",isbn:"978-1-83969-558-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-557-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-559-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"97b6de623f15598880112f6bafedc3e1",bookSignature:"Dr. Robert M.X. Wu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11916.jpg",keywords:"Business Models, E-commerce Marketing Strategy, E-commerce Business Models, Digital Transformation, Business Intelligence, E-business Applications, Research, Information System Management, Marketing Management, Electronic Commerce, Internet Marketing, Information Systems",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 26th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 30th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 29th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 17th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 16th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:'Dr. Wu holds a Ph.D. in e-Commerce, lectures at the School of Engineering and Technology in Australia, and is a Distinguished Professor at Shanxi Normal University, China. In 2011, Dr. Wu was recognized as a ‘Top 100 Outstanding Academic Leader for China’s Informatics’ by the China Informatics Society. He was awarded "Outstanding Contribution in Reviewing" by Q1 Journals such as Electronic Commerce Research and Applications (Elsevier).',coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"190913",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert M.X.",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"robert-m.x.-wu",fullName:"Robert M.X. Wu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190913/images/system/190913.jpg",biography:"Robert M.X. Wu has a diploma in Computer Science, a bachelor’s degree in Economics, and master’s and doctorate degrees in e-Commerce. He is currently lecturing e-commerce / Information Systems at Central Queensland University Australia (CQU). He has led more than ten industry-based research projects since 2012 and contributes to reviewing five A-level Australian Business Deans Council (ABDC) journals and Q1 journals.\r\nIn July 2011, Dr. Wu was recognized as a ‘Top 100 Outstanding Academic Leader for China’s Informatics’ by the China Informatics Society. In 2017 he was appointed Distinguished Professor at Shanxi Normal University, China. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
\n
In Slovakia, the manufacture of “Bryndza” cheese from ewes’ lump cheese is of great importance to preserve the national gastronomic heritage. In the traditional way of production, it is produced immediately after milking from raw milk in upland cottages. The cheese is curdled with rennet, fermented by native lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and ripened for 7–10 days. Then, it is usually sent to a cheese factory, where the next technology processes (including salting) take part resulting in the production of the final soft “Bryndza” cheese [1, 2].
\n
As coagulase-positive staphylococci are ubiquitous in milk, the control of Staphylococcus aureus growth during the fermentation of young raw milk cheese means prevention against staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) production. During milk fermentation and cheese production, S. aureus is exposed to growth competition with LAB and the effect of their metabolites during artisanal raw milk cheese manufacture. However, S. aureus is competitive in milk and dairy products; it is quite sensitive to higher lactic acid concentration.
\n
The growth of S. aureus and potential production of heat-stable staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) with respect to the food matrices and conditions of food preparation represent a potential, even actual threat of a public health menace residing in food-poisoning outbreaks. From the food point of view, the production of one or more SEs is the most crucial, because they are causative agents of staphylococcal food-poisoning outbreaks.
\n
As a pathogen, S. aureus disposes of remarkable wide range of virulent factors causing different infectious and food-borne outbreaks. Due to the production of surface-associated factors, S. aureus can avoid opsonophagocytosis, form biofilm and adhere to the host cell matrix [3, 4]. Following colonization, S. aureus secretes various toxins and enzymes that are responsible for the lesions. Once S. aureus penetrates the subcutaneous tissues and reaches the blood stream, it can infect almost any organ, most notably bone tissue and cardiac valves [4]. The role of enzymes is to disrupt cell structure, degrade cell lipids and hyaluronic acid, and to convert fibrinogen to fibrin. All those activities promote S. aureus to affect leukocytes, sebaceous glands, subcutaneous tissues and to increase propagation of infection [3, 5]. On the other hand, toxins (leukocidins, haemolysins and epidermolytic toxin) are able to paralyse smooth and skeletal muscles, damage blood vessels, cause extensive lesions on the skin and reveal a moist glistering surface and finally have a toxic effect on the central nervous system [3, 6, 7].
\n
In addition, some strains of S. aureus are also equipped with superantigenic toxins, including shock syndrome toxin-1 (TSST-1) and SEs. They not only modulate host immune response but are also able to cause food poisoning in human [3]. The release of TSST-1 into a bloodstream may give rise to a variety of severe clinical difficulties, such as toxic shock syndrome and sudden infant death syndrome [8]. Besides S. aureus, also some other staphylococcal species, including S. intermedius, S. hyicus, S. xylosus and S. epidermidis, are able to produce SEs [9].
\n
1.1. Biological characteristics of staphylococcal enterotoxins
\n
To date, 23 SEs and enterotoxin-like (SEls) types have been described based on their antigenicity. They have sequentially been assigned a letter of the alphabet in order of their discovery (SEA, SEB, ….., SElX) [10–12]. SEA and SEB were the first one SEs characterized by Casman and Bergdoll in 1959 and 1960. From the late 1990s, new toxins were discovered one after another by sequencing the entire genome of S. aureus, genomic DNA library screening and genetic analysis of plasmids and pathogenicity islands [10]. Besides classical enterotoxins with emetic activity (SEA to SEE, SEG to SEI and SER to SET), there are also staphylococcal-like (SEl) proteins that exhibits vomiting activity in oral primate model (SElL and SElQ) or SElJ, SElK, SElM-SElP, SElU-SElX that have not been tested yet [10, 12–15].
\n
SEs and SEls proteins are globular, single peptides with molecular weights ranging from 19 to 29 kDa [16, 19]. Their molecular composition is characterized by containing only two residues of half cystine and one or two residues of tryptophane [20]. They are rich in lysine, aspartic and glutamic acids and tyrosine. Most of them possess a cysteine loop required for proper conformation and which is probably involved in the emetic activity [21]. Overall, 15% of amino acid residues are entirely conserved in SEs and occurred in four stretches of primary sequence located either centrally or at the C-terminus [9].
\n
As it is seen in Table 1, all genes for SEs and SEls are located on mobile genetic elements, including plasmids, transposons, prophages, S. aureus pathogenicity islands (SaPI), variable genomic region vSaβ, or next to the staphylococcal cassette chromosome (SCC) elements. Only the staphylococcal gene cluster egc is organized as an operon. Most of these are mobile elements, thus horizontal transfer between strains is not rare [15, 16, 18, 22].
General properties of SEs and SEls and genomic location of the encoding genes.
Source: Argudín et al. [15], Hu et al. [10], Omoe et al. [16], Jin and Yamada [17].
\n
Distribution of superantigens (SAg) gene is strain dependent. As reported by Jin and Yamada [17], 80% of human isolates contain at least one of these genes, including 50% which contain the egc cluster. In animal isolates, 57% contain at least one of the SAg genes and the egc cluster was detected in 30% of isolates [21]. No single SAg is encoded by more than 50% of strains and that some strains may not have superantigenic capacity at all [15]. Moreover, the production of specific SEs may depend on the host environment [17].
\n
Staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) and SE-like toxins (SEls) are the most notable virulence factors associated with S. aureus and they are involved in food poisoning, toxic shock syndrome and staphylococcal infectious diseases in human. They belong to the broad family of pyrogenic toxin superantigens that stimulate non-specific T-cell proliferation. As superantigens, SEs bind directly to the outside of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules on antigen-presenting cells and cross-link it to T-cell antigen receptor variable β (Vβ)-chain, which initiates non-specific activation of the T-cell without proteolytic processing in antigen-presenting cells. Thanks to it, the massive release of chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokine is followed after T-cell proliferation, resulting in systemic shock [12, 15, 19, 23, 24]. The interaction activates as many as one in five T-cells, whereas the conventional antigen presentation activates on in 10,000 T-cells [21].
\n
Besides superantigen activity, SEs (but not SEls) act also as a potent gastrointestinal toxins causing emesis. SEs can penetrate the epithelium, accumulate in the submucosa, enter the blood stream and circulate through the body allowing activation of local and systemic immune response by their interaction with antigen-presenting- and T-cells [16, 25]. SEA binds in submucosa to the submucosal mast cells or directly to neuron cells [10, 26]. The binding of SEA to an unidentified receptor expressed on the surface of these cells induces the degranulation, resulting in the release of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). This stimulates 5-HT receptor on adjacent vagal afferent nerves in the intestine resulting in depolarization of the vagal nerves and stimulation of the vomiting centre in the brain [10, 16]. The release of 5-HT can be direct after interaction of SEA with enterochromaffin cells or neurons or indirect through the release of pro-inflammatory molecules or free-radical formation [13, 26]. It appears that besides 5-HT, also the serotonin pathway is involved in emesis, since serotonin is an important signalling mediator in the gastrointestinal tract and can activate enteric neurons, stimulate muscle responses and enhance secretion [23]. Release of inflammatory mediators (histamine, leukotrienes and neuroenteric peptide substance P) is responsible for local damage of gastrointestinal tract. The most severe lesions appear in the stomach and the upper part of the small intestine. Due to the inhibition of water and electrolyte reabsorption in small intestine, diarrhoea may occur [16, 25]. The dose of SEs inducing emetic activity in monkeys after oral administration ranged from 5 to 600 μg/animal [10]. The minimal dose required for intoxication in human is 144 ± 50 ng/humans for SEA and 0.4 μg/humans for SEB. All the SEls that were tested induced emetic reaction in monkeys at a dose of 100 μg/kg [11].
\n
Although emetic and superantigenic activities are two separate functions localized on separate domains of the proteins, there is a high correlation between these activities and in most cases a loss of superantigen activity results in loss of emetic activity as [11, 18]. However, the role of SEls in human food-poisoning outbreaks currently remains unclear [12].
\n
1.2. Prevalence of staphylococcal enterotoxins in humans and animals
\n
Approximately 20–60% of humans are permanent or intermittent carriers of S. aureus, which harbours SE genes in one- to two-thirds of cases [17]. Among SEs, SEA and SED are the most frequent agents in food-borne intoxications [27, 28]. The regulation of production of SE is SE-dependent, as well as strain- and environment-dependent. Under the same conditions, different strains may produce different amounts of SE and in different growth phases. This reflects also in considerable variability in amounts and types of SEs produced by S. aureus growing under optimal conditions.
\n
For SEB and SEC, the amounts may exceed 100 μg/ml, compared with 1–10 μg/ml for SEA and SED. Some indications exists that low amounts of SEB are produced already in early exponential growth phase and it can appear in cultures as early as 4–6 h. However, SEA and SED are produced in foods under a wider range of pH, redox potential (Eh) and water activity (aw) than are the other SEs, which explain why SEA and SED are principal toxins involved in staphylococcal food poisoning [11]. SEA is expressed from the mid-exponential growth phase, but is not regulated by the accessory gene regulator agr, unlike seb, sec and sed, which require a functional agr for maximal expression [18].
\n
The sea gene was the most predominant (41%) among isolates from raw and pasteurized milk studied by Rall et al. [29]. In food samples analysed by Aydin et al. [30], the SEA was found in 38%. Also, SEA and also SEB were presented in bovine isolates in 5–19%, in ewes’ and goats’ isolates in about 2–11% [21]. SEA is predominantly produced by human strains, so the connection with food contamination during the manufacture is possible [31]. On the other hand, SEC is considered the most important cause of staphylococcal food poisoning associated with the consumption of dairy products [27]. In dairy goat herds, the most prevalent was SEC (71%), with overall 72% prevalence of enterotoxinogenic isolates [32]. Also in 152 S. aureusstrains isolated from cheese samples, the SEC was detected in 44% [28]. In food samples, the SEC was the most prevalent (52%) [30]. In bovine isolates, the SEC occurred in 1–27%, 22–42% in ewes’ isolates and 23% in caprine isolates. SED was produced by 6–35% of bovine isolates, by 2–35% of ewes’ milk isolates and by 2% of caprine isolates [20].
\n
1.3. Resistance of staphylococcal enterotoxins to environmental factors
\n
SEs are highly stable, resist most proteolytic enzymes (pepsin or trypsin) thus keeping their activity in the digestive tract after ingestion. They are also resisting chymotrypsin, rennin and papain. Based on the poor ability of proteolytic enzymes to affect the biological activity of SEs, it is not surprising that SE levels are unaffected by proteolytic or enteric bacteria. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), however, do decrease SE concentrations. It could not be accounted for the addition of lactic acid alone, suggesting the involvement of specific enzymes of other metabolites. Alternatively, selective physical adsorption of toxin to LAB may have occurred during removal of cells to obtain supernatants from toxin assays [9].
\n
1.3.1. Heat resistance
\n
SEs are in general produced in a temperature range of 10–46°C, with the optimum at 40–45°C. Their production is substantially reduced at 20–25°C and it is unlikely that they are produced at temperatures below 10°C [19, 33, 34]. They can resist both the process of milk pasteurization and sterilization of canned foods [20, 36]. The heat stability of SEs is not the same for all of them and depends on the food matrix and toxin concentration. It decreases in the order SEC>SEB>SEA and significantly reduces in acidic conditions [3].
\n
The thermal inactivation can generally be described by D- and z-values representing the time (at certain temperature) and the increase of temperature responsible for decimal reduction of their activity, respectively. They are for SEs as follows: D121°C ranges from 8.3 to 34 min or D100°C is about 70 min and z-value is 25–33°C, with some differences among specific SEs [9, 36, 37]. The biological activity of SEB retains after heating at 60°C for 16 h and pH 7.3. Heating of SEC for 30 min at 60°C did not result in any change in serological reactions. However, the loss of serological reaction of SEA was noticed after its heating for 3 min at 80°C or for 1 min at 100°C. It should also be mentioned that even after SEs lose serological activity in detection of immunological assay, they can remain biologically active [11]. Heat stability seems to be dependent on the media the toxin is in, the pH, salt concentration and other environmental factors related to the level of toxin denaturation [18].
\n
1.3.2. Acid tolerance
\n
The pH range allowing the production of SEs is limited in higher degree as the growth of a producing strain. Optimum enterotoxin production occurs at pH 6–7 and it is influenced by environmental conditions, carbon and nitrogen source and salt level [33]. Already pH 5.0 is generally considered as a lower limit pH value. The SEA is produced under a wider range of pH than SEB or SEC [19, 38]. SEB can be destroyed by pepsin digestion at pH 2 but it is resistant at higher pHs, which are normal conditions in the stomach after food ingestion [9].
\n
1.3.3. Salt resistance
\n
A characteristic feature that distinguishes S. aureus from other pathogenic bacteria is its high tolerance to NaCl concentrations up to 20% which means high osmotic pressure and low water activity values. Generally, it is reported that the minimal water activity for the S. aureus growth is in the range of aw from 0.83 to 0.86 [33–36].
\n
With respect to enterotoxins production requirements, values of water activity for their production are mostly in the same range as for the growth of the producer. In food with decreased water activity and at aerobic conditions, the enterotoxins can be produced even if the aw value is from 0.86 to 0.89 (at 22–17% NaCl). The production of SEB appears to be more sensitive to reduced water activity than SEA production. Whereas SEA is produced up to aw 0.87–0.89 (20–17% NaCl), SEB is produced only in the narrow range of 2–5% NaCl (aw 0.99-0.97) [34, 39].
\n
2. Effect of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on the growth dynamics of S. aureus and enterotoxin D production
\n
Many intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect not only the growth of food-borne microbial pathogens but also metabolism and production of toxins. As SEs are extremely heat-stable and cannot be inactivated by measures such as heating of food, it is crucial to prevent their formation by preventing S. aureus growth in food matrix. In this term, NaCl addition (expressed as water activity) and LAB are suggested as the most frequent, not only during the production of cheese. The inhibition of staphylococci by LAB is related to the poor competition of S. aureus with antagonistic activities of indigenous bacteria in raw milk.
\n
2.1. Effect of temperature and water activity on the growth dynamics of S. aureus and enterotoxin D production
\n
The growth of S. aureus 14733 isolate in nutrient broth in dependence on mutual effect of temperature and water activity in the range from 1.0 to 0.84 (adjusted by NaCl addition) is demonstrated in Figure 1. Corresponding growth parameters were calculated using DMFit tool [40] and further analysed by secondary models (Figure 2, Table 2). Characterization of S. aureus ability to grow and to produce SEs at such low water activity values is important in respect to cases when the competitive microbiota is inhibited by aw down to 0.92 and the monoculture S. aureus growth may still occur following SEs production.
Model equation/validation coefficients
Af
Bf
%Df
R2
%V
RSS
RMSE
%SEP
lnμ18=−32.829⋅bw2+4.961⋅bw−1.338
1.117
1.001
11.7
0.974
96.9
0.0038
0.0142
9.2
lnμ21=−59.491⋅bw2+16.983⋅bw−2.048
1.175
1.000
17.5
0.942
93.0
0.0121
0.0252
12.8
lnμ37=−35.936⋅bw2+8.010⋅bw+0.159
1.096
0.999
9.6
0.988
98.6
0.0782
0.0538
8.2
ln(1/lag18)=−24.835⋅aw2+29.858⋅aw−7.068
1.327
1.003
32.7
0.921
90.3
1.4436
0.2832
0.8
ln(1/lag21)=−49.760⋅aw2+76.322⋅aw−27.672
1.217
0.999
21.7
0.980
97.7
0.8456
0.1961
1.3
ln(1/lag37)=−129.915⋅aw2+255.970⋅aw−126.570
1.246
0.999
24.6
0.973
96.9
1.3102
0.2203
5.1
Table 2.
Result of validation of Gibson’s model describing the effect of water activity on specific growth rate and Davey’s model describing lag phase duration of S. aureus 14733 in nutrient broth.
\n
Figure 1.
Growth dynamics of S. aureus 14733 in nutrient broth at 18, 21 and 37°C in dependence on water activity (, ■, ▲, ● counts of S. aureus 14733, no SED; ◊, □, ∆, counts of S. aureus 14733, SED detected).
\n
Figure 2.
Plots of natural logarithm of specific growth rate (2a; ln μ) and reciprocal lag phase (2b; ln 1/lag) of S. aureus in nutrient broth at 18 (■), 21 (♦) and 37°C (●) in dependence on water activity. Symbols indicate values calculated from growth curves at each incubation conditions. The continuous lines indicate the fitted of ln μ (or ln 1/lag) versus aw function, where lnμ=A.bw2+B.bw+C, ln1lag=Aaw2+Baw+C and bw=1−aw; A, B and C are the estimated parameters.
\n
In general, a decrease of water activity prolonged the lag-phase duration and slowed down growth rate, until the minimal water activity was reached. At 18°C and aw = 0.869 (18.17% NaCl), there was no upgrowth observed and even more, the slow reduction (μ = −0.007 h−1) of S. aureus counts was noticed. Similar effect was observed also at 21°C as the isolate could not withstand the same aw value of 0.869 and started to decline with specific rate μ = −0.023 h−1. On the contrary, the growth of S. aureus at aw = 0.867 and 19°C was noticed with the high probability that highlights the differences between strains [41]. At 37°C, S. aureus was able to grow up to almost 20% of NaCl (aw = 0.860) in the nutrient media. Only if the water activity reached 0.855, the decline of S. aureuswas observed with rate μ = −0.025 h−1. It grew at 37°C much faster compared to strain ATCC 13565 in BHI broth [42]. Specific growth rates of isolate 14733 and strain ATCC 13565 at aw = 0.997 were 1.796 h−1 and 0.970 h−1, respectively. At aw = 0.960, the following specific growth rates were calculated, 1.558 h−1 and 0.240 h−1, respectively. On the other hand, the growth rates of 14733 isolate in nutrient broth at 18, 21 and 37°C were comparable with isolates 2064 and D1 grown in both milk and nutrient broth [43] and also with the isolate used by Fujikawa and Morozumi [44]. The average values of growth rates of S. aureus 14733 were slightly lower than those predicted by Combase Predictor or Pathogen Modelling Program [45, 46].
\n
It was also noticed that except for cases when S. aureus 14733 population was inhibited by high salt amounts, it reached 7 log counts in stationary phase. At all studied temperatures, counts higher than 7 log were reached up to aw 0.890 (approx. 13% NaCl). Thirty per cent glucose in LB broth resulted in a decreased maximal cell densities in stationary phase of about 0.5–1 log [47].
\n
The range in which the SED was (full markers) or was not (empty markers) detected during the growth of S. aureus 14733 in nutrient broth at 18, 21 and 37°C is also shown in Figure 1. It is assumed that the minimal concentration of S. aureus of 105 CFU/ml is needed for SEs production [35, 48, 49]. However, in our case, S. aureus 14733 was able to produce SED also at lower cell counts. At 18°C, the SED was detected at aw 0.995 after only 9 h, even if the S. aureus concentration was 4.6 × 103 log CFU/ml. Surprisingly, also at such a low water activity value as aw 0.907 (13.05% NaCl), the SED was detected after 73 h if the S. aureus concentration was only 3.6 × 103 log CFU/ml. Although the isolate was able to grow at aw 0.887 with the specific growth rate of μ = 0.025 h−1, the SED was detected only after 11 days of incubation and counts higher than 6 log CFU/ml. There were also some evidences of lack of the SEs production at counts higher than 105 CFU/ml [11].
\n
At 21°C, the SED was not produced as sooner as after 24 h of incubation and even not at almost optimal water activity value (aw 0.988) and S. aureus densities of 2.8 × 104 log CFU/ml. On the other hand, at aw 0.946 the SED was detected in 24 h at 1.4 × 104 log CFU/ml and also at 1.4 × 105 log CFU/ml at aw 0.899 after 121 h of incubation. Production of SEA seems to be more dependent on S. aureus counts [50]. They detected SEA in tryptone soy (TSB) broth at 20°C after 30 h of incubation and if S. aureus counts were higher than 6.04 log CFU/ml.
\n
The most rapid SED production was naturally observed at 37°C. At the higher water activity values, aw 0.996 and 0.989, the SED was produced after only 4 h of incubation. The S. aureus counts needed for the SED production reached concentrations of 2.0 × 105 log CFU/ml and 5.9 × 104 log CFU/ml, in order. Also at aw = 0.949, 0.932 and 0.913, the SED was produced when S. aureus 14733 reached minimal counts of 4 log CFU/ml. Moreover, at 37°C the SED was also detected at such low water activity values as aw 0.857 or 0.842, when S. aureus counts were only 5 log CFU/ml. Higher minimal S. aureus counts (5.65 log CFU/ml) were needed for SEA production in TSB broth that was detected after 9 h of incubation [50].
\n
Further, the Gibson’s model secondary model Gibson et al. [51] was used to characterise the influence of water activity and temperature on the specific growth rate of S. aureus 14733. Growth of S. aureus 14733 in nutrient broth was positively determined with the increasing value of water activity, resulting in shortening of the lag phase duration and more intensive growth in exponential phase. The growth of S. aureus in dependence on water activity at 18, 21 and 37 °C can be characterised by equations summarised in Table 2 and it is depicted in Figure 2a. The lag phase was described by means of the model by Daughtry et al. [52] according to equation summarised in Table 2 which graphical representation is shown in Figure 2b.
\n
For the Gibson’s model, the discrepancy factors ranged from 9.6% to 17.5%, so the model can be considered as very consistent. This model can be also used for the determination of optimal water activity value at each temperature. So, the optimal growth of S. aureus 14733 in nutrient broth at 18 °C can be expected at aw = 0.994, at 21°C at aw = 0.980 and at 37°C at water activity value of 0.986. The prediction of lag phase duration would be estimated with 22-33 % error according to Davey’s model. Taking into account that 12-37% of the bound of reliability during cultivation methods is tolerable; these finding demonstrate that the duration of lag phase and also the growth rate of S. aureus can be predicted with a defined degree of reproducibility.
\n
With regard to the EU Commission Regulation 1441/2007 [53], the total S. aureus numbers in raw milk cheese should not exceed the process hygiene criterion of 4 log CFU/g. Based on a total of 23 examinations of SED presence in nutrient broth with different NaCl concentration at temperatures 18, 21 and 37°C, in 8.7% of cases S. aureus 14733 was able to produce SED even if the cell concentration was lower than 4 log CFU/ml. In further 22% of cases, the SED was detected if the S. aureus 14733 counts were lower than 5 log CFU/ml, considered as a safe limit of mentioned EU regulation. It is well documented in Figure 3, where the process hygiene criteria are depicted with the red net, green dots represent samples negative for SED presence and blue dots represent positive SED samples at each water activity and temperature.
Figure 3.
Mutual effect of water activity and temperature on the production of SED in nutrient broth in dependence to S. aureus 14733 counts. The green dots represent samples negative for SED presence and blue dots represent positive SED samples.
\n
Based on the results, S. aureus 14733 can be considered as a strong SED producer, and the SED production is not limited with the incubation temperature and the NaCl addition (up to 15% at 18 and 21°C and up to 20% at 37°C). This complies with the study of Sihto et al. [47] who also observed that glucose stress (in 30% addition) had no statistically significant effect on sed expression during all phases of S. aureus growth in LB broth. Moreover, Valihrach et al. found that the fat content of milk, origin of milk (cow, goat and sheep), had only an insignificant effect on the SEC production by different S. aureus strains [54]. On the other hand, some strain-dependent differences were observed and the higher SEC production was achieved by strains originated from ewes’ milk indicating a better adaptation of such a strain on the host environment. Naturally, the highest amounts of SEs are produced at 37°C, as an optimal temperature, compared to lower temperatures. However, SEs production is significantly decreased in milk compared to synthetic nutrient medium. It is worth mentioning also the faster growth of S. aureus in liquid culture compared to solid food matrices indicating that the higher growth rate may stimulate enterotoxin gene expression. On food matrix, S. aureus cells must attach, adapt, and substantially grow under food condition, while in the nutrient broth the bacteria are planktonic and produce enterotoxin earlier than on solid medium [50]. Also, the expression of SEs is coordinated by many regulatory elements, including agr regulatory system. The agr positively regulates expression not only of SEs and this expression increases simultaneously with increasing cell density [55].
\n
2.2. Effect of temperature, pH value and water activity on the growth dynamics of S. aureus and enterotoxin D production
\n
As it was mentioned above, the traditional artisanal production of “Bryndza” cheese includes fermentation in the presence of LAB, ripening at temperatures from 18 to 21°C and salting with 2–5% NaCl resulting in final soft cheese [1, 2]. In this context, the growth and the production of SED by S. aureus 14733 in nutrient broth at 18 and 21°C and optimal temperature of 37°C were observed in relation to pH value (adjusted by lactic acid to values 6.0, 5.5, 5.0 and 4.5). Subsequently, the mutual effect of lactic acid (pH 6.0, 5.5 and 5.0) and water activity (aw = 0.99; 1.7% NaCl and aw = 0.97; 5% NaCl) at the same temperatures on the S. aureus growth and the SED production in the nutrient broth was analysed.
\n
As it is shown in Figure 4, the combination of reduced pH value (to values 6.0 and 5.5) and water activity value (0.99 and 0.97) did not inhibit the growth dynamic of S. aureus 14733 almost at all. However, further decrease of pH value down to 5.0 led to the lag-phase prolongation, slowing of the growth rate in exponential phase and to the decrease of the maximal cell concentration in stationary phase at 18 and 21°C. In accordance to these results, it can be supposing that during cheese ripening at 18–21°C, the S. aureus growth inhibition can be expected only if the rapid decrease of pH is achieved. But in the case of optimal temperature, even the pH 5.0 is not sufficient to slow down its growth dynamic.
Figure 4.
Growth dynamics of S. aureus 14733 in nutrient broth at 18, 21 and 37°C in dependence on water activity and pH value (♦ value 6.0, water activity 0.99, ■ pH value 5.5, water activity 0.99, ♦ pH value 6.0, water activity 0.97, ■ pH value 5.5, water activity 0.97, ▲ pH value 5.0, and water activity 0.99).
\n
Taking into account the SED production by S. aureus 14733 in dependence to pH and water activity, the strong inhibitive effect of pH down to 4.5 or the combination of pH 5.5 and aw 0.97 was observed (Table 3). The SED was not detected at any temperature if the pH of 4.5 was adjusted by the lactic acid. Compared to the experiments when no NaCl was added to the nutrient broth at pH 6.5, the minimal S. aureus counts for SED production of 4.6 × 103 CFU/ml (at 18°C) were needed. In the case of pH decreased to 6.0, the minimal S. aureus counts increased to 6.3 × 105 CFU/ml. Also, the prolongation of the time when the SED was detected from 9 to 28 h was observed at 18°C. And even the minimal S. aureus counts did not increase with the decreasing pH value; the time of positive SED determination extended to 42 h at pH 5.5 and 5.0. The longer time required for SED production in the presence of only lactic acid, compared to combination of lactic acid and NaCl presence, was observed also at 21 and 37°C, although that at 37°C the SED was detected at pH 5.0 after 6 h of incubation.
T (°C)
pH
aw
μ (h−1)
(+) log CFU/ml
18
6.0
–
0.221
5.8 (28 h)
5.5
–
0.320
5.7 (42 h)
5.0
–
0.119
4.9 (42 h)
4.5
–
−0.016
–
6.0
0.99
0.246
5.5 (28 h)
6.0
0.97
0.239
4.9 (28 h)
5.5
0.99
0.364
5.4 (28 h)
5.5
0.97
0.216
–
21
6.0
–
0.392
6.2 (22 h)
5.5
–
0.375
6.3 (22 h)
5.0
–
0.306
6.1 (32 h)
4.5
–
0.007
–
6.0
0.99
0.378
6.1 (22 h)
6.0
0.97
0.295
6.5 (32 h)
5.5
0.99
0.389
6.0 (22 h)
5.5
0.97
0.258
6.2 (32 h)
37
6.0
–
2.287
5.2 (4 h)
5.5
–
2.057
3.9 (4 h)
5.0
–
1.064
3.3 (6 h)
4.5
–
0.039
–
6.0
0.99
1.847
4.8 (4 h)
6.0
0.97
1.534
3.6 (4 h)
5.5
0.99
1.403
3.9 (4 h)
5.5
0.97
1.073
4.9 (6 h)
Table 3.
Effect of pH value and water activity on the growth parameters and production of SED by S. aureus 14733 in nutrient broth at 18, 21 and 37°C.
μ, specific growth rate of S. aureus 14733; (+), SED detected in specific time of incubation.
\n
In the term of SEs production inhibition during cheese manufacture, a rapid decrease in pH value down to pH 5.0 as fast as possible within first 6 h of cheese production is strongly recommended. This was also emphasized by Delbes et al. [48]. They observed that the critical phase of exponential phase of staphylococci occurs mainly within the first 6 h and the rapid pH decrease within this phase significantly contributed to the inhibition of staphylococci in young cheese. Moreover, if pH exceeded 6.3 within the first 6 h, also the SEs production was detected in cell concentration higher than 5 log CFU/g.
\n
With regard to the study of Valihrach et al. [54], based on a total of 24 examinations of SED presence in the nutrient broth in dependence to mutual effect of water activity (aw 0.99 and 0.97) and pH value (6.0 and 5.5) or pH value (6.0, 5.5, 5.0 and 4.5) at temperatures 18, 21 and 37°C, in 17% of cases S. aureus 14733 was able to produce SED even if the cell concentration was lower than 4 log CFU/ml. In further 17% of cases, the SED was detected if the S. aureus 14733 counts were lower than 5 log CFU/ml.
\n
2.3. Effect of lactic acid bacteria addition and temperature on the growth dynamics of S. aureus and enterotoxin D production
\n
In dairy practise, the initial numbers of S. aureus play an important role especially at the beginning of the milk fermentation within the first 6 h or in 24-h-old cheese. As we presented in our previous works [43, 56], one of the most effective tools to inhibit S. aureus growth is to add a sufficient amount of active dairy starters, which are able to produce lactic acid very rapidly. Thus, inhibiting the growth of S. aureus also, the production of SEs may be inhibited. This effect can be also seen in Figure 5, where the growth of S. aureus 14733 in the presence of two different Fresco starter culture additions was studied at 15, 18, and 21°C in milk. Those temperatures represent temperatures during ripening of original ewes’ lump cheese from raw milk and 15°C is the minimal temperature for proper fermentation process.
Figure 5.
Growth dynamics and pH value changes during co-cultivation of S. aureus 14733 and Fresco culture in milk at 15, 18 and 21°C. ♦ presumptive LAB on M17 agar, □ counts of S. aureus 14733, no SED, ■ counts of S. aureus 14733, SED detected, ∆ pH value.
\n
During co-cultivation of S. aureus 14733 with Fresco culture in milk, the cessation of S. aureus growth was observed before the drop of pH observed could significantly affect the growth of S. aureus (Table 4). In the experiment at 18°C, inhibition occurred at pH values of 6.55–6.55. At 21°C, cessation of growth was observed for pH values around 6.45. As it was shown previously, S. aureus 14733 was able to grow under much more acidic stress. When only lactic acid was present in the nutrient media, the specific growth rate of S. aureus 14733 of 0.119 h−1 was calculated at pH 5.0 and 18°C. At 21°C, the growth at pH 4.5 with very low specific growth rate (0.007 h−1) was noticed, but at pH 5.0, specific growth rate 0.306 h−1 was reached by S. aureus 14733. Results also showed that S. aureus could grow at much lower pH values in liquid media (pH 5.25 and 4.48 at 15 and 30°C, respectively) [36]. On the other hand, they did not observe its growth during co-culture with starter cultures at pH 6.8, assuming that the S. aureus growth inhibition cannot be attributed only to a drop in pH.
T (°C)
N0, FR (log CFU/ml)
pHlag (h)
Nmax, STA (log CFU/ml)
Nmax, STA– N0, STA (log CFU/ml)
μSTA (h−1)
μFR (h−1)
15
3.26
24.7
4.20
1.16
0.061
0.397
4.23
28.6
3.98
0.90
0.104
0.375
18
3.32
25.7
5.48
1.56
0.226
0.500
4.30
19.0
4.32
1.09
0.135
0.447
21
2.04
15.2
5.26
2.27
0.215
0.426
3.04
14.2
4.46
1.52
0.144
0.421
Table 4.
Growth parameters of S. aureus 14733 and the pH lag phase in dependence to Fresco culture addition and incubation temperature.
\n
So, even pH and lactic acid play only a minor role in growth inhibition, we may suppose that the expression of genes responsible for SEs production may be influenced negatively. In addition, the S. aureus growth inhibition may be accounted to the accumulation of antistaphylococcal substances produced by the LAB present in the Fresco culture [56]. As reported by Charlier et al. [49], several parameters were proposed as involved in S. aureus inhibition by LAB, including bacteriocin and hydrogen peroxide production, and competition for nutrients.
\n
During co-cultivation of 14733 isolate with Fresco culture, the SED was produced only after reaching S. aureus late stationary phase, however, only if its concentration was higher than 5 log CFU/ml. The minimal starter culture addition needed for S. aureus growth and SEs production inhibition at temperatures related to raw milk cheese manufacture should be at least 4 log CFU/ml. Taking into account Commission Regulation 1441/2007 [53], the presence of active starter culture of LAB is able to not only inhibit the growth of S. aureus but mainly prevent from SEs production. On top of that, the addition of starter culture can support the growth of natural LAB present in raw milk. Their inhibitory potential, involving not only acidification, can be used actively in safe cheese preparation. Moreover, the starter cultures not only effectively inhibit the growth of S. aureus during the fermentation of milk and raw milk cheese but also improve the sensorial properties of prepared cheese [57]. Certainly, these findings do not mean to overestimate the role of LAB and on the other hand to underestimate hygiene control. Minimizing the initial S. aureus numbers in raw milk down to 102 CFU/ml is of utmost importance in preventing from S. aureus population to reach densities necessary for SEs production during cheese manufacture. Our experiments were not focused on the inhibition of staphylococcal isolates with higher NaCl concentrations as salt generally inhibits LAB and support undesirable salt-tolerant bacteria, including staphylococci.
\n
3. Conclusion
\n
Based on this study focusing on the effect of temperature, pH, water activity and initial numbers of lactic acid bacteria on the growth and the ability of S. aureus 14733 to produce SED, we may consider it as a strong SED producer. The SED production was not limited with the incubation temperatures and the NaCl addition related to traditional cheese manufacture. As this isolate comes originally from such an artisanal cheese production, we can expect that also other enterotoxin-producing S. aureus strains could be able to produce SEs within the population under 104 CFU/ml or g in practice. It is absolutely necessary to apply strict prerequisites approach in hygiene to reach the initial number of S. aureus as low as possible.
\n
In terms of SEs production inhibition during cheese manufacture, a rapid decrease in pH value down to pH 5.0 as fast as possible within the first 6 h of cheese production is strongly recommended. The minimal starter culture addition needed for S. aureus growth and SEs production inhibition at temperatures related to raw milk cheese manufacture should be at least 4 log CFU/ml.
\n
Artisanal raw milk cheese production poses a few critical factors limiting its safety. With reference to the growth of S. aureus, commonly present in raw milk, many factors should be taken into consideration. From them, quantitative growth data, cheese type, NaCl content, nature, activity and type of the starter culture and mutual relation between S. aureus and lactic acid bacteria populations are predominant. Inhibitory starters producing bacteriocins may also be used. Thus, adding of a starter culture in artisanal cheese production is strongly recommended. This can be the only capable way of assuring the initial dominance of lactic acid bacteria and also supporting the growth of the natural LAB present in raw milk in competition with other undesirable bacteria.
Acknowledgments
\n
We thank MSc. Zuzana Sirotná, MPH, and her co-workers for the SED detection. The results of the research in this chapter were supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency, project no. APVV-15-0006.
\n',keywords:"staphylococcal enterotoxins, growth inhibition, water activity, lactic acid bacteria, predictive microbiology",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/53494.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/53494.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53494",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53494",totalDownloads:2352,totalViews:774,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:7,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:79,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 27th 2016",dateReviewed:"November 4th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 8th 2017",dateFinished:"December 17th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) and SE-like toxins (SEls) are the most notable virulence factors associated with Staphylococcus aureus. They are involved in food poisoning, toxic shock syndrome and staphylococcal infectious diseases in human. In dairy practise, the initial numbers of S. aureus play an important role especially at the beginning of the milk fermentation within the first 6 h or in 24-h-old cheese. As we presented in our previous works, one of the most effective tools to inhibit S. aureus growth is by adding a sufficient amount of active dairy starters, which are able to produce lactic acid very rapidly. Thus, by inhibiting the growth of S. aureus the production of SEs may be reached. Based on this study focusing on the effect of temperature, pH, water activity and initial numbers of lactic acid bacteria on the growth and the ability of S. aureus 14733 to produce SED, we consider it as a strong SED producer. The SED production was not limited with the incubation temperatures and the NaCl addition related to traditional cheese manufacture. As this isolate comes originally from such an artisanal cheese production, we can expect that other strong SE producer could be present in milk or environment. Besides strict prerequisites approach in production hygiene, it is necessary to add the starters ensuring the initial dominance of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and supporting the growth of the natural LAB present in raw milk.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/53494",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/53494",book:{id:"6045",slug:"the-rise-of-virulence-and-antibiotic-resistance-in-staphylococcus-aureus"},signatures:"Alžbeta Medved’ová, Adriana Havlíková and Ľubomír Valík",authors:[{id:"139980",title:"Prof.",name:"Ľubomír",middleName:null,surname:"Valík",fullName:"Ľubomír Valík",slug:"lubomir-valik",email:"lubomir.valik@stuba.sk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/139980/images/922_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}},{id:"143466",title:"Dr.",name:"Alžbeta",middleName:null,surname:"Medveďová",fullName:"Alžbeta Medveďová",slug:"alzbeta-medvedova",email:"alzbeta.medvedova@stuba.sk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}},{id:"191311",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Havlíková",fullName:"Adriana Havlíková",slug:"adriana-havlikova",email:"adriana.studenicova@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Biological characteristics of staphylococcal enterotoxins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Prevalence of staphylococcal enterotoxins in humans and animals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3. Resistance of staphylococcal enterotoxins to environmental factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.3.1. Heat resistance",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.3.2. Acid tolerance",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"1.3.3. Salt resistance",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8",title:"2. Effect of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on the growth dynamics of S. aureus and enterotoxin D production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.1. Effect of temperature and water activity on the growth dynamics of S. aureus and enterotoxin D production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.2. Effect of temperature, pH value and water activity on the growth dynamics of S. aureus and enterotoxin D production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.3. Effect of lactic acid bacteria addition and temperature on the growth dynamics of S. aureus and enterotoxin D production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Valík Ľ, Görner F, Polka PS. Fermentation of ewes lump cheese in sheep farm manufacture. Sheep Goats. 2004;24:23–24.'},{id:"B2",body:'Görner F, Valík Ľ. Applied Microbiology of Foodstuffs. Bratislava: Malé Centrum; 2004. 524 p.'},{id:"B3",body:'Ote I, Taminiau B, Duprez J-N, Dizier I, Mainil JG. Genotypic characterization by polymerase chain reaction of Staphylococcus aureus isolates with bovine mastitis. Veterinary Microbiology. 2011;153:285–292. DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.05.042'},{id:"B4",body:'Garzoni C, Kelly W. Staphylococcus aureus: new evidence for intracellular persistence. Trends in Microbiology. 2009;17:59–65. DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2008.11.005'},{id:"B5",body:'Halpin-Dohnalek M, Marth E. 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Staphylococcal enterotoxin induces emesis through increasing serotonin release in intestine and it is downregulated by cannabinoid receptor 1. Cell Microbiology. 2007;9:2267–2277. DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2007.00957.x'},{id:"B26",body:'Ono HK, Nishizawa M, Yamamoto Y, Hu DL, Namane A, Schinagawa K, Omoe K. Submucosal mast cells in the gastrointestinal tract are a target of staphylococcal enterotoxin type A. FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology. 2012;64:392–402. DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695X.2011.00924.x'},{id:"B27",body:'Normanno G, LaSalandra G, Dambrosio A, Quaglia NC, Corrente M, Parisi A, Santagada G, Firinu A, Crisetti E, Celano GV. Occurrence, characterisation and antimicrobial resistance of enterotoxinogenic Staphylococcus aureus isolated from meat and dairy products. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2007;115:290–296. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.10.049'},{id:"B28",body:'Rosengren Å, Fabricius A, Guss B, Sylvén S, Lindqvist R. Occurrence of foodborne pathogens and characterization of Staphylococcus aureus in cheese produced on farm-dairies. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2010;144:263–269. DOI: 10.1014/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.10.004'},{id:"B29",body:'Rall VLM, Vieira FP, Rall R, Vieitis RL, Fernandes Jr.A, CAndeias JMG, Cardoso KFG, Araújo Jr. JP. PCR detection of staphylococcal enterotoxin genes in Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from raw and pasteurized milk. Veterinary Microbiology. 2008;132:408–413. DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.05.011'},{id:"B30",body:'Aydin A, Sudagidan M, Muratoglu K. Prevalence of staphylococcal enterotoxins, toxin genes and genetic-relatedness of foodborne Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated in the Marmara Region of Turkey. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2011;148:99–106. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2011.05.007'},{id:"B31",body:'Akineden Ö, Hassan AA, Scheider E, Usleber E. 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Predictive modelling of growth of Staphylococcus aureus: the effects of temperature, pH and sodium chloride. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 1994;21:217–236. DOI: 10.1016/0168-1605(94)90029-9'},{id:"B37",body:'Notermans S, van Hoeij K. The food safety file: Staphylococcus aureus. Woerden: Food Doctors; 2008. 39 p.'},{id:"B38",body:'Ertas N, Gonulalan Z, Yildirim Y, Kum E. Detection of Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins in sheep cheese and dairy desserts by multiplex PCR technique. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2010;142:74–77. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.06.002'},{id:"B39",body:'Ewald S, Notermans S. Effect of water activity on growth and enterotoxin D production of Staphylococcus aureus. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 1998;6:25–30.'},{id:"B40",body:'Baranyi J, Roberts TA, McClure P. A non-autonomous differential equation to model bacterial growth. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 1993;10:43–59. 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Modelling Staphylococcus aureus growth and enterotoxin production in milk. Food Microbiology. 2006;23:260–267. DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2005.04.005'},{id:"B45",body:'ComBase – Combined Database for Predictive Microbiology. Available from: http://www.combase.cc/index.php/en/'},{id:"B46",body:'Pathogen Modeling Program (PMP), US Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS). Available from: http://pmp.errc.ars.usda.gov/PMPOnline.aspx'},{id:"B47",body:'Sihto H-M, Tasara T, Stephan R, Johler S. Growth behaviour and temporal enterotoxin D expression of Staphylococcus aureus strains under glucose and lactic acid stress. Food Control. 2016;62:69–73. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.10.008'},{id:"B48",body:'Delbes C, Alomar J, Chougui N, Martin J-F, Montel MCH. Staphylococcus aureus growth and enterotoxin production during manufacture of cooked, semihard cheese from cows’ milk. Journal of Food Protection. 2006;69:2161–2167'},{id:"B49",body:'Charlier C, Even S, Gautier M, LeLoir Y. Acidification is not involved in the early inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus growth by Lactococcuslactis in milk. International Dairy Journal. 2008;18:197–203. DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2007.03.015'},{id:"B50",body:'Tango Ch-N, Hong S-S, Wang J, Oh D-H. Assessment of enterotoxin production and cross-contamination of Staphylococcus aureus between food processing materials and ready to-eat cooked fish paste. Journal of Food Science. 2015;80:M2911–M2916. DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.13143.'},{id:"B51",body:'Gibson A, Baranyi J, Pitt JI, Eyles MJ, Roberts TA. Predicting fungal growth: the effect of water activity on Aspergillus flavus and related species. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 1994;23:419–431. DOI: 10.1016/0168-1605(94)90167-8'},{id:"B52",body:'Daughtry B, Davey K, King K. Temperature dependence of growth kinetics of food bacteria. Food Microbiology. 1997;14:21–30. DOI: 10.1006/fmic.1996.0064'},{id:"B53",body:'Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1441/2007 amending Regulation (EC) No. 2073/2005 on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs. Official Journal of the European Union. 2007;322: 29 pp.'},{id:"B54",body:'Valihrach L, Alikayov B, Demnerova K. Production of staphylococcal enterotoxin C in milk. International Dairy Journal. 2013;630:103–107. DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2013.01.003'},{id:"B55",body:'Novick RP, Geisinger E. Qourum sensing in staphylococci. Annual Review in Genetics. 2008;42:541–564. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.genet.42.110807.091640'},{id:"B56",body:'LeMarc Y, Valík Ľ, Medved’ová A. Modelling the effect of the starter culture on the growth of Staphylococcus aureus in milk. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2009;129:306–311. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.12.015'},{id:"B57",body:'Medved’ová A, Studeničová A, Valík Ľ, Ondruš L. Microbial and sensory quality of raw milk cheeses from the milk vending machines. Acta Chimica Slovaca. 2013;6:49–54. DOI: 10.2478/acs-2013-0009'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Alžbeta Medved’ová",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Nutrition and Food Quality Assessment, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
Department of Nutrition and Food Quality Assessment, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
Department of Nutrition and Food Quality Assessment, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
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1. Introduction
Since the successful exfoliation of graphene [1], a group of materials with two-dimensional structures have revived and are attracting explosive interests from a variety of fields, including transistors [2], photodetectors [3], chemical sensors, memories, and artificial synapses [4, 5]. This is benefited from the versatile properties, of 2D materials defined not only by their crystal structure (1 T, 2H, etc.) but also by their layer number, i.e., the electrical conductivity and optical bandgaps [6]. The transition metal chalcogenides (TMDs) of 1 T or 1 T’ phase usually manifest metallic behavior, while in 2H phase, they are semiconductor and can be transformed into insulator by field-effect modulation [7]. Meanwhile, monolayer MoS2, WSe2, and MoTe2 are transformed into direct band semiconductor with greatly improved photoluminescence yield compared to their indirect bulk form, rendering the further fabrication of light emitting diodes [8, 9]. The recent appearance of 2D ferroelectric materials from direct chemical synthesis or atom doping has further enriched the physical properties of 2D semiconductors [10, 11]. These rapid evolution of 2D materials with diverse physical and chemical properties motivates enduring efforts to explore various property tuning and integration strategies in functional devices, e.g., via chemical doping, alloying, or constructing heterostructures [12].
An indispensable feature of the 2D materials is their van der Waals interlayer coupling, which is weak enough compared to covalent or ionic bonding to enable mechanical or electrochemical exfoliation [13]. The exfoliated 2D materials in monolayer or few layer thicknesses can then be artificially stacked, either laterally or vertically, making heterostructures in various forms that are not possible in conventional semiconductors with 3D crystal lattice (Si, III-V, and oxides) due to the lattice mismatch. The great flexibility in assembling 2D materials thus renders unprecedented opportunity in discovering novel nanoscale transport phenomenon [14] and carrier dynamics and stimulates the exploration of 2D functional devices via deliberately designing the heterostructures. In optoelectronics, this enabled the tailoring of charge separation characteristics of photogenerated electron–hole pairs in semiconductors [15], thereby allowing innovated designs of heterostructured transistors [16, 17], tunneling diode for photodetection [18, 19], and further optoelectronic memories with float gate structures [20].
In this chapter, we first introduce the basic design of heterostructures for optoelectronics and the pick-transfer methods for their artificial assembly and then discuss the recent progress in fabricating novel 2D vdW heterostructures for functional devices. In view of the rapid progress in this field, the chapter is not intended to cover all aspects of the field but focus on optoelectronic-related application, typically photodiode and phototransistors for photodetection and optoelectronic memories that integrate both light sensing and memory function.
2. Type I, II, and III heterostructures for optoelectronics
The interfacial energy band alignment in heterostructures governs the carrier dynamics in devices and therefore determines directly their functional performances. Depending on the relative positions of conduction band and valance band of constituting materials, there are generally three types of band alignments, including type I (straddling gap), type II (staggered gap), type III (broken gap), as illustrated in Figure 1a [21]. The different band offsets make them perform differently in optoelectronic devices [22]. In type I alignment, the bandgap of a semiconductor is located within the bandgap of another one; thus both electrons and holes tend to relax in the first narrow bandgap semiconductor. It is therefore widely used in light emitting diodes for higher light illumination efficiency by confining electron and hole pairs within the narrow bandgap semiconductor [23]. In contrary, in type II alignment, both the conduction band minimum (CBM) and valance band maximum (VBM) are higher or lower than the other, which forces electrons and holes residing in different semiconductors. The separation of electron–hole pairs in type II aligned heterostructures allows the fabrication of rectifying diodes with photovoltaic effects and is usually adopted for photoelectric detectors that transform incident light into electrical signals [3]. In the case of type III band alignment, the bandgap of a semiconductor lies outside of the other one, with its CBM lower than the VBM of the other. There is no more forbidden gap at the interface compared to the bulk semiconductor. Such type III band alignment is useful in tunneling field-effect transistors with large current density [24].
Figure 1.
Band positions and alignments for 2D materials and heterostructures. (a) Heterostructures of type I, II and III interfacial band alignments, reproduced with permission from Ref. [21], Copyright 2016 American Physical Society. (b) Conduction and valance band positions of selected 2D materials collected from literatures.
Since the conduction band is usually related to the cations while valance band is related to the anions, designing the band offsets is traditionally mostly achieved in superlattices of semiconductor alloys with widely tuned bandgap and suppressed lattice mismatches, e.g., AlxGa1−xAs/GaAs [25]. However, by using 2D materials, the lattice mismatch between adjacent heterostructured materials is in principle eliminated due to the weak interlayer coupling via van der Waals force. Various 2D materials of different energy band structures and gaps, e.g., graphene, MXenes, black phosphorous (BP), TMDs, and hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), can thus be artificially stacked to make multiple kinds of heterostructures [13, 26]. Figure 1b illustrates the energy bandgap position of several 2D semiconductors [21, 27, 28]. Due to the zero-bandgap characteristic of graphene, it could not be directly used for high on–off switching devices, e.g., transistors, diodes, but is often used as electrode contacts for its ultrahigh carrier mobility >10,000 cm2 V−1 s−1 [29]. Recently, other 2D semiconductors have been found as alternatives, with widely distributed bandgaps from 0.2 eV to 2–3 eV [4, 6]. The electron affinity also varies largely from 3 to <5 eV, thus rendering the possibility to make all kinds of heterostructures (types I, II, III) with different band offsets, i.e., by choosing suitable 2D semiconductors. For example, WSe2/SnS2 constitutes a type III heterostructure, while MoS2/WSe2 forms a typical type II structure. Notably, the number of stacked layers is also not limited to two but can be facilely increased for multilayer heterostructures for tunneling diodes or device encapsulation [13]. The continuously increasing 2D material family thus incubates infinite possibilities in 2D heterostructures and extremely rich functions.
3. Dry transfer methods for artificial 2D stacking
The deterministic transfer of two-dimensional materials constitutes a crucial step toward the fabrication of heterostructures based on the artificial stacking of two-dimensional materials. To stack multiple 2D materials into heterostructure, one needs to transfer 2D materials into a specified position on substrate. This is usually done under an optical microscope, in which one could identify the ultrathin 2D materials through their slight color contrast with substrates. A 3D moving stage is usually equipped to fine adjust the stacking position of each layer, as indicated in Figure 2a [30]. So far, a lot of methods and processes have been developed to achieve high-quality assembly of 2D materials in devices and multilayer heterostructures. For 2D materials initially grown on substrates, e.g., graphene on copper, MoS2 on sapphire, they are usually first etched free from the substrates via polymer (typically poly(methyl methacrylate), known as PMMA)-assisted handling and wet-chemical etching processes [31]. However, the residual of PMMA and wet etching chemicals often deteriorate material performance and also degrades the cleanness of stacked interface, which can be serious in multilayered heterostructures. All-dry transfer of 2D materials is thus desired for making high-performance devices.
Figure 2.
Setup and typical dry transfer processes for 2D vdW stacking. (a) Schematic of the experimental setup and (b) the processes employed for the all-dry transfer process, reproduced with permission from Ref. [30], Copyright 2014 IOP publishing Ltd. (c) Schematic of the van der Waals (vdW) technique for polymer-free assembly of layered materials, reproduced with permission from Ref. [33], Copyright 2013 Science.
To make a heterostructure based on vertical stacking, 2D materials can be typically exfoliated from single crystals by Scotch tape and then transferred to viscous elastomer stamp (poly dimethyl siloxane, PDMS), as illustrated in Figure 2b [30]. The transparent PDMS stamp is then used to handle the exfoliated 2D flakes. Under optical microscope, it is then aligned to a target position, e.g., the position of already transferred 2D layer. The position of the stamp is then fine-tuned in all three dimensions to approach the target substrate, until the full contact. It is then slowly peeled off from substrate leaving 2D material behind. Sometimes slight heating of the substrate is necessary to reduce the viscosity of PDMS stamp and promote the successful transfer of 2D material onto target substrate. Instead of the common used PDMS stamps, thermal release tapes can be also used as the handle [32]. Though no wet-chemical etching processes is adopted in the above procedures, the surface of PDMS is full of silane groups and may contaminate the 2D material during transfer and make the contacting substrate hydrophobic. It may therefore deteriorate the material and interface quality in device.
An improved polymer-free method was reported by Wang et al., which adopted the clean h-BN as the buffer layer to attach graphene (Figure 2c) [33]. This is based on the stronger interaction between graphene and h-BN compared to SiO2, so that elastomer stamps with h-BN layer could pick up graphene layer from substrate. Note that the graphene layer is initially transferred onto SiO2 substrate by tape exfoliation; both the top and bottom surface are free from polymer residuals due to the fresh exfoliation when peeling off the tape. Through this method, the graphene layer during all transfer processes is protected by h-BN and thus could form clean interfaces with both the top and bottom h-BN layers. The as-prepared h-BN-encapsulated graphene manifests unprecedented room temperature mobility up to 140,000 cm2 V−1 s−1, with long ballistic transport distance over 15 μm at 40 K, demonstrating the ultrahigh interface quality formed in such polymer-free transfer methods.
Recently, the pick-transfer methods have been also modified to transfer metal electrodes onto 2D materials, avoiding the interdiffusion of elements within the contact interface with 2D materials from traditional physical deposition of metal electrodes (via magnetic sputtering, thermal evaporation, etc.) [34]. Importantly, the formed electrical contact with MoS2 using different metal electrodes displayed ideal Schottky barriers defined by the work function difference between metal and MoS2, which have not been achieved in conventional Si devices. It is therefore undoubted that the versatile usages of pick-transfer methods in assembling 2D devices hold vast potential in reforming existing technologies from many aspects.
4. Heterostructures for photodetection
There are several kinds of photodetectors that convert incident light signal to electrical signals, including detectors that rely on photoelectric effect, pyroelectric effect, and photothermal effects. Among the various detectors, the photoelectric detectors exhibit fast response dynamics based on simple separation of electron–hole pairs and are mostly used in commercial products. The photoelectric detectors can be further categorized into photodiode and phototransistors. In photodiodes, the photogenerated electron–hole pairs are separated by the built-in electric field in space charge region, while in phototransistors, an external electric field is applied to generate photodetection gain >100% for highly sensitive detection.
In 2D heterostructures, both photodiodes and phototransistors can be built up by vdW stacking of different materials. Because of the presence of band offset at the interface, heterostructured junctions tend to enable efficient charge separation compared to homojunctions, which requires deliberate control of their p and n doping states. In this section, we discuss several typical heterostructures in type I–III band alignments and their behavior in photodetection.
4.1 Heterostructured diodes
To fabricate heterostructured diode, one kind of 2D material is exfoliated and transferred onto the other one. For the charge separation in vertical direction, type II band alignment is desired. However, this is not naturally obtained, especially when one adopts a narrow bandgap semiconductor for infrared applications, e.g., BP. However, since the work function of ultrathin 2D materials can be dramatically modulated by electrostatic methods, the behavior of 2D diodes was demonstrated tunable by applying gate voltages [35, 36, 37]. As illustrated in Figure 3a, BP and WSe2 form type I band alignments [38], with slight conduction band offset (~0.1 eV). When increasing the back-gate voltage from negative to positive, the WSe2 layer is tuned sequentially from p to i and n states by the injection of gate-coupled electrons and then forming, respectively, p–p, pi, and p-n junctions with the p-typed BP. Further increasing gate bias also tunes BP to n type and results in n-n junction. Accordingly, these junctions manifest different rectification ratios under gate bias. Figure 3b displays the forward and reverse channel current (at Vds = 1 V and −1 V); the different onset threshold gate voltage under forward and reverse bias results in a window of −30 V < Vg < 10 V, in which high rectification ratio is obtained by the formation of p-n junction. The widely tuned doping characteristic of 2D bipolar semiconductor thus renders feasible modification of the diode characteristics in the device via various kinds of field effects, including using ionic liquids and ion gels [39].
Figure 3.
2D Heterostructures of different interfacial band alignments and their characteristics. (a) The type I band alignment between BP and WSe2 and (b) the appearance of various junction behaviors (p-p, p-n, n-n) under gate modulation, reproduced with permission from Ref. [38], Copyright 2017 Wiley-VCH. (c) Schematic of the type II heterostructure based on n-type MoS2 and p-type GaTe, and (d) the photovoltaic characteristic under light irradiation, reproduced with permission from Ref. [37], Copyright 2015 American Chemical Society. (e) Schematic diagram of a type III WSe2/SnS2 heterostructure and (f) its IV characteristic under dark and light illumination (550 nm), reproduced with permission from Ref. [19], Copyright 2018 Wiley-VCH.
By choosing appropriate 2D semiconductors, p-n junctions can be formed directly without gate bias. Wang et al. reported such diode based on p-typed gate and n-type MoS2 [37]. It displays apparent photovoltaic effect under light illumination, as indicated in Figure 3c. The extracted ideal factor of the junction is as low as 2 at room temperature, corresponding to Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination-dominated carrier loss during transport. So far, various kinds of p-n junctions have been made based on such type II band alignments, including BP/MoS2 [38], MoS2/MoTe2 [40], MoS2/WSe2 [41], etc. The open circuit voltage by photovoltaic effect in such type II band heterostructures is limited by the interfacial bandgap determined by the lower conduction and higher valance band. It is therefore usually less than the maximum Voc attainable in p-n junction of each component. However, an essential benefit of such heterostructure is the formation of photodiode without deliberate efforts in controlling the p and n-type doping. A strong evidence of the formation of type II band alignment is that the photoluminescence at the junction area is quenched due to the separation of electron–hole pairs at the interface. Another benefit of such type II heterostructure is based on the interlayer transition, which supports sub-bandgap photodetection [42]. For example, MoS2/WS2 heterojunction displays near-infrared response that is beyond both the bandgap limits of MoS2 and WS2 [43].
Tunneling diodes can be formed by heterostructures of type III band alignment [24]. In the case of WSe2/SnS2 heterostructure, due to the high electron affinity of SnS2, type III heterostructure is formed with direct interband transition between valance band of WSe2 and the conduction band of SnS2 [19]. The diode initially displayed high rectification ratio >104 for low dark current under reverse bias, whereas under illumination, the device exhibits dramatically increased light current by direct tunneling, resulting in high responsivity >200 AW−1 and excellent detectivity >1013 Jones. Further exploration of the kind of heterostructure using other 2D materials with different bandgap may have the potential to make high-performance tunneling photodiodes for infrared. The heterostructure of narrow bandgap BP and larger bandgap MoS2 has been used to realize multi-value inverters with high gains >150 based on gate-modulated tunneling current [44].
In addition to the two-layer stacking, multilayered heterostructures have been also developed as tunneling diodes. Figure 4a illustrates such a heterostructure based on vertically stacked graphene/MoS2/graphene [35]. Because of the work function between top and bottom graphene (due to the unidentical substrate doping effect), the multilayer displayed photovoltaic separation of electron–hole pairs under illumination, reaching a Voc~0.3 V under additional gate bias. The device also exhibits wavelength-dependent responsivity that is related to the absorption in MoS2 (as indicated in Figure 4b), demonstrating the working principle of the multilayer junction. By using graphene at both the bottom and top of the junction made by MoS2 and WSe2, Lee et al. demonstrated an efficient p-n junction at the ultimate atomic thin thickness with improved collection of photoexcited carriers [36]. Figure 4c and d illustrate the structure and IV characteristic of the device. Under illumination, tunneling-assisted interlayer recombination of the majority carriers dominates the electronic and optoelectronic behavior of the junction. Alternatively, sandwiching graphene within WSe2 and MoS2 can make a broadband photodetector up to 2 μm based on the absorption of graphene [45]. Such interlayer tunneling can be suppressed by inserting an insulating h-BN layer. Vu et al. fabricated a tunneling heterostructure based on graphene/h-BN/MoS2 in the configuration shown in Figure 4e [18]. The dark current in device is greatly suppressed by blocking direct tunneling. However, under illumination, photogenerated carriers may overcome the barrier and contribute significant photocurrent via Fowler-Nordheim (FN) tunneling. Notably, to balance the photodetection performance in terms of the responsivity and detectivity, the thickness of h-BN is optimal ~5–7 nm, as indicated in Figure 4f. The thicker the h-BN layer, the lower probability of FN tunneling and thus lesser photocurrent, while the thinner h-BN results in large dark current by direct tunneling, therefore less detectivity in photodetection.
Figure 4.
Various kinds of vertical heterostructures. (a) Schematic of Gr/MoS2/Gr heterojunction, which displays photovoltaic separation of electron–hole pairs and (b) the extracted external quantum efficiency (EQE) under different light power and wavelengths, reproduced with permission from Ref. [35], Copyright 2013 Nature Publishing Group. (c) The schematic diagram of vertical p-n junction made by MoS2/WSe2 sandwiched within two graphene layers and (d) their IV characteristic in dark and illumination, reproduced with permission from Ref. [36], Copyright 2014 Nature Publishing Group. (e) Schematic of a tunneling diode based on graphene/h-BN/MoS3 heterostructure and (f) its photodetection performance when using h-BN with thickness within 1–22 nm, reproduced with permission from Ref. [18], Copyright 2016 American Chemical Society.
4.2 Heterostructured phototransistors
In photodiodes, the photodetection gain is limited due to the maximum attainable quantum efficiency (photon-to-electron conversion efficiency) less than unity [46]. Hence, photodiodes are less sensitive and are usually operated under reverse bias or self-driven mode without external bias. In comparison, when integrating such heterostructure into a photoconductor configuration, phototransistors can be made with high sensitivity based on the photoconductive gain and vertical photovoltaic effects. The photodetection gain originates from the separation of electron–hole pairs at the heterostructure interface, with one kind of carrier accumulated in the 2D high mobility channel, therefore yielding amplified photoconductive gains by the ratio of injected charges compared to the inherent carrier concentration in 2D channel [47]. A representative example is PbS quantum dot (QD)-sensitized graphene, in which the QDs and 2D surface are coupled by vdW interaction (Figure 5a) [48]. Upon illumination, holes are injected into graphene and transport there with dramatically increased mobility compared to QDs that have large amount of grain boundaries and surface states. In this way, ultrahigh responsivity >107 A/W has been demonstrated in such hybrid photodetectors. Notably, based on the gate-modulated Fermi level in graphene, the charge injection from PbS QDs to graphene can be extensively tailored. As indicated in Figure 5b, the attained responsivity is sensitive to the applied gate bias; under Vg = 4 V, the photoresponse gain is tuned even to zero by eliminating the interfacial charge transfer. Such widely tuned gain is potentially useful for intentionally selected sensitivity levels for a detector. However, due to the zero-bandgap nature of graphene, hybrid detectors with graphene as the channel exhibit large dark current and low detectivity. Alternatively, other 2D semiconductors, such as MoS2 and WSe2, have been also explored as the channel, yielding improved on–off ratio in detector [47, 49].
Figure 5.
Phototransistors based on various heterostructures. (a) The schematic of PbS quantum dots sensitized graphene for infrared photodetection; (b) the back-gate-modulated responsivity of the hybrid photodetector, reproduced with permission from Ref. [48], Copyright 2012 Nature Publishing Group. dependence of the responsivity on the different wavelength. (c) Configuration of a vertically stacked BP/WSe2 heterostructure and (d) its wavelength-dependent gain and detectivity, reproduced with permission from Ref. [17], Copyright 2017 Elsevier Ltd. (d) Detectivity of various photodetector versus wavelength of the incident laser. (e) Illustration of the organic/inorganic vdW heterostructured phototransistor based on ZnPc-decorated MoS2 and (f) its photoresponse behavior, which is greatly improved compared to photoconductors that suffer persistent photoconductance, reproduced with permission from Ref. [16], Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society.
In addition to colloidal quantum dots, 2D heterostructures based on vertically stacked 2D layers can also make up phototransistors. A narrow bandgap semiconductor can be stacked on another 2D material for extended photodetection spectra. As illustrated in Figure 5c, BP is stacked on a WSe2 channel [17]. The photoexcited carriers in BP by near-infrared photons are separated by the type II interface, with electrons injected to WSe2. The amount of injected charge is related to the junction capacitance and the photovoltage built across the junction. In Figure 5d, the photodetection gain in such device reaches 102 at 1500 nm, which is considerably larger than the photodiodes (<1) by the amplification mechanism in phototransistor. Therefore, the specific detectivity of the device reaches 1010–1014 Jones at the measured wavelength (400–1500 nm) range. Longer wavelength results in low gain and detectivity due to the decrease of light absorption. Instead of BP, a lot of other 2D materials has been also explored to construct such heterostructured phototransistor, in which the photovoltaic separation of photocarriers can be used to gate the semiconductor channel and amplify the photoconductive gain.
Without complicated stacking processes, 2D vdW heterostructures can be also made by combining organic small molecules with 2D material. As illustrated in Figure 5e, Huang et al. recently reported such a vdW phototransistor based on Zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc, a π-conjugated planar molecule)-decorated monolayer MoS2, which is achieved by simple solution treatment [16]. The formed junction displayed apparent rectification characteristic at the out-plane direction by forming type II band alignment and p-n junction. As a result, the detector displayed remarkably improved response speed and optimal responsivity (Figure 5f) with proper Al2O3 passivation. Other molecules, such as pentacene, have been also used to modify the performance of 2D semiconductors (MoS2, ReS2, etc.) in addition to response dynamics but also the response spectra [50, 51]. Considering the huge library of 2D materials and organic molecules, it is believed such hybrid heterostructure holds special promise in achieving scalable high-performance photodetections, in which using existing pick-transfer procedures is apparently challenging.
5. Optoelectronic memories
Optoelectronic memory can transform incident optical signals into stored electric charges [52]. Considering the light program signals can be free from interferences, the optoelectronic memories are particularly attractive for realizing high-throughput data storage, e.g., in parallel computing [53]. A typical optoelectronic memory is consisted of light sensing part and charge storage component, which could be feasibly realized using multilayered 2D stacking. Compared to the conventional 3D counterparts, the 2D devices have the advantages in having high on–off ratio by the ultrathin channel, the conductance of which can be feasibly modulated via slight amount of trapped charges. According to the charge trapping mechanism, in the following we describe two kinds of optoelectronic memories, based on, respectively, the charge trapping in (i) defect energy states or (ii) float gates.
5.1 Charge trapping in defect levels
The ultrathin nature makes 2D semiconductors highly suitable as the readout channel in memory, as their conductance can be modulated greatly by slight charge trapping, including by the inherent trap states in devices. In literatures, the prepared MoS2 often exhibits midgap trap states [54], and the device also suffers from interface defect states, e.g., at the interface with SiO2 [55], which may capture some charges under gate modulation by the shifted Fermi level EF (the trap states below EF are prone to be filled with electrons, while those states above EF tend to be empty). This usually results in large hysteresis in field-effect devices and different conduction states after positive and negative gate stress. However, the limited density of trap states restricted the on–off switch in memory. Lee et al. reported an improved device by introducing localized electronic states in MoS2 using tailored SiO2 substrate with functional silanol groups (Si-OH)(Figure 6a) [56], which exhibit strong polar interaction and causes local potential fluctuation in energy band. The device is composed of thin MoS2 layer on SiO2 substrate, using the back-Si as the gate. The conduction state is reset by using positive gate bias (80 V) and then programmed using light exposure under gate bias (20 V). Applying VG = 80 V fills the traps with electrons, resulting in OFFstates of channel when removing VG, while light exposure releases the trapped electrons by generating electron–hole pairs that promote the charge release. The device manifested highly linear readout charges programmed by light exposure time. However, since the trapped charges can be thermally activated to conduction/valanced band for trapped electrons/holes, the programmed states exhibit transient change of conduction states after initial program (Figure 6b), and the charge readout is slow ~seconds.
Figure 6.
2D optoelectronic memories. (a) Schematic of a 2D memory based on MoS2 on tailored SiO2 surface and (b) the light exposure time programmed memory states in the device, reproduced with permission from Ref. [56], Copyright 2017 Nature Publishing Group. (c) An infrared memory based on vdW heterostructure of PbS/MoS2 and (d) the schematic of its band alignment, reproduced with permission from Ref. [57], Copyright 2018 Science. (e) The schematic and optical image (inset) of an optoelectronic memory based on WSe2 on h-BN, (f) shows the device conductance change during electrical erase and optical program, reproduced with permission from Ref. [58], Copyright 2018 Nature Publishing Group.
The above optoelectronic memory works under visible light excitation due to the bandgap limit of MoS2. Wang et al. reported an infrared memory using the vdW heterostructure of MoS2/PbS [57], which is sensitive to 1550 nm radiation with the sensitization of narrow bandgap PbS thin flakes epitaxially grown on MoS2 (as illustrated in Figure 6c). The charge trapping is based on the electron injection into MoS2 by the generation of large amount of photoexcited electrons in PbS under light illumination, as indicated by the energy band diagram shown in Figure 6d. However, the device exhibits low resistance change by light exposure and transient conductance variation after program, due to the eventual recombination of electron–hole pairs in dark, which drive carrier distribution to equilibrium. Also, the program speed is directly determined by photon energy and the overall incident power, as the former governs the energy of photoexcited carriers (whether it is sufficient to overcome the interfacial potential barrier to be injected into the other side) and the latter determines the number of excited carriers. Alternatively, the charge trapping in defect states in dielectric materials tends to exhibit long retention time. Xiang et al. constructed a nonvolatile memory using WSe2 transferred on insulate h-BN layer (Figure 6e) [58]. The inherent defect states in h-BN are able to trap photoexcited carriers in WSe2, therefore enabling optoelectronic memory operation. The memory is operated under the simultaneous light exposure and gate bias, thus to force the charge trapping into the midgap states of h-BN. Because of the large bandgap of h-BN, the trapped charges can hardly move, and the resulted memory exhibits long-term retention characteristics for more than 104 s. Such optoelectronic memory can be feasibly transformed into multi-bit memory, by using either the amplitude of gate bias or the light irradiation power, wavelength, and pulse number as the input (Figure 6f). However, slight temporal change of conductance is still observed due to the recombination of photogenerated electron–hole pairs in WSe2 itself. Nevertheless, the strategy has been exploited to develop artificial optoelectronic synapses, the overall weight of which is less sensitive to the single-unit device but to the average of multiple connections [59].
5.2 Float gate heterostructures
Instead of charge trapping in random trap states, float gate structure exhibits well-described charge trapping characteristics and long-term retention characteristics [60]. The charge trapping can also be triggered by light irradiation to the light sensing semiconductor channel or float gate. Using 2D materials, the float gate structure can be assembled by h-BN as the insulate barrier and 2D semiconductors as the channel.
Figure 7a displays the initial 2D float memory based on graphene and MoS2 separated by h-BN [61]. The device usually has the structure of a field-effect transistor but with an additional float gate inserted between the source-drain channel and the control gate. The memory behavior of the device by using MoS2 as the channel and graphene as the float gate is shown in Figure 7b. The charge trapping is based on the quantum tunneling under gate bias, which induces FN tunneling by lowering the effective tunneling barrier with trigonal potential profile in the insulate h-BN layer. Alternatively using graphene as the channel results in low on–off ratio due to the zero-bandgap nature of graphene, by what the graphene channel can hardly be turned off. Notably, the thickness of h-BN is critical for the float memory, as too thin h-BN results in direct tunneling loss of charges and poor retention behavior, while too thick h-BN is good for retention but requires high operation voltages. The optimal thickness of h-BN is ~6–10 nm. The thin thickness of h-BN enables efficient tunneling of channel conductance by the float gate potential, as indicated in the inset of Figure 7b. Instead of graphene and MoS2, many other 2D semiconductors have been explored for the float memory, including WSe2, ReS2, BP, etc. [63, 64, 65, 66]. They all displayed high on–off ratio up to 107, which is likely to benefit multi-bit storage.
Figure 7.
Several representative 2D float gate heterostructures. (a) The schematic configuration of a float gate memory based on MoS2/h-BN/graphene (b) shows the hysteresis memory behavior using back-Si gate, and the inset depicts the MoS2 conductance modulated by float gate potential, reproduced with permission from Ref. [61], Copyright 2013 Nature Publishing Group. (c) Schematic of the semi-float gate device base on graphene/h-BN/WSe2 heterostructure for the formation of lateral diode and (d) its IV characteristic showing rectification behavior by the formation of p-n junction, reproduced with permission from Ref. [62], Copyright 2017 Nature Publishing Group. (e) A two-terminal optoelectronic memory based on vdW heterostructure of MoS2/h-BN/graphene (f) displays its IV characteristics in dark and light illumination, showing the light programmed on and off states under positive bias, and the memory states are electrically erased using large negative bias, reproduced with permission from Ref. [20], Copyright 2017 Wiley-VCH.
Because of the excellent tunability of charges in 2D channel, the float gate structure has been reformed into semi-float and two-terminal structures. Figure 7c shows a semi-float gate device with WSe2 as the channel [62], in which the graphene as float gate spans half of the channel. Thus, the charge trapping in graphene only modulates the carrier concentration in partially the overlapped region. Taking advantage of the ambipolar characteristic of WSe2, the gate region can be tuned either p- or n-doped, forming the lateral pn diodes or Schottky diodes with apparent rectification behavior (Figure 7d). A special advantage of such device is their reconfigurable device behavior on demand. The device structure can be further simplified into two-terminal structures by removing the control gate, which usually is the back-Si gate [20]. Figure 7e displays a schematic structure of such two-terminal float memory. The charge tunneling can be realized by applying enough source-drain bias as indicated in Figure 7f. Because of the nonuniform electric field in channel, the potential drop between drain and float gate is sufficient to induce charge injection into float gate. After applying negative Vds, electrons are injected into graphene, resulting in off state when reading at Vds > 0. However, shining light to the device releases the trapped charges and recovers the initial state. Thus, the memory can be electrically erased and programmed by light exposure. Due to the absorption limit of MoS2, the device is only programmable with wavelengths <650 nm. By controlling the light dose with power and duration, the device manifests 18 states, rendering potential application for multi-bit purposes. However, an essential drawback of such two-terminal device is the high power consumption during electrical erase, as high source-drain current is present compared to the negligible leakage current via gate coupling.
The various heterostructures by versatile 2D stacking have enabled the blossom of 2D optoelectronic devices. There is also an emerging of optoelectronic programmed logic elements using the flexible gate coupling in ultrathin thickness [67]. The pathway toward multifunctional 2D devices seems very promising to stimulate indispensable applications based on continuously expanding family of 2D materials.
6. Conclusions
As a summary, in this chapter, we have introduced various types of 2D heterostructures for both photodetection and optoelectronic memory, both of which extensively take advantage of the feasible field-effect modulation to the optoelectronic properties of 2D materials. In the past few years, we have witnessed the marvelous revolution of design and construction of functional devices using diverse 2D materials and feasible vdW stacking methods. The progress will undoubtedly continue given the remarkable flexibility of stacking 2D material in atomic thickness, which had been extremely challenging for 3D materials. However, one shall expect critical breakthroughs are necessary before their practical applications, especially in the large-scale fabrication of vdW devices, and the development of indispensable functions compared to the existing ones in consumer markets.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 61804059).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"heterostructures, optoelectronics, van der Waals, 2D materials, artificial stacking",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68420.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68420.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68420",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68420",totalDownloads:1202,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 14th 2019",dateReviewed:"July 7th 2019",datePrePublished:"August 11th 2019",datePublished:"November 26th 2020",dateFinished:"August 2nd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Two-dimensional (2D) materials are attracting explosive attention for their intriguing potential in versatile applications, covering optoelectronics, electronics, sensors, etc. An attractive merit of 2D materials is their viable van der Waals (VdW) stacking in artificial sequence, thus forming different atomic arrangements in vertical direction and enabling unprecedented tailoring of material properties and device application. In this chapter, we summarize the latest progress in assembling VdW heterostructures for optoelectronic applications by beginning with the basic pick-transfer method for assembling 2D materials and then discussing the different combination of 2D materials of semiconductor, conductor, and insulator properties for various optoelectronic devices, e.g., photodiode, phototransistors, optical memories, etc.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68420",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68420",signatures:"Hongcheng Ruan, Yu Huang, Yuqian Chen and Fuwei Zhuge",book:{id:"9230",type:"book",title:"Smart Nanosystems for Biomedicine, Optoelectronics and Catalysis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Smart Nanosystems for Biomedicine, Optoelectronics and Catalysis",slug:"smart-nanosystems-for-biomedicine-optoelectronics-and-catalysis",publishedDate:"November 26th 2020",bookSignature:"Tatyana Shabatina and Vladimir Bochenkov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9230.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-254-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-253-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-407-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"237988",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatyana",middleName:null,surname:"Shabatina",slug:"tatyana-shabatina",fullName:"Tatyana Shabatina"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Type I, II, and III heterostructures for optoelectronics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Dry transfer methods for artificial 2D stacking",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Heterostructures for photodetection",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Heterostructured diodes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Heterostructured phototransistors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Optoelectronic memories",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.1 Charge trapping in defect levels",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.2 Float gate heterostructures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Novoselov KS, Geim AK, Morozov SV, Jiang D, Zhang Y, Dubonos SV, et al. Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films. 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Computational 2D materials database: Electronic structure of transition-metal dichalcogenides and oxides. Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2015;119:13169-13183'},{id:"B28",body:'Zhuang HL, Hennig RG. Computational search for single-layer transition-metal dichalcogenide photocatalysts. Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2013;117:20440-20445'},{id:"B29",body:'Yamoah MA, Yang W, Pop E, Goldhaber-Gordon D. High-velocity saturation in graphene encapsulated by hexagonal boron nitride. ACS Nano. 2017;11:9914-9919'},{id:"B30",body:'Castellanos-Gomez A, Buscema M, Molenaar R, Singh V, Janssen L, van der Zant HSJ, et al. Deterministic transfer of two-dimensional materials by all-dry viscoelastic stamping. 2D Materials. 2014;1:011002'},{id:"B31",body:'Chen Y, Gong XL, Gai JG. Progress and challenges in transfer of large-area graphene films. Advanced Science. 2016;3:1500343'},{id:"B32",body:'Pizzocchero F, Gammelgaard L, Jessen BS, Caridad JM, Wang L, Hone J, et al. The hot pick-up technique for batch assembly of van der Waals heterostructures. Nature Communications. 2016;7:11894'},{id:"B33",body:'Wang L, Meric I, Huang PY, Gao Q , Gao Y, Tran H, et al. One-dimensional electrical contact to a two-dimensional material. Science. 2013;342:614-617'},{id:"B34",body:'Liu Y, Guo J, Zhu E, Liao L, Lee SJ, Ding M, et al. Approaching the Schottky-Mott limit in van der Waals metal-semiconductor junctions. Nature. 2018;557:696-700'},{id:"B35",body:'Yu WJ, Liu Y, Zhou H, Yin A, Li Z, Huang Y, et al. Highly efficient gate-tunable photocurrent generation in vertical heterostructures of layered materials. Nature Nanotechnology. 2013;8:952-958'},{id:"B36",body:'Lee CH, Lee GH, van der Zande AM, Chen W, Li Y, Han M, et al. Atomically thin p-n junctions with van der Waals heterointerfaces. Nature Nanotechnology. 2014;9:676-681'},{id:"B37",body:'Wang F, Wang Z, Xu K, Wang F, Wang Q , Huang Y, et al. Tunable GaTe-MoS2 van der Waals p-n Junctions with novel optoelectronic performance. Nano Letters. 2015;15:7558-7566'},{id:"B38",body:'Li D, Wang B, Chen M, Zhou J, Zhang Z. Gate-controlled BP-WSe2 heterojunction diode for logic rectifiers and logic optoelectronics. Small. 2017;13:1603726'},{id:"B39",body:'Choi Y, Kang J, Jariwala D, Kang MS, Marks TJ, Hersam MC, et al. Low-voltage complementary electronics from ion-gel-gated vertical van der Waals heterostructures. Advanced Materials. 2016;28:3742-3478'},{id:"B40",body:'Duong NT, Lee J, Bang S, Park C, Lim SC, Jeong MS. Modulating the functions of MoS2/MoTe2 van der Waals heterostructure via thickness variation. ACS Nano. 2019;13:4478-4485'},{id:"B41",body:'Doan M-H, Jin Y, Adhikari S, Lee S, Zhao J, Lim SC, et al. Charge transport in MoS2/WSe2 van der Waals heterostructure with tunable inversion Layer. ACS Nano. 2017;11:3832-3840'},{id:"B42",body:'Chen H, Wen X, Zhang J, Wu T, Gong Y, Zhang X, et al. Ultrafast formation of interlayer hot excitons in atomically thin MoS2/WS2 heterostructures. Nature Communications. 2016;7:12512'},{id:"B43",body:'Wang G, Li L, Fan W, Wang R, Zhou S, Lü J-T, et al. Interlayer coupling induced infrared response in WS2/MoS2 heterostructures enhanced by surface plasmon resonance. Advanced Functional Materials. 2018;28:1800339'},{id:"B44",body:'Huang M, Li S, Zhang Z, Xiong X, Li X, Wu Y. Multifunctional high-performance van der Waals heterostructures. Nature Nanotechnology. 2017;12:1148-1154'},{id:"B45",body:'Long M, Liu E, Wang P, Gao A, Xia H, Luo W, et al. Broadband photovoltaic detectors based on an atomically thin heterostructure. Nano Letters. 2016;16:2254-2259'},{id:"B46",body:'Zhuge F, Zheng Z, Luo P, Lv L, Huang Y, Li H, et al. Nanostructured materials and architectures for advanced infrared photodetection. Advanced Materials Technologies. 2017;2:1700005'},{id:"B47",body:'Kufer D, Konstantatos G. Photo-FETs: Phototransistors enabled by 2D and 0D nanomaterials. ACS Photonics. 2016;3:2197-2210'},{id:"B48",body:'Konstantatos G, Badioli M, Gaudreau L, Osmond J, Bernechea M, Garcia de Arquer FP, et al. Hybrid graphene-quantum dot phototransistors with ultrahigh gain. Nature Nanotechnology. 2012;7:363-368'},{id:"B49",body:'Kufer D, Nikitskiy I, Lasanta T, Navickaite G, Koppens FHL, Konstantatos G. Hybrid 2D-0D MoS2-PbS quantum dot photodetectors. Advanced Materials. 2015;27:176-180'},{id:"B50",body:'Jariwala D, Howell SL, Chen KS, Kang J, Sangwan VK, Filippone SA, et al. Hybrid, gate-tunable, van der Waals p–n heterojunctions from pentacene and MoS2. Nano Letters. 2016;16:497-503'},{id:"B51",body:'Jiang J, Ling C, Xu T, Wang W, Niu X, Zafar A, et al. Defect engineering for modulating the trap states in 2D photoconductors. Advanced Materials. 2018;30:e1804332'},{id:"B52",body:'Zhai YB, Yang JQ , Zhou Y, Mao JY, Ren Y, Roy VAL, et al. Toward non-volatile photonic memory: Concept, material and design. Materials Horizons. 2018;5:641-654'},{id:"B53",body:'Gu M, Li X, Cao Y. Optical storage arrays: A perspective for future big data storage. Light: Science and Applications. 2014;3:e177'},{id:"B54",body:'Late DJ, Liu B, Matte HSSR, Dravid VP, Rao CNR. Hysteresis in single-layer MoS2 field effect transistors. ACS Nano. 2012;6:5635-5641'},{id:"B55",body:'Kaushik N, Mackenzie DMA, Thakar K, Goyal N, Mukherjee B, Boggild P, et al. Reversible hysteresis inversion in MoS2 field effect transistors. npj 2D Materials and Applications. 2017;1:34'},{id:"B56",body:'Lee J, Pak S, Lee YW, Cho Y, Hong J, Giraud P, et al. Monolayer optical memory cells based on artificial trap-mediated charge storage and release. Nature Communications. 2017;8:14734'},{id:"B57",body:'Wang Q , Wen Y, Cai K, Cheng R, Yin L, Zhang Y, et al. Nonvolatile infrared memory in MoS2/PbS van der Waals heterostructures. Science Advances. 2018;4:eaap7916'},{id:"B58",body:'Xiang D, Liu T, Xu J, Tan JY, Hu Z, Lei B, et al. Two-dimensional multibit optoelectronic memory with broadband spectrum distinction. Nature Communications. 2018;9:2966'},{id:"B59",body:'Seo S, Jo SH, Kim S, Shim J, Oh S, Kim JH, et al. Artificial optic-neural synapse for colored and color-mixed pattern recognition. Nature Communications. 2018;9:5106'},{id:"B60",body:'Wang SP, He CL, Tang J, Lu XB, Shen C, Yu H, et al. New floating gate memory with excellent retention characteristics. Advanced Electronic Materials. 2019;5:1800726'},{id:"B61",body:'Choi MS, Lee GH, Yu YJ, Lee DY, Lee SH, Kim P, et al. Controlled charge trapping by molybdenum disulphide and graphene in ultrathin heterostructured memory devices. Nature Communications. 2013;4:1624'},{id:"B62",body:'Liu C, Yan X, Song X, Ding S, Zhang DW, Zhou P. A semi-floating gate memory based on van der Waals heterostructures for quasi-non-volatile applications. Nature Nanotechnology. 2018;13:404-410'},{id:"B63",body:'Wang Y, Liu E, Gao A, Cao T, Long M, Pan C, et al. Negative photoconductance in van der Waals heterostructure-based floating gate phototransistor. ACS Nano. 2018;12:9513-9520'},{id:"B64",body:'Gong F, Luo W, Wang J, Wang P, Fang H, Zheng D, et al. High-sensitivity floating-gate phototransistors based on WS2 and MoS2. Advanced Functional Materials. 2016;26:6084-6090'},{id:"B65",body:'Feng Q , Yan F, Luo W, Wang K. Charge trap memory based on few-layer black phosphorus. Nanoscale. 2016;8:2686-2692'},{id:"B66",body:'Li D, Wang X, Zhang Q , Zou L, Xu X, Zhang Z. Nonvolatile floating-gate memories based on stacked black phosphorus-boron nitride-MoS2 heterostructures. Advanced Functional Materials. 2015;25:7360-7365'},{id:"B67",body:'Liu C, Chen H, Hou X, Zhang H, Han J, Jiang YG, et al. Small footprint transistor architecture for photoswitching logic and in situ memory. Nature Nanotechnology. 2019;14:662-667. DOI: 10.1038/s41565-019-0462-6'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Hongcheng Ruan",address:null,affiliation:'
School of Information and Safety Engineering, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, China
State Key laboratory of Materials Processing and Die and Mould Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), China
State Key laboratory of Materials Processing and Die and Mould Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), China
State Key laboratory of Materials Processing and Die and Mould Technology, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), China
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9230",type:"book",title:"Smart Nanosystems for Biomedicine, Optoelectronics and Catalysis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Smart Nanosystems for Biomedicine, Optoelectronics and Catalysis",slug:"smart-nanosystems-for-biomedicine-optoelectronics-and-catalysis",publishedDate:"November 26th 2020",bookSignature:"Tatyana Shabatina and Vladimir Bochenkov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9230.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-254-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-253-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-407-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"237988",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatyana",middleName:null,surname:"Shabatina",slug:"tatyana-shabatina",fullName:"Tatyana Shabatina"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"267177",title:"Dr.",name:"Norbert",middleName:null,surname:"Cselyuszka",email:"cselyu@gmail.com",fullName:"Norbert Cselyuszka",slug:"norbert-cselyuszka",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"BioSense Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"64404",title:"Phase-Shift Transmission Line Method for Permittivity Measurement and Its Potential in Sensor Applications",slug:"phase-shift-transmission-line-method-for-permittivity-measurement-and-its-potential-in-sensor-applic",abstract:"This chapter offers a detailed insight into a dielectric characterization of the materials based on the phase-shift measurements of the transmission signal. The chapter will provide in-depth theoretical background of the phase-shift transmission line measurement in the microstrip architecture and determination of dielectric permittivity of design under test for several measurement configurations. Potential of the phase-shift method will be demonstrated through applications in the characterization of an unknown dielectric constant in multilayered structure, realization of the soil moisture sensor, and sensor for determination of the dielectric constant of a fluid in microfluidic channel. Moreover, specific techniques for increasing the phase shift based on the electromagnetic bandgap structure, the aperture in the ground plane and the left-handed effect will be presented. In the end, the realization of simple in-field detection device for determination of permittivity based on the phase-shift measurement will be demonstrated.",signatures:"Vasa Radonic, Norbert Cselyuszka, Vesna Crnojevic-Bengin and Goran Kitic",authors:[{id:"266637",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasa",surname:"Radonic",fullName:"Vasa Radonic",slug:"vasa-radonic",email:"vasaradonic@gmail.com"},{id:"267175",title:"Dr.",name:"Goran",surname:"Kitic",fullName:"Goran Kitic",slug:"goran-kitic",email:"gkitic@gmail.com"},{id:"267177",title:"Dr.",name:"Norbert",surname:"Cselyuszka",fullName:"Norbert Cselyuszka",slug:"norbert-cselyuszka",email:"cselyu@gmail.com"},{id:"276920",title:"Dr.",name:"Vesna",surname:"Crnojevic-Bengin",fullName:"Vesna Crnojevic-Bengin",slug:"vesna-crnojevic-bengin",email:"bengin@uns.ac.rs"}],book:{id:"8653",title:"Electromagnetic Materials and Devices",slug:"electromagnetic-materials-and-devices",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"147585",title:"Dr.",name:"Zion",surname:"Menachem",slug:"zion-menachem",fullName:"Zion Menachem",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sami Shamoon College of Engineering",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}},{id:"266637",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasa",surname:"Radonic",slug:"vasa-radonic",fullName:"Vasa Radonic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"267175",title:"Dr.",name:"Goran",surname:"Kitic",slug:"goran-kitic",fullName:"Goran Kitic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"BioSense Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}},{id:"267218",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming-Chun",surname:"Tang",slug:"ming-chun-tang",fullName:"Ming-Chun Tang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"267826",title:"Dr.",name:"Licinius",surname:"Alcantara",slug:"licinius-alcantara",fullName:"Licinius Alcantara",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"268866",title:"Prof.",name:"Liying",surname:"Zhang",slug:"liying-zhang",fullName:"Liying Zhang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"268868",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuguang",surname:"Bi",slug:"shuguang-bi",fullName:"Shuguang Bi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Wuhan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"268869",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming",surname:"Liu",slug:"ming-liu",fullName:"Ming Liu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nanyang Technological University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Singapore"}}},{id:"276364",title:"MSc.",name:"Yang",surname:"Wang",slug:"yang-wang",fullName:"Yang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276920",title:"Dr.",name:"Vesna",surname:"Crnojevic-Bengin",slug:"vesna-crnojevic-bengin",fullName:"Vesna Crnojevic-Bengin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Novi Sad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"scientific-advisors",title:"Scientific Advisory Boards",intro:"
IntechOpen’s team of Scientific Advisors supports the publishing team by providing editorial and academic input and ensuring the highest quality output of free peer-reviewed articles. The Boards consist of independent external collaborators who assist us on a voluntary basis. Their input includes advising on new topics within their field, proposing potential expert collaborators and reviewing book publishing proposals if required. Board members are experts who cover major STEM and HSS fields. All are trusted IntechOpen collaborators and Academic Editors, ensuring that the needs of the scientific community are met.
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Physical Sciences, Technology and Engineering Board
\\n\\n
Chemistry
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Ayben Kilislioglu - Department of Chemical Engineering Istanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey
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Goran Nikolic - Faculty of Technology, University of Nis, Leskovac, Serbia
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Mark T. Stauffer - Associate Professor of Chemistry, The University of Pittsburgh, USA
\\n\\t
Margarita Stoytcheva - Autonomous University of Baja California Engineering Institute Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
\\n\\t
Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
\\n
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Earth and Planetary Science
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
\\n\\t
İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
\\n\\t
Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
\\n\\t
Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
\\n
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Engineering
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
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Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
\\n\\t
Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
\\n\\t
Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
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Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
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Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
\\n
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Materials Science
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Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
\\n\\t
Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
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Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
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Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
\\n
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Mathematics
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Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
\\n
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Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
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Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
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Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
\\n
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Physics
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Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
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Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
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Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
\\n
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Robotics
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Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
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Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
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Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
\\n
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Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
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Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
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Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
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Environmental Sciences
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Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
\\n\\t
Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
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Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
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Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
\\n
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Immunology and Microbiology
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Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
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Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
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Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
\\n
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Medicine
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Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
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Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\\n\\t
Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
\\n\\t
Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
\\n\\t
Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\\n\\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\\n\\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\\n\\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\\n
\\n\\n
Ophthalmology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\\n\\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
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Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
\\n\\t
Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\\n\\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
\\n\\t
Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\\n\\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\\n
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Gastroenterology
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\\n\\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\\n\\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\\n\\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\\n\\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n
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Hematology
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\\n\\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\\n\\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\\n\\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\\n\\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\\n\\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\\n
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Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\\n\\n
Business, Management and Economics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
\n\t
Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Earth and Planetary Science
\n\n
\n\t
Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
\n\t
İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
\n\t
Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
\n\t
Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
\n
\n\n
Engineering
\n\n
\n\t
Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
\n\t
Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
\n\t
Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
\n\t
Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
\n\t
Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
\n\t
Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
\n
\n\n
Materials Science
\n\n
\n\t
Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
\n\t
Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
\n\t
Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
\n\t
Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
\n
\n\n
Mathematics
\n\n
\n\t
Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
\n
\n\n
Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
\n\n
\n\t
Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
\n\t
Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
\n
\n\n
Physics
\n\n
\n\t
Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
\n\t
Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
\n\t
Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
\n
\n\n
Robotics
\n\n
\n\t
Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
\n\t
Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
\n\t
Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
\n\n
\n\t
Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
\n\t
Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
\n\t
Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
\n
\n\n
Environmental Sciences
\n\n
\n\t
Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
\n\t
Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
\n\t
Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
\n\t
Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
\n
\n\n
Immunology and Microbiology
\n\n
\n\t
Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
\n\t
Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
\n\t
Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
\n
\n\n
Medicine
\n\n
\n\t
Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
\n\t
Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
\n\t
Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
\n\t
Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\n
\n\n
Ophthalmology
\n\n
\n\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\n\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
\n\t
Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
\n\t
Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\n\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
\n\t
Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\n\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\n\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\n
\n\n
Gastroenterology
\n\n
\n\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\n\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\n\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\n\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n
\n\n
Hematology
\n\n
\n\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\n\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\n\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\n\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\n\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\n\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\n
\n\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\n\n
Business, Management and Economics
\n\n
\n\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Denis Erasga - De La Salle University, Phillippines
\n\t
Rosario Laratta - Associate Professor of Social Policy and Development Graduate School of Governance Studies, Meiji University, Japan
\n
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RT might inadvertently induce heart injury and result in various forms of radiation-related heart disease (RRHD). The main endpoints of RRHD include cardiac death from RT, clinical heart disease (congestive heart disease, ischemic heart disease, and myocardial infarction), and subclinical heart disease (cardiac perfusion defects). Advanced RT techniques, such as breath control, intensity-modulated RT, and image-guided RT, as well as limited target volume definition might spare or avoid cardiac doses and/or volume, which may translate into decreased incidence of RRHD. The total delivered radiation dose to cardiac implantable electronic devices was strongly recommended not to exceed 2 Gy. The treatment strategies of RRHD were based on the various recommended consensus of related heart diseases in cardiology. 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\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. 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\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},subseries:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"
\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
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In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",annualVolume:11400,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",annualVolume:11401,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",annualVolume:11402,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. 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