character of intraspecific bonds that we would not expect for the asexual organisms that are self-sufficing sovereign players on the stage of life Lover\'s tiffs end in kisses.
There are two major forms of existence: inanimate and animate. No existence is perpetual. The second law of thermodynamics predicts final dissipation of everything in the Universe. The Universe does not dissipate immediately because its components
Topology optimization method is firstly developed by Bendsøe and Kikuchi [1] and Bendsøe [2], which is originally used for an elastic material distribution problem in 1988. Compared with sizing and shape optimization, topology optimization is a more powerful tool, which allows new holes and connections to be generated in the design domain with a prescribed amount of material. Recently, the topology optimization method has been extended to many other fields, such as materials science [3, 4], micro-machines [5, 6], precision and ultra-precision machining [7, 8], optical focusing [9, 10], and so on. With the development of computer technology, topology optimization is developing very fast, and the calculation process of topology optimization problem has been significantly simplified.
In the research of piezoelectric actuators, piezoelectric stacks are usually used in the driving field, which requires precise but minute motion [11, 12]. Flexure hinge type piezoelectric actuators are widely applied in precision machining, in-situ mechanical measurement, biomedicine and other fields because of its compact structure, long stroke and fast response speed [13, 14, 15]. The piezoelectric actuators are usually composed of piezoelectric stack, compliant mechanism and slider [16, 17, 18, 19, 20], here the compliant mechanisms are used as transmission and amplifying mechanisms. In the field of piezoelectric actuators, the modeling and design of compliant mechanisms are key issues. For example, bridge-type [21] and parallelogram-type [22] compliant mechanisms are applied to the reach of precision engineering. Sigmund [23, 24] has designed an inverting displacement amplifier, which has been used to obtain the maximum mechanical advantage. In addition, topology optimization methods have been assembled in commercial software [25], which makes the applications of topology optimization methods much easier.
There mainly three different types of topology optimization method are used to handle the design objectives and constraints of piezoelectric actuators: density-based methods, boundary variation methods, hard-kill methods, respectively [25, 26]. (1) Density-based methods, which include Solid Isotropic Material with Penalization (SIMP) and Rational Approximation of Materials Properties (RAMP) technique. (2) Boundary variation methods (level set and phase field). (3) Hard-kill methods, typically Evolutionary Structural Optimization (ESO) method and Bidirectional Evolutionary Structural Optimization (BESO) method. Many scholars have conducted in-depth research on the above three types of topology optimization method, the design theories and methods have developed rapidly. Topology optimization has becoming one of the important methods of piezoelectric actuator design.
However, topology optimization of piezoelectric actuators is a complicated problem, which contains the process of determining the connectivity, shape, and location of voids inside a given design domain. Traditional researches have given some topological structure for the design of piezoelectric actuators [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34], the not solved problem is that which kind of compliant mechanisms with the flexure hinges makes the output performances best. Yang et al. [35] developed a static topology optimization method to solve the problem, and some topology optimization methods have also been extended to design the compliant mechanism of piezoelectric actuators [36, 37, 38, 39, 40]. At present, there is little research on using topology optimization method to design flexible hinges, and its theories and methods are very scarce, which has a lot of exploration space. Therefore, it is particularly important to explore the theories and methods of topology optimization for the design of flexure hinge type piezoelectric actuator.
We hope that this chapter will provide a summary of the recent advances and novel applications of topology optimization methods, provide exposure to lesser known, yet promising, techniques, and serve as a resource for those new to the field. The presentation of each method focuses on new developments and novel applications. So in Section 2, the operating principle of piezoelectric actuators is introduced, the problems are described and the topology optimization model is established, then the simulation analysis is performed. The prototype is fabricated and the experimental system is built in Section 3. Systematic experimental test is conducted to study the actual performance of the actuator in Section 4, and the conclusion and discussion of this chapter are in Section 5.
The operating principle of the piezoelectric stick–slip actuator designed by the topology optimization method is shown in Figure 1. The asymmetric sawtooth wave is used as the excitation signal. A motion cycle can be divided into three phases:
Operating principle: (a) initial phase. (b) Stick phase. (c) Slip phase.
After one motion cycle, the slider moves a net forward distance
In order to better describe the method, the symbols used in the structural topology optimization process are expressed in Table 1.
Name | Symbol | Name | Symbol |
---|---|---|---|
Displacement vector | Design domain volume | ||
Input displacement | Prescribed volume fraction | ||
Output displacement | Volume of element | ||
Parasitic displacement | Total number of elements | ||
Global stiffness matrix | Penalization power | ||
Element stiffness matrix | Displacement magnification factor | ||
The element stiffness matrix for an element with unit Young’s modulus | Evaluation indicator | ||
Global element stiffness matrix | Minimum relative density value | ||
Input stiffness matrix | Objective function | ||
Output stiffness matrix | Constraint function | ||
Input stiffness | Adjoint unit load vector | ||
Output stiffness | Adjoint displacement vector | ||
Input force vector | Element of adjoint displacement vector | ||
Input force | Element of displacement vector |
The symbols of topology optimization method.
Bendsøe and Sigmund pointed out that the ratio between output and input displacements is an important objective function for compliant mechanism [25]. The problem is how to find the optimal driving mechanism shape that can achieve the design goal in a certain design domain, and we design the driving mechanism on the basis of the theories of Ref. [25, 40].
The structural characteristics of the stick–slip actuator are considered, the design domain of the flexure hinge mechanism is revealed in Figure 2, and the dimensions of the design domain are L1 = 12.5 mm, L2 = 7 mm, L3 = 24 mm, L4 = 3.5 mm, respectively.
The design domain of driving mechanism.
The magnification factor
The displacement magnification factor
A basic engineering goal of piezoelectric stick–slip actuators is to maximize the stroke amplification in structures and mechanisms, a serious of different objective functions can be formulated. The basic topology optimization model of piezoelectric actuator can be given as:
where
The optimization models described in Eq. (3) are implemented using the MATLAB programming language. Usually, the design aim of the piezoelectric actuators is to maximize mechanical advantage, so the objective functions can be chosen as magnification factor and mechanical efficiency [23, 24], which can be used for static response. Although the compliant hinge is only a part of the compliant mechanism, and its motion and configuration are relatively simple, we can regard the compliant hinge as a simple compliant mechanism, so the topology optimization idea of the compliant mechanism is also applicable to the design of the compliant hinge. Sigmund [23, 24] developed an inverting displacement amplifier, and in [25] mechanical efficiency (ME) is defined as an objective function.
The objective function of the piezoelectric stick–slip actuator topology optimization problem is to obtain largest magnification factor
where
The element stiffness matrix
where
The global stiffness matrix
where
In this part, how to determinate the output displacement
where
The derivatives of
Differentiating the static equation
Due to
Differentiating the global stiffness matrix, we have
Next, we need to solve the adjoint equilibrium equations.
where
Combined with Eq. (8), Eqs. (11)–(14),
Then we have
where
The sensitivity of objective function
and the sensitivity of constraint functions
To avoid the checkerboards patterns and mesh dependencies phenomena, some restriction on the design must be imposed. Here a filtering technique is used to modify the sensitivity of
where
From Eq. (7) and Eqs. (15)–(17), the solutions of Eqs. (18), (19) are obtained.
Figure 3 shows the flow chart of topology optimization procedures. Initially, the design domain, boundary conditions and material are defined, the design domain is discretized into finite element meshes and solve the static problem. Then the sensitivities of the objective function and constraint conditions are obtained, design variables are updated by MMA algorithm. Here the MMA algorithm is employed by Svanberg [41, 42] as the optimizer. Finally, check the convergence of the results, if it converges, the iteration will stop; if not, go to step 3.
Flow chart of topology optimization procedures.
Figure 2 shows that the design domain is divided into 64 × 48 square four node elements, the side length of the element is 1, and the structural dimensions and material units are dimensionless. Based on the practical engineering experiments, the parameters in topology optimization model are chosen as follows: the volume fraction
Figure 4 shows that the evaluation indicator
The relationship between the iteration number and evaluation indicator τ.
The relationship between the iteration number and displacement magnification factor λ.
Figure 6 shows the topology optimization result, which is similar to the traditional four-bar mechanism, and the positions of the four flexure hinges and the tilt angles of the beams will be the main consideration in the mechanism design. Due to the gray unit in the topology image and the inaccurate contour extraction, the details of the hinges and boundaries of the structure are modified. Figure 7 showns the main parameters of the driving mechanism, the overall dimension of the flexure hinge mechanism is 32 mm × 32 mm × 9 mm, and an indenter with radius of 2.5 mm is selected to ensure that the driving mechanism can provide sufficient contact. The thicknesses of the four special-shaped flexure hinges are 0.3 mm, 0.3 mm, 0.4 mm and 0.4 mm, respectively.
The result of the topology optimization.
Structural parameters of the driving mechanism. (unit: mm).
Before the experimental verification, it is necessary to ensure that the flexure hinge driving mechanism can achieve the desired displacement amplification effect, thus the finite element analysis is carried out. AL7075 is selected as the material of the driving mechanism, the Young’s modulus, density and Poisson’s ratio of this material are 7.17 × 104 MPa, 2810 kg/m3 and 0.33, respectively. Take the contact point
Simulation analysis by FEA: (a) the static simulation deformation. (b) Analysis of equivalent stress. (c) First-order mode of the mechanism.
The prototype configuration of the developed actuator is shown in Figure 9. It mainly includes a slider, a stator, a preload mechanism and a base. The stator contains a piezoelectric stack, a driving mechanism, a preload screw and a shim block. The locking force is the maximum static friction force between the indenter and the slider, it can be adjusted by the preload mechanism. One end of the linear-motion guide is a slider for precise long-stroke motion, and the other end is fixed on the base. The base is used for fixing and supporting.
Prototype configuration of the developed actuator.
As shown in Figure 10, an experimental system is constructed to study the motion characteristics of the actuator. The experimental system mainly includes the prototype, a waveform generator, a power amplifier, a laser displacement sensor, a PC, a pulley, and a vibration-isolation platform. The asymmetric sawtooth wave is sent out by the waveform generator (WF 1974, Negative Feedback Corporation), then adjusted by the power amplifier (HSA 4051, Negative Feedback Corporation) as the excitation signal for the piezoelectric stack (AE0505D16). The motion characteristics are detected by the laser displacement sensor (LK-H020, Keyence Corporation), and saved in the PC. The pulley and wire are used to connect the slider and the weight, and the weight is used to calibrate the locking force and apply the load.
The experimental system and the prototype.
The driving voltage is set to 100 Vp-p, and the frequency characteristics of the actuator under different locking forces are tested and shown in Figure 11. Under the locking force of 1 N, the maximum velocity is 15.25 mm/s at the frequency of 650 Hz; when the locking forces are 2 N and 3 N, the maximum velocities can be obtained at the frequency values of 700 Hz and 690 Hz, and the velocities are 12.48 mm/s and 9.67 mm/s, respectively.
Frequency characteristics under different locking forces.
Thus, there are corresponding different optimal frequencies under the different locking forces conditions. As displayed in Figure 12, the voltage characteristics under different locking forces are explored at the corresponding optimal frequency. It can be seen that the minimum starting voltage of the actuator increases with the increases of the locking force, and the minimum starting voltage of the actuator is 21.5 Vp-p under the locking force of 1 N. In addition, the elongation of the piezoelectric stack increases as the voltage raises, the single step displacement of the actuator increases, thereby increasing the velocity. The motion resolution is also an important parameter of the actuator, which reflects the precise positioning characteristics of the actuator. It can be seen from Figure 13, the single step motion resolution of the actuator reaches 96 nm under the locking force of 1 N.
Voltage characteristics under different locking forces.
The motion resolution under the locking force of 1 N.
Maintaining the voltage is 100 Vp-p, the displacement characteristics under different locking forces are plotted, as shown in Figure 14. It is obvious that the velocity is the fastest at the locking force of 1 N, the friction resistance is small at this time, so the backward motion is minimum. The load characteristics of the actuator is emerged in Figure 15, as the locking force gradually increases, the maximum load of the actuator increases significantly. Within a certain adjustment range, the greater locking force can increase the friction driving force, which improves the load capacity of the actuator. It can be seen that the velocity decreases almost linearly with the load increases, and the maximum load mass of the actuator exceeds 330 g under 3 N locking force.
Displacement characteristics under different locking forces.
Load characteristics under different locking forces.
The efficiency
where
Figure 16 shows that the efficiency of the actuator increases first and then decreases with the increases of load. It can be seen that when the locking force is 3 N, the efficiency of the actuator reaches the highest value 0.70% under the load of 240 g.
Efficiencies under different locking forces.
A topology optimization work of piezoelectric actuators is illustrated to improve their output performances. As shown in this chapter, topology optimization is a powerful tool for the design of piezoelectric actuators. The aim of this work is to serve as an introduction for those who are interested in the piezoelectric actuator optimization research field, and provide a reference work for scholars. It has to be pointed out that there remain a series of unsolved problems in the field of designing piezoelectric actuators using topology optimization. In addition to the potential future work mentioned in each section, the following aspects should be considered to further promote the development of this research field: (1) The static topology optimization methods provide an efficient way to find the optimal design of piezoelectric actuators. However, some manufacturing-oriented static topology optimization methods for the design of piezoelectric actuators need to receive more attention. (2) Topology optimization of piezoelectric actuators considering dynamic problems is another important topic. When the loads changed rapidly, such as “stick–slip” type loads, the dynamic response problems of piezoelectric actuators should be concerned. (3) More topology optimization codes should be released, especially for the design of piezoelectric actuators. (4) Multi-materials topology optimization problem can be applied to piezoelectric actuators, the related theory should be considered by many outstanding scholars in the further.
This work was financially supported by the Science and Technology Development Plan of Jilin Province (Nos. 20200201057JC and 20190201108JC), and the Technology Research Planning Project of Education Department of Jilin Province (No. JJKH20220690KJ).
The authors would like to thank K. Svanberg for providing the Matlab code of MMA optimizer.
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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This will pose serious problems with food, water and energy supply, particularly in less-developed countries. Considering that the human pressure over natural resources has already reached critical levels, international agencies such as the World Bank and UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) are soliciting scientific research in order to identify innovative solutions to support the primary sector. Nanotechnology is a rapidly evolving field with the potential to take forward the agriculture and food industry with new tools which promise to increase food production in a sustainable manner and to protect crops from pests. Such expectations are coupled with some uncertainties about the fate of nanomaterials in the agro-environment. However, the field application of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) has not been properly investigated yet, and many aspects have only been considered theoretically or with models, which make it difficult to properly assess the usefulness of ENMs for plant fertilization and protection.",book:{id:"6763",slug:"new-visions-in-plant-science",title:"New Visions in Plant Science",fullTitle:"New Visions in Plant Science"},signatures:"Luca Marchiol",authors:[{id:"163884",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Marchiol",slug:"luca-marchiol",fullName:"Luca Marchiol"}]},{id:"67311",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86341",title:"Wheat Production in India: Trends and Prospects",slug:"wheat-production-in-india-trends-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2364,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"Trends in Indian wheat production before and after the inception of the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on wheat have been analyzed to show its significant progress over the years. A brief intercountry comparison of productivity, production and area coupled with regional comparison within India has been attempted to give an idea about the contribution of country and regions, respectively, for global and national food security. The milestones in Indian wheat programme and research outcomes were highlighted post-AICRP along with the vision and strategies set for 2050 against diverse production challenges. Regional disparities, zone-wise production constraints and research programmes for achieving the set production target were briefed. The chapter concludes with possible interventions in strengthening the complete wheat value chain for ensuring food security for the future generation.",book:{id:"8168",slug:"recent-advances-in-grain-crops-research",title:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research"},signatures:"Sendhil Ramadas, T.M. 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Mostafa",authors:[{id:"68104",title:"Prof.",name:"Soha",middleName:"Sayed Mohammad",surname:"Mostafa",slug:"soha-mostafa",fullName:"Soha Mostafa"}]},{id:"68218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87069",title:"Neglected and Underutilized Legume Crops: Improvement and Future Prospects",slug:"neglected-and-underutilized-legume-crops-improvement-and-future-prospects",totalDownloads:1828,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"Sustainable agricultural productivity is hampered by over-dependency on major staple crops, neglect and underutilization of others, climate change, as well as land deterioration. Challenges posed by these limiting factors are undoubtedly contributing to global food insecurity, increased rural poverty, and malnutrition in the less developed countries. Miscellaneous neglected and underutilized grain legumes (MNUGLs) are crops primarily characterized by inherent features and capabilities to withstand the effects of abiotic stress and climate change, significantly replenish the soil, as well as boost food and protein security. This chapter provides insight into the benefits of MNUGLs as food and nutritional security climate smart crops, capable of growing on marginal lands. Exploring and improving MNUGLs depend on a number of factors among which are concerted research efforts, cultivation and production, as well as utilization awareness across global populace geared toward reawakening the interest on the abandoned legumes. The emergence of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR/cas9) technology combined with marker-assisted selection (MAS) offers great opportunities to improve MNUGLs for sustainable utilization. Advances in improvement of MNUGLs using omic technologies and the prospects for their genetic modification were highlighted and discussed.",book:{id:"8168",slug:"recent-advances-in-grain-crops-research",title:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research"},signatures:"Jacob Popoola, Omena Ojuederie, Conrad Omonhinmin and Adegoke Adegbite",authors:[{id:"246358",title:"Prof.",name:"Conrad",middleName:null,surname:"Omonhinmin",slug:"conrad-omonhinmin",fullName:"Conrad Omonhinmin"},{id:"294662",title:"Dr.",name:"Omena",middleName:null,surname:"Ojuederie",slug:"omena-ojuederie",fullName:"Omena Ojuederie"},{id:"294740",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacob",middleName:null,surname:"Popoola",slug:"jacob-popoola",fullName:"Jacob Popoola"},{id:"294766",title:"Prof.",name:"Adegoke",middleName:null,surname:"Adegbite",slug:"adegoke-adegbite",fullName:"Adegoke Adegbite"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63134",title:"Transgenic Plants: Gene Constructs, Vector and Transformation Method",slug:"transgenic-plants-gene-constructs-vector-and-transformation-method",totalDownloads:5560,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"The human population has reached 7 billion by 2015 and is estimated to exceed 10 billion by the end of 2050. As such, crops which are the main food source must be produced at a higher pace in order to cater in tandem with the food demand. In the past, traditional plant breeders practice classical breeding techniques to propagate plants with desirable traits. However, traditional breeding technique lies in that only individuals of the same or closely related species can be crossbred. Moreover, traditional breeders will not be able to obtain traits which are not inherent within the gene pool of their target plants through classical breeding. With recent advancements in the field of genetic engineering, it is now possible to insert beneficial genes from a completely different species or even kingdom into a target plant, yielding transgenic plants with multiple ideal traits. To develop a transgenic plant, parameters such as vector constructions, transformation methods, transgene integration, and inheritance of transgene need to be carefully considered to ensure the success of the transformation event. Hence, this chapter aimed to provide an overview of transgenic plants’ development, its advantages and disadvantages, as well as its application for the betterment of mankind.",book:{id:"6763",slug:"new-visions-in-plant-science",title:"New Visions in Plant Science",fullTitle:"New Visions in Plant Science"},signatures:"Lee-Yoon Low, Shun-Kai Yang, De-Xian Andrew Kok, Janna Ong-\nAbdullah, Ngai-Paing Tan and Kok-Song Lai",authors:[{id:"195386",title:"BSc.",name:"Shun Kai",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"shun-kai-yang",fullName:"Shun Kai Yang"},{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai"},{id:"240035",title:"Ms.",name:"Lee Yoon",middleName:null,surname:"Low",slug:"lee-yoon-low",fullName:"Lee Yoon Low"},{id:"240036",title:"Mr.",name:"Kok",middleName:null,surname:"Andrew-De-Xian",slug:"kok-andrew-de-xian",fullName:"Kok Andrew-De-Xian"},{id:"257891",title:"Dr.",name:"Janna Ong",middleName:null,surname:"Abdullah",slug:"janna-ong-abdullah",fullName:"Janna Ong Abdullah"},{id:"257892",title:"Dr.",name:"Ngai Paing",middleName:null,surname:"Tan",slug:"ngai-paing-tan",fullName:"Ngai Paing Tan"}]},{id:"67311",title:"Wheat Production in India: Trends and Prospects",slug:"wheat-production-in-india-trends-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2364,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"Trends in Indian wheat production before and after the inception of the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on wheat have been analyzed to show its significant progress over the years. A brief intercountry comparison of productivity, production and area coupled with regional comparison within India has been attempted to give an idea about the contribution of country and regions, respectively, for global and national food security. The milestones in Indian wheat programme and research outcomes were highlighted post-AICRP along with the vision and strategies set for 2050 against diverse production challenges. Regional disparities, zone-wise production constraints and research programmes for achieving the set production target were briefed. The chapter concludes with possible interventions in strengthening the complete wheat value chain for ensuring food security for the future generation.",book:{id:"8168",slug:"recent-advances-in-grain-crops-research",title:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research"},signatures:"Sendhil Ramadas, T.M. Kiran Kumar and Gyanendra Pratap Singh",authors:[{id:"287599",title:"Dr.",name:"Sendhil",middleName:null,surname:"Ramadas",slug:"sendhil-ramadas",fullName:"Sendhil Ramadas"},{id:"295122",title:"Dr.",name:"T.M. Kiran",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"t.m.-kiran-kumar",fullName:"T.M. Kiran Kumar"},{id:"297699",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyanendra Pratap",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"gyanendra-pratap-singh",fullName:"Gyanendra Pratap Singh"}]},{id:"60829",title:"Detection Methods of Nanoparticles in Plant Tissues",slug:"detection-methods-of-nanoparticles-in-plant-tissues",totalDownloads:1704,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The increasing use of nanoparticles (NPs) in the world has raised significant concerns about their potential impacts on ecosystems, food safety and human health, leading to an emerging research theme about the interaction between crop plants and NPs. Therefore, a full understanding of plant-NP interaction and phytotoxicological mechanism is required for accurate risk assessment to ensure the safe use of nanoparticle. A range of analytical techniques have been developed to detect and characterize the uptake, translocation, cellular internalization and intracellular biotransformation of nanoparticles in plants. Imaging methodologies, including various electron microscopy, spectrometry-based techniques, together with ICP-based techniques such as ICP-OES, ICP-MS and SP-ICP-MS, have been widely used to obtain information about NPs size, morphology, size distribution, cellular localization, elemental speciation, mass concentration and so on. Due to the complexity of biological samples to be analyzed, these techniques are often combined accordingly to provide complementary information regarding plant-NP interaction. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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