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\r\n\tSome lesions are treated medically while some require more complex methods such as surgery, cryotherapy and soft tissue laser application. The aim of this book is to provide the readers with a comprehensive literature overview about the diagnosis and treatment of oral lesions.
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She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177730",firstName:"Edi",lastName:"Lipovic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177730/images/4741_n.jpg",email:"edi@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
1.1. Escherichia coli virulence and urinary tract infections
\n\t\t\t\t
Urinary tract infections are a major public health concern in developed countries and also represent one of the most common hospital-acquired infections. Most uncomplicated UTIs are caused by E. coli, accounting for up to 90% of community-acquired and approximately 50% of nosocomial UTIs (Vila et al., 2002). The origin of these strains is frequently the patient’s own intestinal flora. In comparison to commensal strains, UPEC present several virulence factors that allow them to colonize host mucosal uro-epithelium, injure and invade host tissues, overcome host defence mechanisms, incite a host inflammatory response and eventually proceed from the lower urinary tract to the renal cavities and tissues. The virulence factors involved in UTIs include surface virulence factors such as type 1 fimbriae, P, S and F1C fimbriae; exported virulence factors such as α-haemolysin, cytotoxic necrotising factor 1 (CNF1), secreted autotransporter toxin (SAT), cytolethal distending toxin (CDT) and cytolysin A (Caprioli et al., 1987; Lai et al., 2000; Smith et al., 1963; Tóth et al., 2000).
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A common problem in UTI is recurrence, even in patients without anatomic abnormalities or indwelling bladder catheters. It is estimated that 40 to 50% of adult healthy women have experienced at least one UTI in their lifetime, and there is a tendency for these infections to become chronic due to a high rate of recurrence (Ulett et al., 2007). The persistence of the same E. coli strain in the urinary tract may be the cause of recurrent prostatitis. In fact, it has been shown that after an episode of acute prostatitis, cultures of expressed prostatic secretions are still positive three months after the end of a six-week course of therapy in one third of men (Kravchick et al., 2004). This may be related to the capacity of bacteria to form biofilm structures. Biofilm can promote persistence in the urinary tract and on biomaterial surfaces by protecting bacteria from the clearing out effect of hydrodynamic forces and the killing activity of host defence mechanisms and antibiotics (Hanna et al., 2003).
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1.2. Biofilm and factors involved in its formation
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Biofilm is defined as a structured community of bacterial cells enclosed in a self-produced polymeric matrix and adherent to an inert or living surface (Costerton et al., 1999). Biofilm formation is carried out in four steps: adhesion or attachment, early development of biofilm structure, maturation and dispersion of cells from the biofilm into the surrounding environment and return to the planktonic state.
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Several surface determinants are involved in biofilm formation such as:
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1.2.1. Flagella and motility
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Motile E. coli generally present multiple peritrichous flagella. Motility is involved in colonization of host organisms or target organs and promotes initial cell-to-surface contact.
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1.2.2. Fimbriae
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Fimbriae are one of the virulent factors associated with host tissue adhesion of pathogenic E. coli strains (Finlay et al., 1997). Among these, type 1 fimbriae are the most common among E. coli and have an important role in the initial attachment to abiotic surface in biofilm formation (Pratt et al., 1998).
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1.2.3. Autotransporter proteins
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These secretory proteins present all the requirements for secretion across the cytoplasmic and the outer membrane to the bacterial cell surface (Desvaux et al., 2004). Among these proteins Ag43, AIDA (adhesin involved in diffuse adherence) and TibA are involved in adhesion. Antigen 43 promotes aggregation of cells through Ag43-Ag43 interactions by an intercellular handshake mechanism (Hasman et al., 1999). Ag43 and type 1 fimbriae are expressed co-ordinately in the cells which normally produce only one type of adherence structure at a time (Schembri et al., 2001). AIDA and TibA are autotransporters with homology to Ag43.
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1.2.4. Curli
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Curli fimbriae aggregate at the cell surface to form 6- to 12-nm-diameter structures whose length varies between 0.5 and 1 μm. Curli adhesive fibres also promote biofilm formation to abiotic surfaces both by facilitating initial cell–surface interactions and subsequent cell–cell interactions (Cookson et al., 2002; Uhlich et al., 2006; Vidal et al., 1998).
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1.2.5. F conjugative pilus
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The F-pilus promotes both initial adhesion and biofilm maturation through nonspecific attachment to abiotic surfaces and subsequent cell-to-cell contacts which stabilize the structure of the biofilm (Ghigo et al., 2001; Molin & Tolker-Nielsen, 2003; Reisner et al., 2003).
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1.2.6. Exopolysaccharide production
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The biofilm matrix is composed by exopolysaccharide. This matrix forms a hydrated viscous layer which protects embedded bacteria from desiccation and from host defences because bacteria forming this structure may not be recognised by the immune system. The matrix may also be involved in the protection of the bacteria against toxic molecules such as antimicrobials, hydroxyl radicals, and superoxide anions). The biofilm matrix could also inhibit wash-out of enzymes, nutrients, or even signalling molecules that could then accumulate locally and create more favourable microenvironments within the biofilm (Redfield et al., 2002; Starkey et al., 2004; Welch et al., 2002). All these aspects of the matrix could contribute to development of phenotypic resistance of pathogenic E. coli biofilms and lead to persistent infections (Anderson et al. 2003; Justice et al. 2004). In addition, the exopolysaccharide interactions with other components of the matrix favour the three-dimensional growth of the biofilm (White et al., 2003). The exopolysaccharides most frequently found in the matrix are poly-β-1,6-N-acetyl-glucosamine, cellulose, colanic acid, lipopolysaccharides and capsules.
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In this chapter, the role of biofilm in urinary tract infections and its relation with virulence factors and antimicrobial resistance is explained.
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2. Evolution of antimicrobial resistance in uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC)
\n\t\t\t
Several studies have demonstrated an increase in antibiotic resistance levels in E. coli causing community-acquired urinary tract infection (UTI) (Barret et al., 1999; Daza et al., 2001; Goettsch et al., 2000; Goldstein, 2000; Gupta et al., 2001a). Some authors have suggested that most of these studies are likely to reflect a selection bias because few UTIs are being cultured routinely and culture results are available from patients with complications, recent treatment, and recurrence of infection or suspected resistance (Gupta et al., 2001b). However, taking into account the worldwide increase in antibiotic resistance, this factor can be a major problem in complicated and uncomplicated community-acquired UTIs. Hence, as suggested by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), knowledge of local resistance rates and surveillance studies to monitor changes in the susceptibility of E. coli is highly recommended. (Warren et al., 1999)
\n\t\t\t
Cotrimoxazole has been the drug of choice for empiric therapy of uncomplicated UTI in women during several years. However, resistance to this compound is higher than 20% in many countries. In Spain, a multicentre study performed in 2006 found a resistance level of 32%, (Andreu et al., 2008) quite similar to the result of 33.9 %found in a previous study completed four years beforehand (Andreu et al., 2005), making the differences found between regions noteworthy (range 23% to 37.3%). Results from a single centre also in Spain found a resistance rate of 25%, with isolates from complicated UTIs (28%) being more resistant than those than from uncomplicated UTIs (22%) (Alós et al., 2005). In the USA, resistance to cotrimoxazole has risen from 15% in 1998 to 21.3% in 2003-2004 (Gupta et al., 2001b)). Again, geographic variations were observed in another study among states (15% to 40%) in the USA and in Canada (10.2 to 48.5%) (Zhanel et al., 2006).
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Betalactam antibiotics are widely used in the treatment of UTIs. Among them, ampicillin or amoxicillin are not recommended as first line drugs due to high levels of resistance. In the multicentre study from Spain (Andreu et al., 2008) the rate of resistance was 60.7% with clear differences between regions, the lowest value being 36.8%. Despite ampicillin not having been used to treat uncomplicated cystitis for a long time, resistance to this compound has increased along the years. Amoxicillin plus clavulanic acid shows a high level of activity compared to ampicillin. Resistance to this drug was only found in 8.1% of isolates with a variation according to geographic zones of 3% to 18.3% (Andreu et al., 2008). Other oral betalactams like cefuroxime (8.9% of resistance) or cefixime (6.9% of resistance) show good activity against E. coli urinary isolates, but resistance to both drugs was higher in elderly patients (>60 years)(Andreu et al., 2008). An E. coli producer of extended spectrum betalactamases should always be considered as an aetiological agent of UTIs. In the Spanish multicentre study (Andreu et al., 2008) this agent represented 5.2% of E. coli isolates with most (79.1%) being recovered from patients over the age of 60 years. These isolates are also frequently resistant to fluorquinolones and cotrimoxazole.
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Fluorquinolones can be an option to treat UTIs, but their utility is hampered by resistance rates. In Europe, resistance to ciprofloxacin in UPEC was low in the period from 1999-2000, with the highest values found in Portugal (5.8%) and Spain (14.7%) (Kahlmeter, 2003). The multicentre study published by Zhanel et al. (2006) reported a rate resistance in UPEC of only 1.1% in Canada and 6.8% in the USA, with great differences between regions (2.9% to 20.3%). In the Spanish multicentre study (Andreu et al., 2008) resistance to ciprofloxacin was found in 23.9% of all UPEC isolates and, again, significant geographical differences were found (12.5% to 37.3%). Interestingly, the study by Alós et al., (2005) showed that resistance to ciprofloxacin was higher in UPEC recovered in complicated UTIs (19.5%) than in UPEC isolated in uncomplicated UTIs (8.5%). Both studies found that elderly patients showed higher levels of resistance to fluorquinolones.
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Nitrofurantoin shows a good activity against UPEC isolates with only 3.8% resistant isolates (Andreu et al., 2008). However, dosage and potential pulmonary toxicity limits their usefulness. Fosfomycin remains as the most active oral antibiotic against UPEC isolates. Resistance to this drug was of 1.7% in the multicentre study published by Andreu et al., (2008) and the compound usually maintains its activity against ESBL producers.
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3. Relationship between virulence factors and antimicrobial resistance in UPEC
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The level of quinolone-resistance in E. coli clinical isolates has steadily increased in most European countries. When the analysis is stratified according to the different UTIs it is found that the percentage of quinolone-resistant E. coli isolates causing pyelonephritis is lower that those causing cystitis (Velasco et al., 2001). This data suggested that the quinolone-resistant E. coli lost the ability to colonize the kidney epithelia. In order, to prove this hypothesis a study investigating some urovirulence factors in nalidixic acid resistant E. coli clinical isolates compared with a group of quinolone-susceptible clinical isolates was carried out. Haemolysin, cytotoxic necrotizing factor-1 (CNF-1) and the autotransporter toxin (sat) were less prevalent in nalidixic acid-resistant than in nalidixic acid susceptible strains. These results suggested that resistance to quinolones may be associated with a decrease in the presence of some virulence factors in uropathogenic E. coli (Vila et al., 2002). A study related quinolone resistance and low virulence with phylogenetic origin, mainly in phylogenetic group A, which show a high level of resistance to quinolones and has a low number of urovirulence factors (Johnson JR, et al., 2003). Among the four phylogenetic groups (A, B1, B2 and D), B2 is considered the most virulent. Therefore in a subsequent study, 31 virulence factors were analyzed among nalidixic acid-susceptible and –resistant E. coli clinical isolates from phylogenetic group B2 and again haemolysin and CNF-1 were less prevalent among nalidixic acid-resistant E. coli strains (Horcajada JP, et al. 2005). All three genes (hly, encoding haemolysin; cnf, encoding the cytotoxic necrotizing factor and sat, encoding the autotransporter toxin) have their localization in pathogenicity islands in common. Therefore, we thought that the link between the acquisition of resistance to quinolone and lower prevalence of some virulence factors could be explained by the fact that quinolones have been shown to induce the SOS system (Phillips I. et al., 1987) and this induction can favour the release of a genome phage integrated in the bacterial chromosome. Since the structure of the genome phage and the pathogenicity islands is genetically similar it can be hypothesized that the induction of the SOS system by quinolones would favour the release and loss of the pathogenicity island. Indeed, this hypothesis was proven incubating haemolysin-positive, quinolone-susceptible E. coli strains with subinhibitory concentrations of ciprofloxacin and searching for haemolysin-negative E. coli mutants. It was shown that these mutants can suffer a partial or total loss of the pathogenicity island, carrying the hly and cnf genes through a dependent and independent SOS pathway, respectively (Soto et al., 2006). All the abovementioned results suggest that the acquisition of quinolone resistance may generate E. coli strains with lower virulence.
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4. Relationship between biofilm formation, urovirulence factors and antimicrobial resistance
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Biofilm formation may be considered as another pathogenic determinant which allows the strains to persist a long time in the genito-urinary tract and interfere with bacterial eradication. Biofilm endows bacteria with several advantages, such as the acquisition of antibiotic tolerance, expression of several virulence factors and an increased resistance against phagocytosis and other host defence mechanisms. Actually, biofilms are probably the usual living condition of bacteria in natural environments and they are, indeed, regularly involved in infections associated with biomaterials such as catheters or prostheses. In these clinical processes, biofilm formation is the main culprit of the characteristic persistence of the infection, despite appropriate antibiotic therapy and hydrodynamic forces (Hanna et al., 2003). More than 50% of all bacteria infections reported involve biofilm formation (Costerton et al., 1999).
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Acute UTI caused by UPEC can lead to recurrent infection, which is denominated “relapse” when it is caused by the same strain as that involved in the original UTI or as “re-infection” when it involves different strains. Approximately 25% of women with an episode of acute cystitis later develop recurrent UTI being an important burden to the health system. A study of women with recurrent UTI showed that 74% of strains causing relapse were biofilm formers (Soto et al., 2007). It had been demonstrated that uropathogens can persist within the bladder tissue in underlying epithelial cells or creating pod-like bulges on the bladder surface being a source of recurrent UTI (Mulvey et al., 2000; Anderson et al., 2003). Two virulence factors related to iron-uptake system, yersiniabactin and aerobactin, have also been associated with relapse (Johnson et al., 2001; Soto et al., 2006) due to the need of the bacteria to capture iron for growth in a stressful environment such as the vagina. However, biofilm production may be the key determinant for the persistence of UPEC in the vaginal reservoir, the bladder epithelial cells or both.
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The study of the factors contributing to biofilm formation may be important to conceive new therapeutic solutions for the treatment of these infections. On comparing UPEC collected from patients with cystitis, pyelonephritis or prostatitis it had been observed that strains causing prostatitis presented a higher capacity to form “in vitro” biofilm than those causing cystitis and pyelonephritis (Soto et al., 2007). The increased capacity to form biofilm of these strains could be a possible explanation for the persistence of such strains in the prostatic secretory system.
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Wu and colleagues (Wu et al., 1996) suggested that the inhibition of bacterial attachment to an uroepithelial surface, a crucial initial event involving precise interactions between groups of bacterial adhesive molecules called adhesins and their cognate urinary tract receptors, could be interesting to avoid biofilm formation. One of the virulence factors involved in the initial steps of biofilm is type 1 fimbriae which play an important role in the adhesion to the host epithelial cells (Prüss et al., 2006) and confer binding to α-D-mannosylated proteins, such as uroplakins, which are abundant in the bladder (Wu et al., 1996). It had been found that biofilm-producing E. coli strains showed a significantly greater type 1 fimbriae expression than non-biofilm producing strains (Soto et al., 2007).
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Another mechanism by which UPEC promotes the formation of biofilms is via expression of proteins that mediate cell-cell aggregation (Ulett et al., 2007). Of these, Ag43 is also associated with the early stages of biofilm development (Schembri et al., 2003), although it has been demonstrated that the Ag43 can be dispensable for biofilm formation being replaced by alternative factors, such as conjugative pili (Guigo et al., 2001; Reisner et al., 2003). Ag43 is expressed on the surface of UPEC cells located within intracellular biofilm-like bacterial pods in the bladder epithelium, indicating that it may contribute to survival and persistence during prolonged infection (Anderson et al., 2003).
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On the other hand, among of the virulence factors studied, only haemolysin seems to present an association with biofilm production. In fact, haemolysin-positive UPEC strains were strongly linked to prostatitis also shown to have a higher frequency of “in vitro” biofilm formation (Andreu et al., 1997; Johnson et al., 2005; Mitsumori et al., 1999; Ruiz et al., 2002; Soto et al., 2007; Terai et al., 1997). These data confirm that the tropism and invasiveness of E. coli strains for the prostate rely mainly on haemolysin but also provide a possible explanation for the persistence of such strains in the prostatic secretory system by means of their increased ability to form biofilm.
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It has been previously reported that most E. coli isolates collected from faeces belong to phylogenetic groups A and B1, with phylogenetic groups B2 and D being the most frequently isolated in urine and considered as virulent. The differences in the phylogenetic background of these two groups of isolates from urine and faeces indicate that the prostate was not, in most of the cases, colonized by commensal bacteria from the intestinal tract. Strains belonging to phylogenetic group B2 presented a higher capacity to form biofilm than those belonging to phylogenetic groups A, B1 and D (Soto et al., 2007).
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A relationship between nalidixic acid susceptibility and “in vitro” biofilm formation seems to exist. Studies comparing biofilm positive UPEC strains versus biofilm negative UPEC strains showed that the percentage of nalidixic acid resistant strains was higher among those non-biofilm formers than among biofilm-formers (Soto et al., 2007). In fact, acquisition of quinolone resistance causes a decrease in the “in vitro” production of biofilm by a decrease in the expression of type 1 fimbriae, avoiding the first step of biofilm formation, the adhesion to the surfaces (unpublished data).
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5. Conclusion
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Biofilm formation is an important feature related to relapsed UTI, and likely plays an important role in prostatitis caused by E. coli. In addition, a link between acquisition of quinolone resistance acquisition and decrease in biofilm formation and loss of some virulence factors has been suggested.
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Acknowledgments
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This work was supported by the Spanish Network for Research in Infectious Diseases (REIPI RE06/0008), SGR091256 of the Department d’Universitats, Recerca I Societat de la Informació de la Generalitat de Catalunya, Fondo de Investigaciones Sanitarias (PI10/01579) of Spain, and by funding from the European Community (TROCAR contract HEALTH-F3-2008-223031). Sara M. Soto is a recipient of a contract “Miguel Servet” (CP05/00140) from “Fondo de Investigaciones Sanitarias” of the Spanish Ministry of Health.
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\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/19321.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/19321.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/19321",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/19321",totalDownloads:3644,totalViews:428,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 9th 2010",dateReviewed:"April 20th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 6th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/19321",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/19321",book:{slug:"clinical-management-of-complicated-urinary-tract-infection"},signatures:"Sara M. Soto, Francesc Marco, Elisabet Guiral and Jordi Vila",authors:[{id:"58593",title:"Prof.",name:"Jordi",middleName:null,surname:"Vila",fullName:"Jordi Vila",slug:"jordi-vila",email:"jvila@ub.edu",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Escherichia coli virulence and urinary tract infections",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Biofilm and factors involved in its formation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.2.1. Flagella and motility",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.2.2. Fimbriae",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.2.3. Autotransporter proteins",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"1.2.4. Curli",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"1.2.5. F conjugative pilus",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"1.2.6. Exopolysaccharide production",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10",title:"2. Evolution of antimicrobial resistance in uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"3. Relationship between virulence factors and antimicrobial resistance in UPEC",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Relationship between biofilm formation, urovirulence factors and antimicrobial resistance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. 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A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBurland\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPlunkett\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRedford\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRoesch\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRasko\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tExtensive mosaic structure revealed by the complete genome sequence of uropathogenic Escherichia coliProcedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99\n\t\t\t\t\t26\n\t\t\t\t\t17020\n\t\t\t\t\t17024ISNN 0027-8424.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B55",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhite\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGibson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCollinson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBanser\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. 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Department of Clinical Microbiology, Hospital Clinic, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Spain
Department of Clinical Microbiology, Hospital Clinic, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Spain
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Harbach",slug:"ralph-e.-harbach"}]},{id:"43979",title:"Systematic Techniques for the Recognition of Anopheles Species Complexes",slug:"systematic-techniques-for-the-recognition-of-anopheles-species-complexes",signatures:"Wej Choochote and Atiporn Saeung",authors:[{id:"151262",title:"Prof.",name:"Wej",middleName:null,surname:"Choochote",fullName:"Wej Choochote",slug:"wej-choochote"},{id:"153513",title:"Dr.",name:"Atiporn",middleName:null,surname:"Saeung",fullName:"Atiporn Saeung",slug:"atiporn-saeung"}]},{id:"43884",title:"Genetic and Phenetic Approaches to Anopheles Systematics",slug:"genetic-and-phenetic-approaches-to-anopheles-systematics",signatures:"Claire Garros and Jean-Pierre Dujardin",authors:[{id:"107247",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Dujardin",fullName:"Jean-Pierre Dujardin",slug:"jean-pierre-dujardin"},{id:"151616",title:"Dr.",name:"Claire",middleName:null,surname:"Garros",fullName:"Claire Garros",slug:"claire-garros"}]},{id:"43624",title:"Global Distribution of the Dominant Vector Species of Malaria",slug:"global-distribution-of-the-dominant-vector-species-of-malaria",signatures:"Marianne E. Sinka",authors:[{id:"153626",title:"Dr.",name:"Marianne",middleName:null,surname:"Sinka",fullName:"Marianne Sinka",slug:"marianne-sinka"}]},{id:"43482",title:"Phylogeography, Vectors and Transmission in Latin America",slug:"phylogeography-vectors-and-transmission-in-latin-america",signatures:"Jan E. Conn, Martha L. Quiñones and Marinete M. Póvoa",authors:[{id:"151253",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Conn",fullName:"Jan Conn",slug:"jan-conn"},{id:"154130",title:"Prof.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Quinones",fullName:"Martha Quinones",slug:"martha-quinones"},{id:"154131",title:"Prof.",name:"Marinete",middleName:null,surname:"Povoa",fullName:"Marinete Povoa",slug:"marinete-povoa"}]},{id:"44284",title:"Speciation in Anopheles gambiae — The Distribution of Genetic Polymorphism and Patterns of Reproductive Isolation Among Natural Populations",slug:"speciation-in-anopheles-gambiae-the-distribution-of-genetic-polymorphism-and-patterns-of-reproductiv",signatures:"Gregory C. Lanzaro and Yoosook Lee",authors:[{id:"152068",title:"Prof.",name:"Gregory C.",middleName:null,surname:"Lanzaro",fullName:"Gregory C. Lanzaro",slug:"gregory-c.-lanzaro"},{id:"169011",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoosook",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Yoosook Lee",slug:"yoosook-lee"}]},{id:"43973",title:"Advances and Perspectives in the Study of the Malaria Mosquito Anopheles funestus",slug:"advances-and-perspectives-in-the-study-of-the-malaria-mosquito-anopheles-funestus",signatures:"Ibrahima Dia, Moussa Wamdaogo Guelbeogo and Diego Ayala",authors:[{id:"154416",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Ayala",fullName:"Diego Ayala",slug:"diego-ayala"},{id:"167122",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahima",middleName:null,surname:"Dia",fullName:"Ibrahima Dia",slug:"ibrahima-dia"},{id:"169020",title:"Dr.",name:"Moussa",middleName:"Wamdaogo",surname:"Guelbeogo",fullName:"Moussa Guelbeogo",slug:"moussa-guelbeogo"}]},{id:"43614",title:"Highlights on Anopheles nili and Anopheles moucheti, Malaria Vectors in Africa",slug:"highlights-on-anopheles-nili-and-anopheles-moucheti-malaria-vectors-in-africa",signatures:"Christophe Antonio-Nkondjio and Frédéric Simard",authors:[{id:"153999",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Antonio Nkondjio",fullName:"Christophe Antonio Nkondjio",slug:"christophe-antonio-nkondjio"},{id:"154272",title:"Dr.",name:"Frédéric",middleName:null,surname:"Simard",fullName:"Frédéric Simard",slug:"frederic-simard"}]},{id:"43975",title:"The Dominant Mosquito Vectors of Human Malaria in India",slug:"the-dominant-mosquito-vectors-of-human-malaria-in-india",signatures:"Vas Dev and Vinod P. Sharma",authors:[{id:"151166",title:"Dr.",name:"Vas",middleName:null,surname:"Dev",fullName:"Vas Dev",slug:"vas-dev"},{id:"169007",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinod",middleName:null,surname:"P. Sharma",fullName:"Vinod P. Sharma",slug:"vinod-p.-sharma"}]},{id:"45385",title:"Vector Biology and Malaria Transmission in Southeast Asia",slug:"vector-biology-and-malaria-transmission-in-southeast-asia",signatures:"Wannapa Suwonkerd, Wanapa Ritthison, Chung Thuy Ngo, Krajana\nTainchum, Michael J. Bangs and Theeraphap Chareonviriyaphap",authors:[{id:"151663",title:"PhD.",name:"Wannapa",middleName:null,surname:"Suwonkerd",fullName:"Wannapa Suwonkerd",slug:"wannapa-suwonkerd"},{id:"151737",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"J. Bangs",fullName:"Michael J. Bangs",slug:"michael-j.-bangs"},{id:"169010",title:"Dr.",name:"Wanapa",middleName:null,surname:"Ritthison",fullName:"Wanapa Ritthison",slug:"wanapa-ritthison"}]},{id:"43254",title:"Understanding Anopheles Diversity in Southeast Asia and Its Applications for Malaria Control",slug:"understanding-anopheles-diversity-in-southeast-asia-and-its-applications-for-malaria-control",signatures:"Katy Morgan, Pradya Somboon and Catherine Walton",authors:[{id:"154092",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine",middleName:null,surname:"Walton",fullName:"Catherine Walton",slug:"catherine-walton"},{id:"154867",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Morgan",fullName:"Katy Morgan",slug:"katy-morgan"},{id:"169019",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradya",middleName:null,surname:"Somboon",fullName:"Pradya Somboon",slug:"pradya-somboon"}]},{id:"44155",title:"The Systematics and Bionomics of Malaria Vectors in the Southwest Pacific",slug:"the-systematics-and-bionomics-of-malaria-vectors-in-the-southwest-pacific",signatures:"Nigel W. Beebe, Tanya L. Russell, Thomas R. Burkot, Neil F. Lobo and\nRobert D. Cooper",authors:[{id:"152080",title:"Dr.",name:"Nigel",middleName:null,surname:"Beebe",fullName:"Nigel Beebe",slug:"nigel-beebe"},{id:"169012",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanya",middleName:null,surname:"L. Russell",fullName:"Tanya L. Russell",slug:"tanya-l.-russell"},{id:"169013",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"R. Burkot",fullName:"Thomas R. Burkot",slug:"thomas-r.-burkot"},{id:"169014",title:"Dr.",name:"Neil",middleName:null,surname:"F. Lobo",fullName:"Neil F. Lobo",slug:"neil-f.-lobo"},{id:"169015",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"D. Cooper",fullName:"Robert D. Cooper",slug:"robert-d.-cooper"}]},{id:"43671",title:"Ecology of Larval Habitats",slug:"ecology-of-larval-habitats",signatures:"Eliška Rejmánková, John Grieco, Nicole Achee and Donald R.\nRoberts",authors:[{id:"151632",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicole",middleName:null,surname:"Achee",fullName:"Nicole Achee",slug:"nicole-achee"},{id:"152601",title:"Prof.",name:"Eliska",middleName:null,surname:"Rejmankova",fullName:"Eliska Rejmankova",slug:"eliska-rejmankova"},{id:"169016",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Grieco",fullName:"John Grieco",slug:"john-grieco"}]},{id:"43954",title:"From Anopheles to Spatial Surveillance: A Roadmap Through a Multidisciplinary Challenge",slug:"from-anopheles-to-spatial-surveillance-a-roadmap-through-a-multidisciplinary-challenge",signatures:"Valérie Obsomer, Nicolas Titeux, Christelle Vancustem, Grégory\nDuveiller, Jean-François Pekel, Steve Connor, Pietro Ceccato and\nMarc Coosemans",authors:[{id:"131417",title:"Dr.",name:"Valérie",middleName:null,surname:"Obsomer",fullName:"Valérie Obsomer",slug:"valerie-obsomer"},{id:"152754",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Coosemans",fullName:"Marc Coosemans",slug:"marc-coosemans"},{id:"153949",title:"Dr.",name:"Pietro",middleName:null,surname:"Ceccato",fullName:"Pietro Ceccato",slug:"pietro-ceccato"},{id:"153950",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Duveiller",fullName:"Gregory Duveiller",slug:"gregory-duveiller"},{id:"153952",title:"Dr.",name:"Christelle",middleName:null,surname:"Vancutsem",fullName:"Christelle Vancutsem",slug:"christelle-vancutsem"},{id:"153980",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",middleName:null,surname:"Titeux",fullName:"Nicolas Titeux",slug:"nicolas-titeux"},{id:"154158",title:"Dr.",name:"Steve J",middleName:null,surname:"Connor",fullName:"Steve J Connor",slug:"steve-j-connor"},{id:"167685",title:"MSc.",name:"Jean-Francois",middleName:null,surname:"Pekel",fullName:"Jean-Francois Pekel",slug:"jean-francois-pekel"}]},{id:"43960",title:"Simian Malaria Parasites: Special Emphasis on Plasmodium knowlesi and Their Anopheles Vectors in Southeast Asia",slug:"simian-malaria-parasites-special-emphasis-on-plasmodium-knowlesi-and-their-anopheles-vectors-in-sout",signatures:"Indra Vythilingam and Jeffery Hii",authors:[{id:"151116",title:"Dr.",name:"Indra",middleName:null,surname:"Vythilingam",fullName:"Indra Vythilingam",slug:"indra-vythilingam"},{id:"169006",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeffery",middleName:null,surname:"Hii",fullName:"Jeffery Hii",slug:"jeffery-hii"}]},{id:"44039",title:"Thermal Stress and Thermoregulation During Feeding in Mosquitoes",slug:"thermal-stress-and-thermoregulation-during-feeding-in-mosquitoes",signatures:"Chloé Lahondère and Claudio R. Lazzari",authors:[{id:"151619",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"R. Lazzari",fullName:"Claudio R. Lazzari",slug:"claudio-r.-lazzari"},{id:"151620",title:"Ms.",name:"Chloé",middleName:null,surname:"Lahondère",fullName:"Chloé Lahondère",slug:"chloe-lahondere"}]},{id:"43955",title:"The Anopheles Mosquito Microbiota and Their Impact on Pathogen Transmission",slug:"the-anopheles-mosquito-microbiota-and-their-impact-on-pathogen-transmission",signatures:"Mathilde Gendrin and George K. Christophides",authors:[{id:"154007",title:"Dr.",name:"Mathilde",middleName:null,surname:"Gendrin",fullName:"Mathilde Gendrin",slug:"mathilde-gendrin"},{id:"154008",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:"K",surname:"Christophides",fullName:"George Christophides",slug:"george-christophides"}]},{id:"43829",title:"Bacterial Biodiversity in Midguts of Anopheles Mosquitoes, Malaria Vectors in Southeast Asia",slug:"bacterial-biodiversity-in-midguts-of-anopheles-mosquitoes-malaria-vectors-in-southeast-asia",signatures:"Sylvie Manguin, Chung Thuy Ngo, Krajana Tainchum, Waraporn\nJuntarajumnong, Theeraphap Chareonviriyaphap, Anne-Laure\nMichon and Estelle Jumas-Bilak",authors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",middleName:null,surname:"Manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin"},{id:"75315",title:"Prof.",name:"Theeraphap",middleName:null,surname:"Chareonviriyaphap",fullName:"Theeraphap Chareonviriyaphap",slug:"theeraphap-chareonviriyaphap"},{id:"88985",title:"Prof.",name:"Anne-Laure",middleName:null,surname:"Michon",fullName:"Anne-Laure Michon",slug:"anne-laure-michon"},{id:"88986",title:"Prof.",name:"Estelle",middleName:null,surname:"Jumas-Bilak",fullName:"Estelle Jumas-Bilak",slug:"estelle-jumas-bilak"},{id:"156016",title:"MSc.",name:"Chung Thuy",middleName:null,surname:"Ngo",fullName:"Chung Thuy Ngo",slug:"chung-thuy-ngo"},{id:"156018",title:"MSc.",name:"Krajana",middleName:null,surname:"Tainchum",fullName:"Krajana Tainchum",slug:"krajana-tainchum"},{id:"156019",title:"Dr.",name:"Waraporn",middleName:null,surname:"Juntarajumnong",fullName:"Waraporn Juntarajumnong",slug:"waraporn-juntarajumnong"}]},{id:"43899",title:"Distribution, Mechanisms, Impact and Management of Insecticide Resistance in Malaria Vectors: A Pragmatic Review",slug:"distribution-mechanisms-impact-and-management-of-insecticide-resistance-in-malaria-vectors-a-pragmat",signatures:"Vincent Corbel and Raphael N’Guessan",authors:[{id:"152666",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",middleName:null,surname:"Corbel",fullName:"Vincent Corbel",slug:"vincent-corbel"},{id:"169017",title:"Dr.",name:"Raphael",middleName:null,surname:"N'Guessan",fullName:"Raphael N'Guessan",slug:"raphael-n'guessan"}]},{id:"43851",title:"Perspectives on Barriers to Control of Anopheles Mosquitoes and Malaria",slug:"perspectives-on-barriers-to-control-of-anopheles-mosquitoes-and-malaria",signatures:"Donald R. Roberts, Richard Tren and Kimberly Hess",authors:[{id:"151439",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",middleName:null,surname:"R. Roberts",fullName:"Donald R. Roberts",slug:"donald-r.-roberts"},{id:"151656",title:"Mr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Tren",fullName:"Richard Tren",slug:"richard-tren"},{id:"154152",title:"Ms.",name:"Kimberly",middleName:null,surname:"Hess",fullName:"Kimberly Hess",slug:"kimberly-hess"}]},{id:"43874",title:"Residual Transmission of Malaria: An Old Issue for New Approaches",slug:"residual-transmission-of-malaria-an-old-issue-for-new-approaches",signatures:"Lies Durnez and Marc Coosemans",authors:[{id:"152754",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Coosemans",fullName:"Marc Coosemans",slug:"marc-coosemans"},{id:"169018",title:"Dr.",name:"Lies",middleName:null,surname:"Durnez",fullName:"Lies Durnez",slug:"lies-durnez"}]},{id:"44330",title:"Vector Control: Some New Paradigms and Approaches",slug:"vector-control-some-new-paradigms-and-approaches",signatures:"Claire Duchet, Richard Allan and Pierre Carnevale",authors:[{id:"151662",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Carnevale",fullName:"Pierre Carnevale",slug:"pierre-carnevale"},{id:"169000",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Allan",fullName:"Richard Allan",slug:"richard-allan"},{id:"169008",title:"Dr.",name:"Claire",middleName:null,surname:"Duchet",fullName:"Claire Duchet",slug:"claire-duchet"}]},{id:"43870",title:"New Salivary Biomarkers of Human Exposure to Malaria Vector Bites",slug:"new-salivary-biomarkers-of-human-exposure-to-malaria-vector-bites",signatures:"Papa M. Drame, Anne Poinsignon, Alexandra Marie, Herbert\nNoukpo, Souleymane Doucoure, Sylvie Cornelie and Franck\nRemoue",authors:[{id:"151515",title:"Dr.",name:"Papa Makhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Drame",fullName:"Papa Makhtar Drame",slug:"papa-makhtar-drame"},{id:"151648",title:"Dr.",name:"Franck",middleName:null,surname:"Remoué",fullName:"Franck Remoué",slug:"franck-remoue"},{id:"154034",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Poinsignon",fullName:"Anne Poinsignon",slug:"anne-poinsignon"},{id:"154035",title:"MSc.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marie",fullName:"Alexandra Marie",slug:"alexandra-marie"},{id:"154037",title:"Dr.",name:"Souleymane",middleName:null,surname:"Doucoure",fullName:"Souleymane Doucoure",slug:"souleymane-doucoure"},{id:"154038",title:"MSc.",name:"Herbert",middleName:null,surname:"Noukpo",fullName:"Herbert Noukpo",slug:"herbert-noukpo"},{id:"154039",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvie",middleName:null,surname:"Cornélie",fullName:"Sylvie Cornélie",slug:"sylvie-cornelie"}]},{id:"44149",title:"Transgenic Mosquitoes for Malaria Control: From the Bench to the Public Opinion Survey",slug:"transgenic-mosquitoes-for-malaria-control-from-the-bench-to-the-public-opinion-survey",signatures:"Christophe Boëte and Uli Beisel",authors:[{id:"98400",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Boëte",fullName:"Christophe Boëte",slug:"christophe-boete"},{id:"167749",title:"Dr.",name:"Uli",middleName:null,surname:"Beisel",fullName:"Uli Beisel",slug:"uli-beisel"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"62390",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management and Energy Recovery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79235",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management-and-energy-recovery",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
With the growth of world population and progressive increase in living standards, the consumption of goods and energy has also increased, along with land use change and deforestation, intensified agricultural practices, industrialization and energy use from fossil fuel sources. All of these have contributed to ever-increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, since the industrial era.
\n
Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a manifestation of the unsustainable consumption of natural resources by humankind, which has led to—and continues to—the depletion of natural capital and environmental degradation.
\n
Current global MSW generation levels are approximately 1.3 billion tons/year, and by 2025, these are expected to increase to approximately 2.2 billion tons/year. This represents a significant increase in per capita waste generation rates, from 1.20 to 1.42 kg per person per day, in the next 15 years (2018–2033). However, global averages are broad estimates only, as rates vary considerably by region, country, and even within cities [1].
\n
On a global scale, 70% of MSW is landfilled, 19% is recycled, and only 11% is utilized in Waste-to-Energy (WtE) schemes—this occurs due to logistical and economic issues—such as primary fossil energy scarcity and landfill volume restrictions [2].
\n
The concept of circular economy (CE)—while not entirely new—has recently gained importance in the agendas of policymakers, to address the aforementioned and other sustainability issues [3]. The aim of CE is to maintain the value of products, materials and resources as long as possible, to minimize the use of resources; in other words, CE is based on a “win-win” philosophy that states that prosper economy and healthy environment can co-exist [4].
\n
WtE plants have a dual objective: reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills and produce useful energy (heat and/or power). The WtE supply chain provides a method for simultaneously addressing issues related to energy demand, waste management and emission of greenhouse gases (GHG), achieving a circular economy system (CES) [5].
\n
Traditionally, WtE has been associated with incineration. Yet, the term is much broader, embracing several waste treatment processes that generate energy (electricity and/or heat), such as pyrolysis, conventional or plasma arc gasification, as well as nonthermal processes such as anaerobic digestion and landfill-gas recovery.
\n
\n
\n
2. Municipal solid waste: general aspects
\n
\n
2.1. Definition
\n
Municipal solid waste (MSW), also referred to as trash or garbage, consists of several items that are discarded after use, such as grass clippings, furniture, clothing, food scraps, product packaging, bottles, newspapers, appliances, paint, and batteries [6]. Construction, industrial, and hazardous waste are not considered MSW.
\n
\n
\n
2.2. Waste hierarchy and MSW composition
\n
In recent decades, there has been increasing pressure on developed countries to reduce their waste associated with single-use discarded materials. The objective is to conserve natural resources, including energy (which is utilized for the production of such materials), and reduce the amount of materials disposed in sanitary landfills. The philosophy of waste management aims at decreasing the amount of waste generated by society and incentivizing reutilization and recovery of its energy content, when reutilization or recycling is not possible through biochemical or thermochemical technological routes.
\n
Figure 1 presents a scheme based on the pyramid proposed by the European Commission. Different management strategies are ranked from most to least environmentally preferred.
\n
Figure 1.
Waste hierarchy, adapted from [7].
\n
Most WtE transformation processes require pre-treatment of MSW. The characteristics of the raw materials within solid waste are affected by several factors, which range from the storage method (influence of humidity), maturity (wide variety of waste within an excavated landfill), classification policies (which vary depending on the country), to name a few. Successful implementation of WtE conversion technologies depends considerably on the efficiency of the process, which, in turn, depends on the quality of the waste considered. Table 1 presents the global average composition of MSW.
The recovery of energy and materials from MSW through the production of a refuse derived fuel (RDF) is one of the alternatives advocated by waste management planners and government regulations [9]. RDF is the product of processing MSW to separate the noncombustible from the combustible portion, enabling better reuse of materials and recycling of MSW, with the possibility of achieving higher efficiencies in energy recovery treatments. RDF is an efficient fuel with several advantages in comparison with MSW, due to its high calorific value, more homogeneous chemical composition, more convenient storage and handling characteristics, and less carbon emissions.
\n
Some studies have characterized the streams of materials involved in the RDF production process [9, 10], with descriptions on the characteristics of RDF in terms of composition and proximate and ultimate analysis [11, 12]. Also, the energy potential of RDF obtained from combustible solid waste has been evaluated by [13, 14].
\n
Table 2 shows data compiled by [15] for the elemental composition of MSW and RDF.
Composition of MSW and RDF: mean values and [min.–max.] [15].
Dry ash free.
Not available.
\n
The direct utilization of MSW in processes for the recovery of energy can lead to variable operation conditions, even unstable, with quality fluctuations in the final product. This is a consequence of the heterogeneity of the material regarding size, shape and composition. This is why firstly fuel is derived from waste, which is then utilized in the energy generation system [16]. For gasification and pyrolysis technologies, pretreatment is a fundamental requirement, which does not occur when considering plasma gasification and incineration.
\n
With the objective of improving the handling characteristics and homogeneity of the material, the conversion process of MSW into fuels is constituted by different steps: trituration, sifting, selection, drying and/or pelletization. The least expensive and most well-established current practice to produce RDF from MSW is mechanical pretreatment (MT); however, different schemes can be used, as presented by [17].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Energy conversion technologies
\n
The characteristics of waste are important when selecting a specific WtE technology. The energy recovery efficiency depends on variables such as technology and quality of waste. An optimized plant that treats preselected waste can recover two or three times more electricity and heat than a more traditional plant that treats raw waste [18].
\n
There is a wide range of WtE technologies, biochemical and thermochemical, for the conversion of solid waste into energy (steam or electricity). Fuels such hydrogen, natural gas, synthetic diesel and ethanol can be utilized [19, 20].
\n
The biochemical route, in the case of MSW, refers to anaerobic digestion, which consists of controlled decomposition by microbes to reduce the organic material. Biochemical processes are used in the treatment of waste with high percentages of biodegradable organic matter and high moisture content. Methane, fuel for electricity generation, steam and heat can be produced.
\n
One of the disadvantages of the biological treatment is the preprocessing required to separate MSW. Biochemical conversion of waste can be grouped into four categories: anaerobic digestion/fermentation, aerobic digestion, composting, and landfill gas power (LFG). These technologies are the most economic and environmentally safe means of obtaining energy from MSW [21].
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In thermochemical conversion, both biodegradable and nonbiodegradable matters contribute to the energy output. Incineration, gasification and pyrolysis are types of thermochemical conversion processes, which are fundamental and necessary components of a comprehensive and integral urban solid waste management system [22].
\n
The main advantages of thermochemical processes include lower masses and volumes of waste, decrease in the space occupied by landfills, destruction of organic pollutants such as halogenated hydrocarbons, and decrease in the emission of GHGs due to anaerobic decomposition. When considering the life cycle, the use of waste as a source of energy generates less environmental impacts than other conventional energy sources.
\n
With incineration, the energy value of waste can be recovered; however, pyrolysis and gasification can be utilized to recover the chemical value of waste. The derived chemical products, in some cases, can be utilized as inputs in other processes or as secondary fuels.
\n
With the conversion of MSW into fuels, higher calorific values are obtained along with more homogeneous physical and chemical compositions, lower levels of pollutants and ashes, less excess air required for combustion, and better conditions for storage, handling, and transportation. Therefore, it is recommended to establish a balance between increasing production costs and the potential reduction of costs associated with designing and operating the system. Figure 2 shows thermochemical conversion processes, the products involved, and energy and material recovery systems.
\n
Figure 2.
Thermochemical conversion processes and products, adapted from [23].
\n
In the next topic, the main aspects of each of the mentioned routes will be analyzed.
\n
\n
3.1. Thermochemical route
\n
\n
3.1.1. Incineration
\n
Waste incineration is a specific treatment that reduces the volume of waste and its level of dangerousness, selecting and concentrating, or destroying the potentially harmful substances. Incineration processes can also offer the possibility of recovering the energy, mineral or chemical content of waste.
\n
During recent decades, most industrialized countries with high population densities have employed incineration as an alternative procedure to controlled landfilling, for the treatment of MSW.
\n
According to Ref. [24], the two main processes applied for the thermal treatment of waste are fluidized bed combustion and grate combustion. Another technological alternative is the rotary furnace or rotary kiln frequently employed in the field of waste treatment, for the combustion of hazardous waste in combination with other devices for gasification and pyrolysis [25].
\n
Grate combustion, also known as mass burn combustion, is by far the most utilized, as it can handle larger items and only oversized materials have to be crushed. Fluidized bed combustion (as well as most pyrolysis and gasification processes) requires the waste to be shredded into small particles before being introduced in the combustion (pyrolysis/gasification) chamber [24].
\n
The calorific value of the material to be incinerated and the polluting potential of the emissions generated are the main reasons for the evolution of incineration systems (higher combustion efficiencies and effective removal of contaminants).
\n
Due to the heterogeneous nature of waste, some differences with respect to conventional fossil fuel power plants have to be considered in the energy conversion process. The efficiency of a coal burning cycle is generally around 40%, while the efficiency of a garbage incineration cycle varies between 20 and 25%, if operating in a cogeneration mode, and up to 25–35% in the case of power production only [8, 26, 27, 28]. In general, fuel quality (i.e., waste) and other technical conditions (e.g., plant size, low temperature sources, etc.) limit the electrical efficiency of incinerators. This means that more than 70–80% of the heat generated by waste combustion is rejected to the environment.
\n
The conversion efficiency of steam energy into electricity increases with higher steam temperatures and pressures. However, when increasing steam temperature, the heat transfer surfaces are submitted to severe high-temperature corrosion, caused by metal chlorides in the ash particles deposited on the gas tubes and by high concentrations of chlorine and sulfur in MSW. Most chlorines are present in plastics (e.g., PVC), while fluorines are present in polytetrafluoroethylene (PTEF), along with other inorganic compounds. Corrosion limits steam properties to maximums of 450–500°C and 4.0–6.0 MPa, while the steam temperature can reach 600°C in a coal cycle [27, 29].
\n
HCl is highly corrosive at high (>450°C) and low (<110°C) temperatures. The heating surfaces of radiant parts are protected by a resistant refractory material and/or welded high-alloy to prevent corrosive attacks in the furnace of the boiler system. The feed water should be preheated to a minimum of 125°C, before being sent to the boiler, to prevent low-temperature corrosion [29].
\n
Beyond corrosion problems, another negative aspect related to WtE plants is represented by erosion, especially the abrasion of surface material responsible for the vertical wear and tear. This is primarily caused by the ash particles present in flue-gas, and erosion appears mostly in the area of gas redirection. Tube wear is caused by a combination of corrosion and abrasion.
\n
The pollutants released with exhaust gases after the burning of the waste affect the efficiency of the boiler. In an MSW incineration plant, efficiency is influenced by the heat lost with exhaust gases and by corrosion, which means that the temperature of exhaust gases cannot be significantly changed. For this reason, until 2013, the maximum efficiency of a boiler was approximately 87% [30].
\n
The incineration of MSW emits GHG such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitric oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), polyfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF). When the furnace is maintained under high oxidizable conditions, there is no CH4 being emitted in the gases exiting the chimney. When primary air is supplied from the storage tank, CH4 is oxidized to CO2 and H2O.
\n
The pollutants emitted during incineration hinder the improvement of the steam cycle, but new technologies developed for the recovery of energy have managed to improve the overall efficiency of the plant. Some of the factors that have contributed the most to the improvement of new plants include two-second increase in residence time for dioxin destruction, high performance with mobile grills, utilization of new metal alloys and high-performance exhaust gas cleaning systems [31].
\n
Most recent data from the Eurostat database highlight that municipal waste was treated differently in the EU 28 in 2014: 16.1% is composted (Eurostat shows it as biological treatment), 27.3% is incinerated (total incineration including energy recovery), 28.2% is recycled and 28.4% is landfilled [32].
\n
Japan has 1172 incinerators for the treatment of 80% of MSW; approximately 71% of MSW is incinerated with energy recovery generating 1770 MW [33]. In the United States, there are 77 WtE power plants, of which 78% employ mass burn technology (60 facilities), 17% refuse derived fuel (13 facilities), and 4% utilize modular combustion (4 facilities). Of these facilities, 77% produce electricity (59 units), 4% export steam (3 units), and 19% cogeneration—or combined heat and power (15 units) [32].
\n
LFG power represents one of the most readily available, cheap and relatively simple forms of WtE options. However, the carbon dioxide emissions from landfills per ton of MSW processed are at least 1.2 t CO2, much higher than WtE plants. Considering all environmental performance criteria (energy, material, and land consumption, air and water emissions, risks), WtE is the most favorable solution [24].
\n
\n
\n
3.1.2. Gasification
\n
Gasification is the thermal conversion of carbon-based material into a mixture of combustible gases, called syngas. Gasification is used to convert solid materials such as coal, coke, biomass and solid waste into a gas, with average composition 15–30% CO, 12–40% H, and 4.5–9% CH4. The lower heating value (LHV) of syngas is between 4 and 13 MJ/Nm3, depending on the oxidizing agent used in gasification, operating conditions, among other factors [34]. From the syngas gas produced, different chemical intermediate products can be obtained, with different industrial uses. Energy can also be obtained, in the form of power, heat or biofuel. Gasification temperature is one of the most important operation parameters that affects the performance of the process, due to the balance between endothermic and exothermic reactions involved.
\n
Ref. [35] compared different thermochemical conversion processes, and verified that gasification technology is the best choice considering energy and environmental perspectives. Gasification has attracted attention and gained importance in recent years, presenting higher energy efficiency and being friendlier to the environment.
\n
One of the challenges of MSW gasification is the characteristics of MSW, with variable size and moisture content, and highly variable on calorific value [36].
\n
The gasification of MSW is an effective technique to reduce the amount of waste, and is relatively faster than the conventional processes (more residues can be treated in less time). The process of integrated gasification and combustion emits dioxin and furan within acceptable limits established by national and international agencies [37].
\n
Although gasification has been employed for over 200 years, gasification of MSW is still in its early development stages. Some companies are developing smaller, compact gasifiers designed to be used by cities, towns, and military bases. Companies engaged in waste gasification and the characteristics of gasification plants can be consulted in the Global Syngas Technologies Council Database (GSTC) [38].
\n
Plasma gasification is a technology suitable for MSW that uses a specific type of allothermal gasifiers. The heat that maintains the endothermic gasification reactions is provided by electrically generated thermal plasma (a plasma torch where an electric arc is created between two electrodes inside a vase and an inert gas is injected through this arc) [39].
\n
The plasma torch temperature varies between 2700 and 4500°C, which is sufficient to crack the complex hydrocarbons in syngas, and all inorganic compounds (glass, metals, heavy metals) are melted in a volcanic-type lava that becomes a basaltic slag after cooling. The advantage of this system is that the syngas is produced in high temperatures, which ensures the destruction of all dioxins and furans. More information about this technology can be found in Refs. [40, 41].
\n
Table 3 shows why gasification is attractive among other waste-to-energy technologies, due to its high efficiency for electricity generation at a lower unit cost.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Performance parameter
\n
Incineration
\n
Pyrolysis
\n
Plasma gasification
\n
Conventional gasification
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Capacity (t/day)
\n
250
\n
250
\n
250
\n
250
\n
\n
\n
Conversion efficiency (MWh/t)
\n
0.5
\n
0.3
\n
0.4
\n
0.9
\n
\n
\n
Power generation capacity (MWh/day)
\n
160
\n
180
\n
108
\n
224
\n
\n
\n
Unit cost/kWh installed
\n
435
\n
222
\n
1000
\n
125
\n
\n
\n
Unit cost (US$/nominal ton/day)
\n
500
\n
160
\n
960
\n
112
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Comparison between different MSW thermal treatment technologies [42].
\n
\n
\n
3.1.3. Pyrolysis
\n
Pyrolysis is the thermal degradation of organic material in an oxygen-deficient atmosphere at approximately 400–900°C, producing gas, liquid and solid products. The yield and composition of the products are influenced by a range of pyrolysis process parameters, including the type of waste, reactor system, gas residence time, contact time, heating rate, temperature, pressure ranges, and presence of catalysts [43].
\n
Due to the different operation conditions, pyrolysis can be classified into three main categories: slow, fast and flash pyrolysis.
\n
Pyrolysis is a promising technology and is currently utilized in many regions of the world for MSW disposal and energy generation. The objective of MSW pyrolysis is to treat waste, reduce its volume and associated hazards, destroying potentially harmful substances. Pyrolysis can also involve energy recovery from waste, in the form of heat, steam, electricity, or fuel (e.g., oil, char, and gas).
\n
There are several types of pyrolysis reactors for MSW treatment operating in different countries, of which the most common are fixed-bed, fluidized bed, and rotary kiln reactors. Fixed-bed equipment is easy to operate and control, but presents disadvantages such as uneven heating and discontinuous running. The fluidized bed reactor can operate continuously and presents some advantages, such as high heat transfer efficiency and manageable temperature, but the resulting pyrolysis gas presents low calorific value. The rotary kiln reactor presents high internal heating and good adaptability to MSW; however, this technology presents a difficulty associated with the sealing of connectors [44].
\n
More details on typical pyrolysis reactors, problems and MSW plants and products can be found in Refs. [42, 45, 46].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.2. Biochemical route
\n
\n
3.2.1. Anaerobic digestion
\n
Anaerobic digestion consists of a set of processes in which microorganisms consume the organic matter present in waste, in the absence of oxygen. This process occurs naturally in some types of soil and in the sediments settled on the bottom of a body of water (e.g., rivers, lakes, oceans, and swamps), where oxygen cannot penetrate. Decomposition of the submerse biomass occurs at the bottom of hydroelectricity reservoirs, producing methane.
\n
There are several chemical reactions associated with conversion processes, which are in chemical balance. Generally, although some authors classify the anaerobic digestion process in two or even three steps, it is more common to utilize four steps to describe the process, as depicted in Table 4.
\n
The main aspects that influence anaerobic digestion are [48, 49]:
\n
pH/alkalinity: methanogenic bacteria are sensitive to acid environments, and an increase in the pH will inhibit their growth. pH varies throughout the different steps of the process due to the generation of fatty acids, CO2, and bicarbonates. pH correction is accomplished through the addition of a basic compound (CaCO3, NaOH). The optimal range of pH is between 6.6 and 7.4.
\n
Temperature: temperature is related to the growth of microbes, and therefore, its control is very important for optimal growth/development of microorganisms and performance of anaerobic digestion. The process can occur in two ranges, mesophilic (25–40°C) and thermophilic (55–65°C). The mesophilic range is an interval of temperature conditions that enables bacteria to be more tolerant to changes in the environment, constituting more resistant microorganisms, but with higher retention times and lower production of biogas. This condition enables the use of simpler reactors, without complex control systems, with simpler operation strategies that entail lower capital costs. However, within thermophilic conditions, there is a higher production of biogas, with lower retention times. In these conditions, microorganisms are less tolerant to changes in the environment, which if occur, can compromise the production. A more complex, precise control system is required, with higher capital costs associated.
\n
Substrate concentrations: an increase in the organic load can lead to an excessive production of acids, which can act as inhibitors for other reactions and cause lower biogas yield.
\n
Partial H2pressure: an increase in pressure can lead to system collapse due to accumulation of acids.
\n
C/N ratio: in the anaerobic digestion process, carbon corresponds to the source of energy, and nitrogen enables microbial growth. The optimal ratio between carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) varies between 20 and 30. High values of the C/N relationship are associated with a fast consumption of nitrogen, which can limit microbial growth and reduce gas production. Lower C/N values lead to accumulation of ammonia, which affects the pH of the reactor.
\n
Anaerobic digestion adds value to MSW, generating an overall positive impact on the environment as it avoids a series of issues (negative impacts) associated with the natural decomposition process that occurs in landfills, besides enabling the substitution of other fossil raw materials.
\n
The process of anaerobic digestion can occur in controlled environments, such as in biodigesters, which recover energy from waste, and in sanitary landfills. Sanitary landfills are locations for the controlled disposal of waste, reducing its negative environmental impact, and for the control of lixiviate material. Some landfills generate electricity from the biogas produced.
\n
Biogas production from organics within the MSW stream is in the range of 100–150 m3 of biogas per ton of source separated organics (SSO) [50].
\n
\n
3.2.1.1. Types of biodigesters
\n
There are currently several commercially consolidated technologies for biodigestion, such as the Dranco, Valorga, Kompoga, BTA, and Linde-BRV systems. These technologies are widely employed in Europe, with 118 plants in operation, which totalize a combined treatment capacity 5.12 million tons of MSW per year. The Valorga system alone presents an installed capacity of 2.19 million tons of MSW [51, 52]. Table 5 presents a summary of size, capacity and applications of anaerobic digestion systems.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Step
\n
Description
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Hydrolysis
\n
Organic polymolecules are cracked into standard molecules such as sugars, amino, and fatty acids with the addition of hydroxyl groups. This is accomplished by hydrolytic bacteria.
\n
\n
\n
Acidogenesis
\n
Sugars, fatty, and amino acids are converted into smaller molecules, with the formation of volatile fatty acids (acetic, propionic, butyric, and valeric acids) and production of ammonia, carbon dioxide, and H2S as subproducts.
\n
\n
\n
Acetogenesis
\n
The molecules produced during acidogenesis are digested, producing carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and acetic acid.
\n
\n
\n
Methanogenesis
\n
Formation of methane, carbon dioxide, and water.
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Description of the anaerobic digestion phases [47].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Size
\n
Capacity (t/year)
\n
Electricity production
\n
Typical applications
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Small
\n
Up to 7500
\n
25–250 kWe
\n
Residential and agricultural (farms) applications
\n
\n
\n
Intermediate
\n
7500–30,000
\n
250–1 MWe
\n
Agricultural applications or digestible waste production facilities
\n
\n
\n
Large
\n
Above 30,000
\n
Over 1 MWe
\n
Centralized, with several mixed raw materials (municipal, industrial)
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Size, capacity, and applications of anaerobic digestion systems [53].
\n
More details about WtE such as biogas technologies, process, efficiencies, economic, and environment aspects can be found in Refs. [50, 54].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.2.2. Landfill gas
\n
Landfill gas (LFG) is formed when organic wastes decompose anaerobically in a landfill. Although LFG gas is generated under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, the initial aerobic phase is short-lived and produces a gas with a much lower energy content than does the long-term anaerobic phase which follows.
\n
There are several models developed to estimate the amount of biogas that can be produced from a sanitary landfill. According to Ref. [55], these models can be divided into:
\n
Zero-order models: generation of biogas is considered constant throughout time, with no influence of age and type of waste.
\n
First-order models: consider waste characteristics, such as humidity, carbon content, MSW availability.
\n
Second-order models: utilize the reactions that occur during organic matter degradation, constituting a second-order kinetic model.
\n
Numerical and mathematical models: consider the different variables involved in the process, and require a higher number of inputs.
\n
The most utilized models for the estimation of biogas production from waste are the first-order models, of which the IPCC and LandGEM [55] are the most employed.
\n
\n
3.2.2.1. Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) model
\n
Developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), it is a first-order decay model (revised equations of IPCC-2006). It considers the degradation rates of waste and generation of methane throughout time. In the case of MSW, information on the different types of residues (food scraps, paper, wood, textiles, etc.) is required [56]. According to the IPCC model, the amount of methane produced is given by:
\n\n\n\nQ\n\nCH\n4\n\n\n\n is the amount of methane generated per year (t CH4/t waste), S refers to the beginning of landfill operation, E refers to the end of landfill operations, n is the considered year, and k is the methane generation constant rate (y−1). RSUTn is the amount of MSW generated in year n (t waste/year), RSUFn is the fraction of MSW destined to landfilling in year n (dimensionless).
\n
L0(t) is the methane generation potential, expressed as:
MCF(t) is the methane correction factor and reflects the management of the disposal locations (dimensionless), DOC(t) is the degradable organic carbon (t carbon/t waste), DOCf is the fraction of degradable carbon (dimensionless), F is the methane fraction within biogas (dimensionless), 16/12 is the conversion ratio between carbon (C) and methane (CH4) (dimensionless), R(n) is the recovered methane (t CH4/t waste), n are the years considered, and OX is an oxidation factor (reflects the amount of methane in the residual mass that is oxidized in the soil and cover layer (dimensionless).
\n
\n
\n
3.2.2.2. LandGEM model
\n
The Landfill Gas Emissions Model (LandGEM) was developed in 2005 by the Control Technology Center of the Environmental Protection Agency of the U.S.A. This mathematical model is utilized to estimate the amount of landfill gas generated in a specific location, allowing for variations to be introduced. Besides methane, 49 other compounds can be calculated. It is based on electronic worksheets that use a first-order decay equation. It is considered that methane generation peaks soon after initial disposal of waste and the methane generation rate decays exponentially as organic matter is consumed by bacteria [55]:
\n\n\n\nQ\n\nCH\n4\n\n\n\n is the amount of methane produced per year (m3/year), i is the time, in years, to be incremented, n is the inventory year, j is the time, in years/10, to be incremented, k is the methane generation rate (year−1), L0 is the potential methane generation (m3 CH4/t waste), Mi is the mass of solid waste received during year “I” (t/year), and t is the age of section “j” of waste Mi received during year “I” (years with decimal point, e.g., 3.2 years).
\n
There is a great potential for electricity generation from landfill gas (biogas), as 1 ton of methane can be equivalent to 3.67 MWh—considering a conversion efficiency of 30%, this can be equivalent to 1.1 MWhe [57]. This way, considering the ever-growing restrictions regarding MSW disposal along with the high volumes of MSW generated (with high energy potential), the use of anaerobic digestion has been the focus of several studies. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has a study group dedicated to biogas energy, Task 37: energy from biogas, with the objective of approaching the challenges related to economic and environmental sustainability of the production and utilization of biogas [58].
\n
With the increasing necessity of promoting renewable energies, along with the emergence of new technologies that have lowered production costs, anaerobic digestion has been attracting the attention of developed European countries and also of populous countries such as India and China [1].
\n
Another factor that contributes to the economic viability of anaerobic biodigestion is the progressive trend of countries adopting laws that prohibit the disposal of organic waste in sanitary landfills, demanding technologies that can effectively manage waste and recover the energy still contained within the covalent bonds of organic waste [58].
\n
The study by Ref. [59] presented step-by-step, thorough calculations for landfill gas generation capacity, including the total amount of solid waste disposed, total organic matter, fractions of degradable organics, methane generated, methane captured, and finally, the amount of approximately 65,000 tons of captured LFG in 30 years. The leachate flow in the landfill was 8000 m3/year. The landfill could produce approximately 135 GWh of electricity throughout its lifetime, with a global efficiency of almost 84%.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.3. Economic aspects
\n
Investment costs depend on the degree of complexity of the technology, as well as whether the system requires auxiliary processes such as pretreatment, gas cleaning, among others. Table 6 presents cost estimated for different waste treatment technologies.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
WTE technologies
\n
Capital cost (US$/ton of MSW/year)
\n
Operational cost (US$/ton of MSW/year)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Incineration
\n
400–700
\n
40–70
\n
\n
\n
Pyrolysis
\n
400–700
\n
50–80
\n
\n
\n
Gasification
\n
250–850
\n
45–85
\n
\n
\n
Anaerobic digestion
\n
50–350
\n
5–35
\n
\n
\n
Landfilling with gas recovery
\n
10–30
\n
1–3
\n
\n\n
Table 6.
Cost estimates for different waste treatment technologies [60].
\n
Regarding the costs associated with MSW disposal, biological routes present considerably lower costs than thermochemical routes. The facilities that utilize biological routes present simpler construction, when compared with thermochemical facilities. Besides, operational costs correspond to approximately 1% of the capital cost required.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusions
\n
Nowadays, it becomes more evident that mankind is facing serious difficulties regarding waste disposal and therefore can be its own victim. Waste disposal is unavoidable, but special, systematic efforts must be directed to establish a turnaround strategy.
\n
One of the biggest challenges for modern society is establishing an effective strategy for the management and treatment of municipal solid waste. This strategy should consider, whenever possible, economic and environmental viewpoints. Global warming mitigation alternatives include the harvesting of landfill gas as an important waste management strategy.
\n
There are currently different technological routes for municipal solid waste, which could transform these from a challenge or a problem into a source of clean energy and useful recyclable raw materials. At the same time, the impact of waste on the environment would decrease, benefitting human health and natural resources.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
José Carlos Escobar Palacio wishes to express his thanks to the Brazilian National Research and Development Council (CNPq), grant no. 310674/2015-8 and the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG). Monica Carvalho would also like to acknowledge the support received by CNPq, grant no. 303199/2015-6. José Joaquim Conceição Soares Santos would like to thank the National Agency of Petroleum Gas and Biofuels (ANP) and the Foundation for Support to Research and Innovation of Espírito Santo (FAPES) for the financial support. Dimas José Rúa Orozco wish to express their thanks to the Coordination of Improvement of Higher Level Personnel (CAPES) for the financial support through the National Postdoctoral Program—PNPD/CAPES.
\n
\n',keywords:"municipal solid waste, waste to energy, thermochemical route, biochemical route",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/62390.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/62390.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62390",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62390",totalDownloads:1578,totalViews:816,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 20th 2018",dateReviewed:"June 1st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"January 16th 2019",dateFinished:"June 30th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The contribution of this chapter is to deepen and widen existing knowledge on municipal solid waste (MSW) management by analyzing different energy recovery routes for MSW. The main aspects related to the composition of waste are addressed, as well as the technological routes for thermochemical and biochemical energy usage. Within the thermochemical route, incineration is currently the most utilized technology for energy recovery of waste, with generation of electricity and heat and also a decrease in the volume of the produced waste. Gasification and pyrolysis are alternatives for the production of chemical products from wastes. The biological route is an interesting alternative for the utilization of the organic fraction of MSW, as aerobic or anaerobic processes enable the production of biogas and of a compound that can be utilized as a fertilizer. Depending on the size of the population, composition of waste, and products to be obtained (energy or chemical), more than one technology can be combined for a better energy usage of waste.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/62390",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/62390",signatures:"José Carlos Escobar Palacio, José Joaquim Conceição Soares Santos,\nMaria Luiza Grillo Renó, Juarez Corrêa Furtado Júnior, Monica\nCarvalho, Arnaldo Martín Martínez Reyes and Dimas José Rúa\nOrozco",book:{id:"6866",title:"Energy Conversion",subtitle:"Current Technologies and Future Trends",fullTitle:"Energy Conversion - Current Technologies and Future Trends",slug:"energy-conversion-current-technologies-and-future-trends",publishedDate:"January 16th 2019",bookSignature:"Ibrahim H. 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Al-Bahadly"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"251142",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Palacio",fullName:"Jose Palacio",slug:"jose-palacio",email:"jocescobar@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"261107",title:"Dr.",name:"José Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"Conceição Soares Santos",fullName:"José Joaquim Conceição Soares Santos",slug:"jose-joaquim-conceicao-soares-santos",email:"jjcssantos@yahoo.com.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"261108",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"Grillo Renó",fullName:"Maria Luiza Grillo Renó",slug:"maria-luiza-grillo-reno",email:"malureno@yahoo.com.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"261109",title:"MSc.",name:"Juarez Corrêa",middleName:null,surname:"Furtado Júnior",fullName:"Juarez Corrêa Furtado Júnior",slug:"juarez-correa-furtado-junior",email:"juarez_furtado@yahoo.com.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"261110",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Carvalho",fullName:"Monica Carvalho",slug:"monica-carvalho",email:"monica@cear.ufpb.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"261111",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimas José",middleName:null,surname:"Rúa Orozco",fullName:"Dimas José Rúa Orozco",slug:"dimas-jose-rua-orozco",email:"dimas.rua@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"261115",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnaldo Martín",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Reyes",fullName:"Arnaldo Martín Martínez Reyes",slug:"arnaldo-martin-martinez-reyes",email:"ammr451111@yahoo.es",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Municipal solid waste: general aspects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Definition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Waste hierarchy and MSW composition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Energy conversion technologies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Thermochemical route",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.1. Incineration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.3. Pyrolysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2. Biochemical route",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"Table 4.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.2.2. Landfill gas",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"3.2.2.1. Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) model",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"3.2.2.2. LandGEM model",level:"4"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.3. Economic aspects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'The World Bank Group. What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management [Internet]. 2018. Available from: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTURBANDEVELOPMENT/0,contentMDK:23172887~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:337178,00.html [Accessed: 20-04-2018]\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Nowling U. Waste to Energy: An Opportunity Too Good to Waste, or a Waste of Time? [Internet]. 2016. Available from: http://www.powermag.com/waste-energy-opportunity-good-waste-waste-time/?pagenum=1 [Accessed: 20-04-2018]\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Geissdoerfer M, Savaget P, Bocken N, Hultink E. The circular economy—A new sustainability paradigm? Journal of Cleaner Production. 2017;143:757-768. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.048\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Tukker A. Product services for a resource-efficient and circular economy—A review. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2015;97:76-91. 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DOI: 10.11591/ijece.v2i2.270\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Ofori-Boateng C, Lee KT, Mensah M. The prospects of electricity generation from municipal solid waste (MSW) in Ghana: A better waste management option. Fuel Processing Technology. 2013;110:94-102. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuproc.2012.11.008\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Mavrotas G, Skoulaxinou S, Gakis N, Katsouros V, Georgopoulou E. A multi-objective programming model for assessment the GHG emissions in MSW management. Waste Management. 2013;33:1934-1949. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2013.04.012\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Begum S, Rasul MG, Akbar D. An investigation on thermo chemical conversions of solid waste for energy recovery. International Journal of Environmental and Ecological Engineering. 2012;6:624-630\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Babcock & Willcox Vølund. 21’ Century Advanced Concept for Waste-Fired Power Plants [Internet]. 2012. Available from: http://www.volund.dk/~/media/Downloads/Brochures_-_WTE/Advanced_concept_for_waste-fired_power_plants.pdf [Accessed: 10-05-2018]\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Leckner B. Process aspects in combustion and gasification Waste-to-Energy (WtE) units. Waste Management. 2015;37:13-25. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2014.04.019\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Di Maria F, Contini S, Bidini G, Boncompagni A, Lasagni M, Sisani F. Energetic efficiency of an existing waste to energy power plant. Energy Procedia. 2016;101:1175-1182. DOI: 10.1016/j.egypro.2016.11.159\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Meratizaman M, Amidpour M, Jazayeri SA, Naghizadeh K. Energy and exergy analyses of urban waste incineration cycle coupled with a cycle of changing LNG to pipeline gas. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering. 2010;2:217-221. DOI: 10.1016/j.jngse.2010.08.005\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Lombardi L, Carnevale E, Corti A. A review of technologies and performances of thermal treatment systems for energy recovery from waste. Waste Management. 2015;37:26-44. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2014.11.010\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Branchini L. Advanced waste-to-energy cycles [thesis]. Università di Bologna; 2012\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Wood S, Fanning M, Venn M, Whiting K. Review of State-of-the-Art Waste-to-Energy Technologies—Stage two, Case Studies [Internet]. 2013. Available from: http://www.wtert.com.br/home2010/arquivo/noticias_eventos/WSP%20Waste%20to%20Energy%20Technical%20Report%20Stage%20Two.pdf [Accessed: 08-05-2018]\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Porteous A. Energy from waste incineration—A state of the art emissions review with an emphasis on public acceptability. Applied Energy. 2001;70:157-167. DOI: 10.1016/S0306-2619(01)00021-6\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Cucchiella F, D’Adamo I, Gastaldi M. Sustainable waste management: Waste to energy plant as an alternative to landfill. Energy Conversion and Management. 2017;131:18-31. DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2016.11.012\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Lino F, Ismail K. Incineration and recycling for MSW treatment: Case study of Campinas, Brazil. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2017;35:752-757. DOI: 10.1016/j.scs.2017.09.028\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Násner A, Lora E, Palacio J, Rocha M, Restrepo J, Venturini O, et al. Refuse derived fuel (RDF) production and gasification in a pilot plant integrated with an Otto cycle ICE through aspen plusTM modelling: Thermodynamic and economic viability. Waste Management. 2017;69:187-201. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2017.08.006\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Consonni S, Viganò F. Waste gasification vs. conventional waste-to-energy: A comparative evaluation of two commercial technologies. Waste Management. 2012;32:653-666. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2011.12.019\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Panepinto D, Tedesco V, Brizio E, Genon G. Environmental performances and energy efficiency for MSW gasification treatment. Waste and Biomass Valorization. 2015;6:123-135. DOI: 10.1007/s12649-014-9322-7\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Thakare S, Nandi S. Study on potential of gasification technology for municipal solid waste (MSW) in Pune city. Energy Procedia. 2016;90:509-517. DOI: 10.1016/j.egypro.2016.11.218\n'},{id:"B38",body:'GSTC—Global Syngas Technologies Council. Worldwide Syngas Database [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www.globalsyngas.org/resources/world-gasification-database [Accessed: 10-05-2018]\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Mazzoni L, Ahmed R, Janajreh I. Plasma gasification of two waste streams: Municipal solid waste and hazardous waste from the oil and gas industry. Energy Procedia. 2017;105:4159-4166. DOI: 10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.882\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Fabry F, Rehmet C, Rohani V, Fulcheri L. Waste gasification by thermal plasma: A review. Waste and Biomass Valorization. 2013;4:421-439. DOI: 10.1007/s12649-013-9201-7\n'},{id:"B41",body:'Sanlisoy A, Carpinlioglu M. A review on plasma gasification for solid waste disposal. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2017;42:1361-1365. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.008\n'},{id:"B42",body:'Wilson B, Williams N, Liss B, et al. A Comparative Assessment of Commercial Technologies for Conversion of Solid Waste to Energy. Boca Raton, Florida: Enviro Power Renewable, Inc; 2013. Available from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/92ba/d2a1a1d4870a57b6fc2263e2e9a9fd882647.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B43",body:'Velghe I, Carleer R, Yperman J, Schreurs S. Study of the pyrolysis of municipal solid waste for the production of valuable products. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis. 2011;92:366-375. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaap.2011.07.011\n'},{id:"B44",body:'Wu D, Zhang A, Xiao L, Ba Y, Ren H, Liu L. Pyrolysis characteristics of municipal solid waste in oxygen-free circumstance. Energy Procedia. 2017;105:1255-1262. DOI: 10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.442\n'},{id:"B45",body:'Chen D, Yin L, Wang H, He P. Pyrolysis technologies for municipal solid waste: A review. Waste Management. 2014;34:2466-2486. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2014.08.004\n'},{id:"B46",body:'Al-Salem S, Antelava A, Constantinou A, Manos G, Dutta A. A review on thermal and catalytic pyrolysis of plastic solid waste (PSW). Journal of Environmental Management. 2017;197:177-198. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.084\n'},{id:"B47",body:'Igoni A, Sepiribo I, Harry K. Modelling continuous anaerobic digestion of municipal solid waste in biogas production. Energy and Environmental Engineering. 2016;4:30-43. DOI: 10.13189/eee.2016.040302\n'},{id:"B48",body:'Khalid A, Arshad M, Anjum M, Mahmood T, Dawson L. The anaerobic digestion of solid organic waste. Waste Management. 2011;31:1737-1744. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2011.03.021\n'},{id:"B49",body:'Themelis N. Anaerobic Digestion of Biodegradable Organics in Municipal Solid Wastes. New York: Found Sch Eng Appl Sci Columbia Univ; 2002. pp. 1-56. DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv. 2010.10.005. Available from: http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/Verma_thesis.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B50",body:'Environment Canada. Technical Document on Municipal Solid Waste Organics Processing. Ottawa: Government of Canada; 2013. Available from: http://www.compost.org/English/PDF/Technical_Document_MSW_Organics_Processing_2013.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B51",body:'Arsova L. European Technology Overview: Anaerobic Digestion (AD) of the Organic Fraction of the MSW. New Jersey: Rutgers University; 2016. Available from: http://ecocomplex.rutgers.edu/FEW_Ljupka_Arsova.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B52",body:'Nalo T, Tasing K, Kumar S, Bharti A. Anaerobic digestion of municipal solid waste: A critical analysis. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology. 2014;3:224-234\n'},{id:"B53",body:'GMI—Global Methane Initiative. Overview of Anaerobic Digestion for Municipal Solid Waste [Internet]. 2016. Available from: https://www.globalmethane.org/documents/AD-Training-Presentation_Oct2016.pdf [Accessed: 10-05-2018]\n'},{id:"B54",body:'Mutz D, Hengevoss D, Hugi C, Gross T. Waste-To-Energy Options in Municipal Solid Waste Management: A Guide for Decision Makers in Developing and Emerging Countries. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit; 2017. pp. 27-29. Available from: https://www.giz.de/en/downloads/GIZ_WasteToEnergy_Guidelines_2017.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B55",body:'Kamalan H, Sabour M, Shariatmad N. A review on available landfill gas models. Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2011;4:79-92. DOI: 10.3923/jest.2011.79.92\n'},{id:"B56",body:'Bianek J, Schirmer WN, Cabral AR, Mayer CLD, Eurich PHM, Martins EH. Comparação entre metodologias USEPA e IPCC para estimativa teórica de produção de biogás em aterro municipal. Biofix Scientific Journal. 2018;3:34-40. DOI: 10.5380/biofix.v1i1.56038\n'},{id:"B57",body:'Seadi TA, Rutz D, Prassl H, Köttner M, Finsterwalder T, Volk S, et al. Biogas Handbook. Esbjerg, Denmark: University of Southern Denmark; 2008. DOI: 10.1533/9780857097415.1.85. Available from: http://www.lemvigbiogas.com/BiogasHandbook.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B58",body:'IEA—International Energy Agency. Annual Report 2016. Paris: IEA Bioenergy; 2017. 126 pp. Available from: http://www.ieabioenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/IEA-Bioenergy-Annual-Report-2016.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B59",body:'Chacartegui R, Carvalho M, Abrahão R, Becerra J. Analysis of a CHP plant in a municipal solid waste landfill in the south of Spain. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2015;91:706-717. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.08.069\n'},{id:"B60",body:'Kumar A, Samadder SR. A review on technological options of waste to energy for effective management of municipal solid waste. Waste Management. 2017;69:407-422. DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2017.08.046\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"José Carlos Escobar Palacio",address:"jocescobar@unifei.edu.br",affiliation:'
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To improve the functions, designed MSMs have received particular attention using an organic motif as a molecule of surfactants for the template synthesis with a silica source in the sol-gel reaction. The resulting mesoporous silica materials can provide characteristic multifunctional nanocomposites consisting of a monomer for synthesizing polymer in the silicate nanochannels. Moreover, the nanocomposites can be also synthesized using a self-assembled organic motif for organizing one-dimensional structure in the silicate nanochannels. The resulting hybrid nanomaterials have been mainly reported to provide fluorescent properties. However, the utilization of phosphorescent nanocomposites for specific applications has not yet reported so far. By utilizing a self-assembled metal complex (organometallic), this chapter particularly highlights recent achievements of designed mesoporous silica materials for the fabrication of advanced luminescent nanostructures with phosphorescent properties where the potential applications will be discussed in detail for self-repairing and thermally resistive materials, metal ions sensors, template synthesis nanoparticles, and catalysts. Such better and novel performance can be only achieved using a designed template for the sol-gel synthesis of mesoporous silica nanocomposites.",signatures:"Hendrik O. 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