Main classes of dyes used in the textile industry, types of fiber to which the dyes of each class are applied, types of interaction between dye and fiber, and methods of application or dyeing [7].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3588",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Fuel Injection",title:"Fuel Injection",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Fuel Injection is a key process characterizing the combustion development within Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs) and in many other industrial applications.\r\n\r\nState of the art in the research and development of modern fuel injection systems are presented in this book. It consists of 12 chapters focused on both numerical and experimental techniques, allowing its proper design and optimization.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-116-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5939-1",doi:"10.5772/261",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"fuel-injection",numberOfPages:262,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"204c36f83a29616c4702376e16292342",bookSignature:"Daniela Siano",publishedDate:"August 17th 2010",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3588.jpg",numberOfDownloads:112662,numberOfWosCitations:46,numberOfCrossrefCitations:33,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:55,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:134,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 5th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 26th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 1st 2013",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 30th 2013",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 30th 2013",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"9960",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Siano",slug:"daniela-siano",fullName:"Daniela Siano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/9960/images/system/9960.jpg",biography:'Daniela Siano was born in Naples - Italy, and graduated in Aeronautical Engineering from the University of Naples “Federico II”, Italy in 1994. Until 2001, she was a researcher in the Acoustic and Vibration Department at C.I.R.A. (Italian Aerospace Research Center). From 2001 until now, she has been a researcher at the National Research Council of Italy (CNR) in the field of acoustic and vibration in the transport field. She is responsible for the Acoustic and Vibration Laboratory. She is qualified to University Associate Professor – Sector Machines and Systems for Energy and Environment, and is also qualified in the Engineer Profession. She had a scholarship granted by M.A.R.S.- Microgravity Advanced Research and Support - Dornier GmbH (Friedrichshafen - Germany), Euromaster in \\"Total Quality Management\\" at DIMP – Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering – University of Naples Federico II – Italy, as well as assistant in “Fluid Machines I”, “Fluid Machines II”, and “Applied Mechanics”. She is the tutor of more than 30 Master\\\'s students and 7 Ph.D. students. She is an expert evaluator within the EU 6th and 7th Framework Research Programme, in Transport-Aeronautics in 2006 and 2007. She is a project expert evaluator in the Ministry of Economic Development, Italy. She is a referee for different international journals and session organizers collaborating with SAE conferences. She is the author of more than 100 scientific papers published in international journals and conferences proceedings and editor of two scientific books: ‘Noise Control, Reduction and Cancellation Solutions in Engineering’, ISBN 978-953-307-918-9, 308 pages, DOI: 10.5772/1375, and ‘Fuel Injection’, ISBN 978-953-307-116-9, 262 pages, DOI: 10.5772/55402.',institutionString:"Istituto Motori CNR",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"829",title:"Automobile Engineering",slug:"vehicle-engineering-automobile-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"11336",title:"Gasoline Direct Injection",doi:"10.5772/9693",slug:"gasoline-direct-injection",totalDownloads:56418,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mustafa Bahattin Çelik and Bulent Ozdalyan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11336",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11336",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11337",title:"Liquid Sprays Characteristics in Diesel Engines",doi:"10.5772/9724",slug:"liquid-sprays-characteristics-in-diesel-engines",totalDownloads:8106,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Simón Martínez-Martínez, Fausto Sanchez, Vicente Bermudez and J. Manuel Riesco-Avila",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11337",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11337",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11338",title:"Experimental Cells for Research Diesel Sprays",doi:"10.5772/9725",slug:"experimental-cells-for-research-diesel-sprays",totalDownloads:2412,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Simón Martínez-Martínez, Miguel García-Yera and Vicente Bermudez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11338",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11338",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11339",title:"Experimental Study of Spray Generated by a New Type of Injector with Rotary Swinging Needle",doi:"10.5772/9726",slug:"experimental-study-of-spray-generated-by-a-new-type-of-injector-with-rotary-swinging-needle",totalDownloads:2917,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Hubert Kuszewski and Kazimierz Lejda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11339",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11339",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11340",title:"Effect of Injector Nozzle Holes on Diesel Engine Performance",doi:"10.5772/9727",slug:"effect-of-injector-nozzle-holes-on-diesel-engine-performance",totalDownloads:12767,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Semin Semin, Mohd Yuzri Mohd Yusof, Aminuddin Md Arof, Daneil Tomo Shaharudin and Abdul Rahim Ismail",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11340",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11341",title:"Accurate Modelling of an Injector for Common Rail Systems",doi:"10.5772/9728",slug:"accurate-modelling-of-an-injector-for-common-rail-systems",totalDownloads:8546,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:31,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Claudio Dongiovanni, Claudio Dongiovanni and Marco Coppo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11341",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11341",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11342",title:"The Investigation of the Mixture Formation upon Fuel Injection into High-Temperature Gas Flows",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83855",slug:"the-investigation-of-the-mixture-formation-upon-fuel-injection-into-high-temperature-gas-flows",totalDownloads:1911,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Anna Maiorova, Aleksandr Sviridenkov and Valentin Tretyakov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11342",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11342",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11343",title:"Integrated Numerical Procedures for the Design, Analysis and Optimization of Diesel Engines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83856",slug:"integrated-numerical-procedures-for-the-design-analysis-and-optimization-of-diesel-engines",totalDownloads:3307,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Daniela Siano, Fabio Bozza and Michela Costa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11343",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11343",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11344",title:"Hydrogen Fueled Scramjet Combustor - the Impact of Fuel Injection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83857",slug:"hydrogen-fueled-scramjet-combustor-the-impact-of-fuel-injection",totalDownloads:3699,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Wei Huang, Zhen-guo Wang, Mohamed Pourkashanian, Lin Ma, Derek B.Ingham, Shi-bin Luo and Jun Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11344",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11344",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11345",title:"Plasma Flame Sustained by Microwaves and Burning Hydrocarbon Fuel: Its Applications",doi:"10.5772/9729",slug:"plasma-flame-sustained-by-microwaves-and-burning-hydrocarbon-fuel-its-applications",totalDownloads:6507,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Yongcheol Hong and Han Sup Uhm",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11345",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11346",title:"Use of Helium Tracing Technique to Make a Brief Assessment of Blast Furnace Shaft Permeability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83858",slug:"use-of-helium-tracing-technique-to-make-a-brief-assessment-of-blast-furnace-shaft-permeability",totalDownloads:3821,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Rafael Barea Del Cerro, Ramón Martin Duarte, Iñigo Ruiz Bustinza and Javier Mochón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11346",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11346",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11347",title:"Experimental Investigations into the Production Behavior of Methane Hydrate in Porous Sediment under Ethylene Glycol Injection and Hot Brine Stimulation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83859",slug:"experimental-investigations-into-the-production-behavior-of-methane-hydrate-in-porous-sediment-under",totalDownloads:2251,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Xiaosen Li and Gang Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11347",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11347",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"866",title:"Noise Control, Reduction and Cancellation Solutions in Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7219da94d49d88629388cfcd200075ae",slug:"noise-control-reduction-and-cancellation-solutions-in-engineering",bookSignature:"Daniela Siano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/866.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9960",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Siano",slug:"daniela-siano",fullName:"Daniela Siano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10042",title:"Noise and Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11e8fca2f0f623d87dfbc3cf2b185e0d",slug:"noise-and-environment",bookSignature:"Daniela Siano and Alice Elizabeth González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10042.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9960",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Siano",slug:"daniela-siano",fullName:"Daniela Siano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"19",title:"New Trends and Developments in Automotive System Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"new-trends-and-developments-in-automotive-system-engineering",bookSignature:"Marcello Chiaberge",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/19.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13723",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",surname:"Chiaberge",slug:"marcello-chiaberge",fullName:"Marcello Chiaberge"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1355",title:"New Trends and Developments in Automotive Industry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b4631db3fb79b4d2d95aa459e6a7bdb5",slug:"new-trends-and-developments-in-automotive-industry",bookSignature:"Marcello Chiaberge",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1355.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13723",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",surname:"Chiaberge",slug:"marcello-chiaberge",fullName:"Marcello Chiaberge"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"447",title:"Electric Vehicles",subtitle:"Modelling and Simulations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"electric-vehicles-modelling-and-simulations",bookSignature:"Seref Soylu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/447.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12153",title:"Dr.",name:"Seref",surname:"Soylu",slug:"seref-soylu",fullName:"Seref Soylu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2224",title:"New Advances in Vehicular Technology and Automotive Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"45068cda46ca7e207945e152dcb5c60c",slug:"new-advances-in-vehicular-technology-and-automotive-engineering",bookSignature:"Joao Paulo Carmo and Joao Eduardo Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2224.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144297",title:"Prof.",name:"Joao",surname:"Carmo",slug:"joao-carmo",fullName:"Joao Carmo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"192",title:"Electric Vehicles",subtitle:"The Benefits and Barriers",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5fe0038c2bc152ceade4d94902a795b9",slug:"electric-vehicles-the-benefits-and-barriers",bookSignature:"Seref Soylu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12153",title:"Dr.",name:"Seref",surname:"Soylu",slug:"seref-soylu",fullName:"Seref Soylu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3196",title:"New Generation of Electric Vehicles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"683b92b692bc7d1e7952cbc7c9f1a98d",slug:"new-generation-of-electric-vehicles",bookSignature:"Zoran Stevic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3196.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30692",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoran",surname:"Stevic",slug:"zoran-stevic",fullName:"Zoran Stevic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3328",title:"Vehicular Technologies",subtitle:"Deployment and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"274508b8fb915de1e954d1ba39ade7bd",slug:"vehicular-technologies-deployment-and-applications",bookSignature:"Lorenzo Galati Giordano and Luca Reggiani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3328.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"159779",title:"Dr.",name:"Lorenzo",surname:"Galati Giordano",slug:"lorenzo-galati-giordano",fullName:"Lorenzo Galati Giordano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3512",title:"Advances in Internal Combustion Engines and Fuel Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dad7da72b338235c14a67b3f2fa400a9",slug:"advances-in-internal-combustion-engines-and-fuel-technologies",bookSignature:"Hoon Kiat Ng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3512.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"150667",title:"Dr.",name:"Hoon Kiat",surname:"Ng",slug:"hoon-kiat-ng",fullName:"Hoon Kiat Ng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"71364",slug:"erratum-the-mechanism-of-misalignment-of-saw-cutting-crack-of-concrete-pavement",title:"Erratum - The Mechanism of Misalignment of Saw Cutting Crack of Concrete Pavement",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71364.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71364",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71364",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71364",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71364",chapter:{id:"71109",slug:"the-mechanism-of-misalignment-of-saw-cutting-crack-of-concrete-pavement",signatures:"Chatarina Niken",dateSubmitted:"October 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"January 11th 2020",datePrePublished:"February 14th 2020",datePublished:"September 23rd 2020",book:{id:"7615",title:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",slug:"fracture-mechanics-applications",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen and H. Ersen Balcioglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7615.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198122",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayri Baytan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozmen",slug:"hayri-baytan-ozmen",fullName:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"313776",title:"Dr.",name:"Chatarina",middleName:null,surname:"Niken",fullName:"Chatarina Niken",slug:"chatarina-niken",email:"chatarinaniken@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"71109",slug:"the-mechanism-of-misalignment-of-saw-cutting-crack-of-concrete-pavement",signatures:"Chatarina Niken",dateSubmitted:"October 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"January 11th 2020",datePrePublished:"February 14th 2020",datePublished:"September 23rd 2020",book:{id:"7615",title:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",slug:"fracture-mechanics-applications",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen and H. Ersen Balcioglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7615.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198122",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayri Baytan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozmen",slug:"hayri-baytan-ozmen",fullName:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"313776",title:"Dr.",name:"Chatarina",middleName:null,surname:"Niken",fullName:"Chatarina Niken",slug:"chatarina-niken",email:"chatarinaniken@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7615",title:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",slug:"fracture-mechanics-applications",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",bookSignature:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen and H. Ersen Balcioglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7615.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198122",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayri Baytan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozmen",slug:"hayri-baytan-ozmen",fullName:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8070",leadTitle:null,title:"Neuroplasticity in Cognition",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tFaced with continuous change, the human brain must assimilate new information to optimize performance, an ability mediated by the molding of its neural organization and activity. Considering one of the brain's fundamental attributes, this neuroplastic capacity is not only stimulating future brain research but also fuelling related studies in educational theory and practice, cognitive disease, and novel brain therapies. Current evidence indicates that neuroplasticity extends across a hierarchy of organizational scales, from subcellular events, such as the regulation of synaptosomal vesicle pool sizes, to global brain activity, like that of motor skills. Indeed, the breadth of currently known neuroplastic mechanisms suggests that as knowledge of brain operation continues to grow new aspects of neuroplasticity will also continue to emerge. Recent findings, for example, indicate that neuroplasticity is also critical for higher order brain functioning, where it includes cognitive functions such as engram retrieval and pattern consolidation. This volume will highlight recent research into the brain's ability to shape itself through novel neuroplastic mechanisms and how this new knowledge is being used to benefit human health and wellbeing.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"e0e688ce0481f7857450236551b53e8d",bookSignature:"Prof. Denis Larrivee",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8070.jpg",keywords:"Neurotransmitter Receptor Priming, CaM Kinase Activation, Pattern Separation, Consolidation, Brain Injury, Regeneration, Stroke, Sharp Wave Ripples, Sleep, Retrograde Amnesia, Anterograde Amnesia, Huntington's Disease",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 21st 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 11th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 10th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 29th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 28th 2019",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",middleName:null,surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206412/images/system/206412.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Denis Larrivee is a visiting scholar at the Mind and Brain Institute, Las Vegas; University of Navarra Medical School, Spain; and Loyola University Chicago. He has held professorships at Weill Cornell University Medical College, NYC, and Purdue University, Indiana. A former fellow at Yale University\\'s Medical School Dr. Larrivee received the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology\\'s first-place award for studies on photoreceptor degenerative and developmental mechanisms. He is the chief editor of several medical and scientific texts, including topics on brain- computer interfacing, Alzheimer’s disease, neuromodulation and neurostimulation procedures, neuroethics, and sleep pharmacotherapies. He is an editorial board member of the journals Annals of Neurology and Neurological Sciences and EC Neurology. An International Neuroethics Society Expert he is the author of more than ninety papers and book chapters in such varied journals/venues as Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Religion and Mental Health, and IEEE Explore. In 2018 he was a finalist in the international Joseph Ratzinger Expanded Reason Award sponsored by the Francis Vittorio University of Madrid.",institutionString:"Loyola University Chicago",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Loyola University Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1175",title:"Neuroplasticity",slug:"neuroplasticity"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"278926",firstName:"Ivana",lastName:"Barac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278926/images/8058_n.jpg",email:"ivana.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6610",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",subtitle:"Engaging Brain State Dynamics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"81a5621637cfaad35284f268db29bb60",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6610.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7868",title:"Redirecting Alzheimer Strategy",subtitle:"Tracing Memory Loss to Self Pathology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"57b9b4f3a8d378e6ce3b7444d134fbd1",slug:"redirecting-alzheimer-strategy-tracing-memory-loss-to-self-pathology",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7868.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10350",title:"Sleep Medicine and the Evolution of Contemporary Sleep Pharmacotherapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"65adb695b7195972208b5da128f531ba",slug:"sleep-medicine-and-the-evolution-of-contemporary-sleep-pharmacotherapy",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10350.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8059",title:"Neurostimulation and Neuromodulation in Contemporary Therapeutic Practice",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cc2c649900edf37ff3374fdc96a1586",slug:"neurostimulation-and-neuromodulation-in-contemporary-therapeutic-practice",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee and Seyed Mansoor Rayegani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8059.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7798",title:"Neuroethics in Principle and Praxis",subtitle:"Conceptual Foundations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c331b07083fed290d6be2ccf32f1118f",slug:"neuroethics-in-principle-and-praxis-conceptual-foundations",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6092",title:"Neuroplasticity",subtitle:"Insights of Neural Reorganization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1003fc63680b1c04e9135f3dea18a8c3",slug:"neuroplasticity-insights-of-neural-reorganization",bookSignature:"Victor V. Chaban",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"83427",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"Chaban",slug:"victor-chaban",fullName:"Victor Chaban"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5521",title:"Synaptic Plasticity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9eea3c7f926cd466ddd14ab777b663d8",slug:"synaptic-plasticity",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6250",title:"The Hippocampus",subtitle:"Plasticity and Functions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"78f1e57726307f003f39510c175c3102",slug:"the-hippocampus-plasticity-and-functions",bookSignature:"Ales Stuchlik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6250.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"207908",title:"Dr.",name:"Ales",surname:"Stuchlik",slug:"ales-stuchlik",fullName:"Ales Stuchlik"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"78364",title:"Effect of Heavy Metals on Tyrosine Kinases Signaling during Sperm Capacitation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99261",slug:"effect-of-heavy-metals-on-tyrosine-kinases-signaling-during-sperm-capacitation",body:'Heavy metals are known to be harmful to humans, animals as well as plants in large amounts. Heavy metals are distributed throughout the environment from both natural sources (inorganic form) and human activities (organic form) and thus accumulating in biosphere including humans and animals’ body [1, 2]. Most of these non-degradable toxic elements, such as Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Mercury (Hg), Nickel (Ni), Lead (Pb), and Zinc (Zn), are listed as hazardous contaminants by the EPA [3, 4]. Potential health hazards as toxic manifestations and subtle effects of heavy metals are matter of concern because of daily and wide-spread exposure of humans and animals’ consequent to their daily life. The molecular mechanisms for metal carcinogens are still poorly understood. Mercury containing compounds have been used for thousands of years in preservation of various vaccines, treatment of syphilis, skin creams, dental amalgams, and extraction of gold [5]. Direct application of cadmium, lead and arsenic in soil fertilizers and fungicides, leather tanning, waste-water treatment facilities, paper mills and disposal of solid wastes as well as batteries and thermometers in landfills are the chief sources within the environment which may influence animal and human health [6]. The cause of male infertility in 50% cases is still not clear; thus, it is very important to flash a light on role of heavy metals in infertility [7]. Some malformations of male reproductive system, such as cryptorchidism, hypospadias, and prostate and testicular cancers may originate from exposure to endocrine disruptors [8, 9]. In addition, metals can cause hormonal imbalance by affecting the neuroendocrine system, disrupting the secretion of androgens from Leydig cells or inhibin-B from Sertoli cells [10]. Evidence also exists linking mercury with erectile dysfunction [11, 12]. Loss of libido have been reported in men acutely exposed to metallic mercury vapor [13]. Choy et al. [14] did a study in Hong Kong on 150 infertile couples undergoing
Arsenic is reported in human tissues ranging 100–6000 ppb [15]. Arsenic toxicity has been reported in case of respiratory, dermatological, cardiovascular disorders including diabetes and obesity [16, 17, 18, 19]. Cd is also reported to have toxic effects including endocrine nephrotoxicity, carcinogenity, and neurotoxicity [20, 21, 22]. These heavy metals affect the these heavy metals effect the molecular mechanism of tyrosine kinase that plays a central role in the response of cells to various kinds of stresses or growth factors and acts as switch in many cellular functions. For example, in regulation of cell proliferation regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, cell-cycle regulation, and cell signal transduction [23] specifically in cAMP-dependent pathway, which is a hallmark event of capacitation, that leads to sperm hyperactivation which is necessary for fertilization [24]. Dysfunctional tyrosine phosphorylation mechanisms linked to abnormal cell signaling, frenzied cell growth leading to development of leukemia, lymphoma, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2, small lung cancer, breast cancer, and colon cancer [25, 26]. Proteins are building blocks of the living systems and alterations in protein function indicate the response to abnormal or stress condition [27].
Tyrosine kinase-dependent pathways are mediated by the activities of receptor (RTKs) and non-receptor tyrosine kinases (NTKs) [28, 29]. The RTK are transmembrane-spanning receptor and an intrinsic protein and further classified as EGF receptor (EGFR), PDGF receptor (PDGFR), FGFR, VEGF receptor (VEGFR), while NRTKs act as substrates of RTKs, include Src family members [30] and, are classified as SRC, ABL, FAK and Janus kinase [31]. Upon stimulation, RTKs undergo autophosphorylation on the tyrosine residues located in their own carboxy terminus and induce conformational changes. This enhances kinase activities and creates binding sites for cellular substrates through SH2 domain interactions [30]. Some proteins which get phosphorylated at tyrosine residue during capacitation are A Kinase Anchoring Protein-4, dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase-A2, glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase-2, pyruvate dehydrogenase, and phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. The molecular events of the acrosome reaction overlap substantially with those of capacitation, including phosphorylation of similar tyrosine proteins, influx of Ca2+, and increased cAMP and PKA levels. The role of ROS in the in-vivo acrosome reaction involves the spermatozoa’s actions on ZP via phosphorylation of plasma membrane proteins.
In mammals, fertilization requires the release of spermatozoa into female reproductive tract. After ejaculation, to become fully fertilization competent, mammalian sperm must undergo a combination of sequential maturation process in female reproductive tract. Austin [44], demonstrated independently that sperm acquire fertilization capacity only after residing in the female reproductive tract for a finite period of time in a process known as sperm capacitation. Capacitation include variations in sperm intracellular ions concentrations, plasma membrane fluidity as a result of changes in localization of membrane antigens and removal of cholesterol [45]. In particular, capacitation has been associated with a cAMP/PKA-dependent increase in protein tyrosine phosphorylation [46]. Capacitation involves modifications occurring both in the head (i.e., preparation for the acrosome reaction) and the tail (i.e., motility changes such as hyperactivation) which renders sperm to penetrate the egg following acrosome reaction (exocytosis of acrosomal contents). The physiological event of mammalian sperm capacitation had been recognized for a long time, but the molecular players regulating capacitation are still poorly understood. Interestingly, the process of capacitation can occur in-vitro in most species and the conditions required for sperm capacitation in-vitro include a balanced salt solution containing appropriate electrolytes concentrations (e.g., Na+, K+, Cl−, HCO3−, Mg2+, Ca2+, and PO43−), metabolic energy sources (e.g., glucose, pyruvate and lactate) which support the high ATP consumption needed for motility and serum albumin as a a cholesterol acceptor. The important mediators of signal transduction pathways leading to capacitation include cAMP, Ca2+, HCO3−, inositol triphosphate (IP3), protein kinase A (PKA), protein tyrosine kinase (PTK), phospholipase-C (PLC).
Ca2+ is shown to play a very important role in sperm capacitation and acrosome reaction by influencing the activity of sperm adenylate cyclase and PLC [47]. Pentoxifylline (cAMP phosphodiesterase inhibitor) causes hyperactivated motility of hamster spermatozoa via increasing sperm cAMP level [48]. Inhibition of Protein kinase – A (PKA) activity led to an inhibition of cAMP dependent protein tyrosine phosphorylation in mice [46] and in hamster [49]. Mice that lack the sperm-specific PKA catalytic subunit Cα2, was infertile despite normal mating behavior, and their sperm shows defects in motility and capacitation-associated events such as the increased tyrosine phosphorylation [43]. This indicates that sperm capacitation and protein tyrosine phosphorylation are regulated through a PKA pathway, invoking an important role for tyrosine phosphorylation in sperm capacitation. Time dependent increase in protein tyrosine phosphorylation during capacitation has also been observed in cauda epididymis sperm [46]. As mature spermatozoa lack de novo gene expression, acquisition of fertilization competence is invariably dependent on post-translational modifications especially phosphorylation of pre-existing structural and intracellular proteins of spermatozoa during capacitation. AKAP4 was the first tyrosine phosphorylated protein identified in the humans [50], mouse [46] and hamster species [51]. The lack of AKAP4 gene expression results in loss of progressive sperm motility, leading to male infertility [52]. Similarly, tyrosine phosphorylated form of AKAP-3 recruits PKA to the sperm flagellum changing protein phosphorylation status and increasing sperm motility [53]. Phosphorylated AKAPs appears to interact with PKA and facilitate flagellar protein phosphorylation in a localization-specific manner. Chaperone protein VCP also undergoes tyrosine phosphorylation. VCP is important for membrane fusion, possibly involved in acrosome reaction [32, 33]. Dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (DHLD) [37], phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPx) [38] and pyruvate dehydrogenase A2 (PDHA2) are among the metabolic-mitochondrial enzymes that are tyrosine phosphorylated and are localized to sperm flagellum; the inhibition of DHLD leads to decrease in sperm hyperactivation [54]. Calcium-binding tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated protein (CABYARa) and the Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IV (CaMKIV) are other tyrosine phosphorylated proteins in humans and involved in calcium regulated protein tyrosine phosphorylation of sperm proteins [55, 56]. Thorough understanding of capacitation and molecular characterization of functionally important phosphorylated sperm proteins is required to benefit reproductive strategies, agriculture.
Sperm signaling pathways also required an optimal level of sperm-generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) for protein tyrosine phosphorylation [42]. The signaling pathway involving protein tyrosine phosphorylation is distinctly associated with hyperactivated motility during sperm capacitation in mice [46], humans [57], and hamsters [34, 35]. The number of Sertoli cells determine the number of sperms produced in adulthood, because each Sertoli cell can support only a finite number of germ cells that develop into sperm [58]. Cadmium (Cd) is reported to cross the blood-testis barrier and induce excessive oxidative stress in Sertoli cells leading to necrosis in mice spermatozoa [59]. Cd exposure led to halt the process of spermatogenesis and normal testicular development by inhibiting the synthesis of testosterone in adult mice [60]. Consequently, Cd caused remarkable drop in weight of testes and epididymis, sperm concentration, motility, and synchronously an elevation in dead and abnormal sperm [61]. Disruption of spermatogenesis in men at any stage of cell differentiation can decrease the total sperm count, increase the abnormal sperm count, impair the stability of sperm chromatin or damage sperm DNA [62], lowered epididymis sperm count, and testicular weight, aberrant chromosome numbers rather than the normal [63], chromosomes break, and lowered testosterone levels in male [64, 65]. Metal’s accumulation in epididymis, prostate, and seminal fluid may impair progressive sperm motility [66, 67] and thus reproductive efficiency. Therefore, in this chapter we have discussed the effect of different heavy metals that effect male reproduction with special focus on sperm capacitation via a modification in tyrosine signaling mechanisms [68, 69, 70, 71].
Reproductive toxicity of mercury has been described in several animal studies in which sperm motility, epididymal sperm count and normal sperm morphology decreased among rats, mice, fish, monkeys and humans after mercury exposure [72, 73, 74, 75]. Evidence is usually limited to animal data or to in-vitro studies [76, 77]. The clinical and epidemiological findings are scarce and controversial, and often difficult to interpret because of multiple exposures to different agents and latency of effects. Human studies are few and contradictory too [78]. Seminal fluid mercury concentrations are correlated with abnormal sperm morphology and abnormal sperm motility [79]. Furthermore, infertile, and sub-fertile men have higher mercury levels than the fertile men [80] and tubular atrophy and Sertoli-cell-only syndrome has been observed among infertile patients that have been exposed to mercury [81]. Kushawaha et al. [39, 40] reported that in-vitro exposure of mercuric chloride (0.031 μg/mL) leads to significant increase in spontaneous acrosome reaction, intracellular Ca2+ and cAMP levels, and capacitation failure may be due to inhibition of 55, 70, and 80 kDa tyrosine phosphorylation of protein. Proteins of 80 and 105 kDa are the main substrates for enzymes and are important in acrosome reactions [82, 83, 84]. Sperm capacitation is a sequential process which involves several signaling pathways and ultrastructural changes such as modifications in membrane lipid composition, increased permeability to ions [85, 86] and phosphorylation of proteins on tyrosine (Tyr), serine (Ser) and threonine (Thr) residues [82, 87, 88, 89]. The cAMP/PKA-dependent increase in tyrosine phosphorylation of two fibrous sheath proteins, p80 and p105 related to A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs), is one of the prominent events associated with capacitation [89, 90]. Martinez et al. [91] investigated the effects and underlying mechanisms of chronic mercury exposure at low levels on male reproductive system of rats. Three-month-old male Wistar rats were exposed to 4.6 μg/kg to 0.07 μg/kg/day subsequent dose of HgCl2 for 60 days and they found that mercury treatment decreased daily sperm production, count, motility, and increased head and tail morphologic abnormalities. Moreover, mercury treatment decreased luteinizing hormone levels, increased lipid peroxidation in testis and decreased antioxidant enzymes activities (superoxide dismutase and catalase) in reproductive organs. According to the findings of in-vitro study by Arabi [92], HgCl2 at 50 to 550 μM concentration affected the sperm membrane and DNA integrity, viability, and acrosomal status of normal bull spermatozoa. They recorded a sharp increase in lipid peroxidation/LPO rate; highest was at 550 μM mercury concentration, indicating the deleterious effect of mercury on sperm membrane intactness. There was also a strong negative correlation between LPO rate and % viable spermatozoa. Comet assay study revealed that mercury is capable of inducing DNA breaks in sperm nuclei. The correlation between LPO rate and % DNA breaks was 0.984 [92, 93]. Oxidative stress seemed to be the potential mechanism involved in mercury - induced male reproductive toxicity. Kinematic patterns of goldfish
Mocevic et al. [96] examined semen characteristics and serum levels of reproductive hormones in relation to environmental exposure to mercury. Blood and semen samples were collected from 529 male partners of pregnant women living in Greenland, Poland and Ukraine between May 2002 and February 2004 [97]. Total content of mercury in whole blood was 9.2 ng/ml in Greenland (0.2–385.8 ng/ml), 1.0 ng/ml in Poland (0.2–6.4 ng/ml21) and 1.0 ng/ml in Ukraine (0.2–4.9 ng/ml). They found a significantly positive association between blood levels of mercury and serum concentration of inhibin B in men from Greenland (β = 50.074, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 50.021 to 0.126) and in an analysis including men from all three regions (β = 50.067, 95% CI = 50.024 to 0.110). The association may be due to beneficial effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are contained in seafood and fish. No significant association (P < .0.05) was found between blood concentrations of mercury and any of the other measured semen characteristics (semen volume, total sperm count, sperm concentration, morphology and motility) and reproductive hormones (free androgen index (FAI), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), testosterone and LH3 testosterone) in any region. These findings did not provide evidence that environmental mercury exposure in Greenlandic and European men with median whole blood concentration up to 10 ng/ml had adverse effects on biomarkers of male reproductive health. Overall, studies have found that mercury accumulates in testes, inhibits enzymes necessary for sperm production, affects DNA in sperm, causes aberrant number of chromosomes in cells, and induces chromosomes breaks; all of which can cause infertility, spontaneous abortion, or birth defects. From the foregoing scientific data it is apparent that mercury is a metal of great global concern and has the potential to alter reproductive functions in males thus, still further investigation on protein phosphorylation during capacitation are warranted.
Cd possesses oxidation state +2 just like mercury and calcium with half-life of 15–30 years with low execration rate. It can accumulate into the non-smoking population via fumes, dust, contaminated food and water and it is widely use in cancer drugs [98, 99]. Tobacco plant absorbs Cd specially into leaves which is then used in smoking [100]. Apart from this 0.5 mg of Cd is radially reported into per kg fertilizer which is then accumulate into the fruits, vegetables and grains [101, 102]. Cd is reported to accumulate in various tissues via bloodstream [103]. Ca shows a high affinity toward sulfhydryl (–SH and GHS) and disulphide groups (-S-S) of the proteins and result in increased production of ROS [104]. Epigenetic changes like DNA methylation are reported to associated with the in-vivo Cd exposure in three-month-old rats. Short time exposure of Cd for 24 h–1 week induces hypomethylation, while longer times (8–10 weeks) induce hypermethylation [105]. In-vivo orally administered Cd (1, 2 or 4 mg kg−1) to 3–7-days postpartum rats for 30 min did not showed any effect on sperm motility, but significantly decrease the rate of fertilization and embryo development indicating that Cd affects the epigenetic factors [106, 107]. Cd is also reported to induced germ cell apoptosis, loss of daily sperm production, and decreased sperm motility might be responsible for the decline of male fertility [108, 109] specifically spontaneous acrosome reaction in mouse [109, 110, 111], rats [112], ram [113], rabbit [114] and sheep [115, 116] sperms. Research indicates that oxidative stress and apoptosis are the major players which affects the in the post-translation modifications like phosphorylation and methylation [117, 118]. Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMK-II) which is sensitive to concentration of intracellular calcium and calmodulin, are involve in apoptotic pathway [119, 120, 121] and responsible for phosphorylation of serine/thrionine residue of tyrosine kinase [119]. Wang et al. [122] reported that 10 μM Cd inhibited the sperm motility, GAPDH activity, AMPK activity and ATP production, and induced tyrosine phosphorylation of 55–57KDa proteins. These results suggest that Cd-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of 55–57KDa proteins particularly localized in the middle piece of sperm that may inhibit or interfere with mitochondria and ultimately affect the motility of sperm. Exposure of adult rats to 2 mg/kg Cd for 24 hr. induced the ROS and catalase activity and also inhibit the TGF- β3 response and p38 MAPK phosphorylation [123, 124]. Role of tyrosine-phosphorylated dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (DLD) was reported in capacitation, hyperactivation and acrosome reaction in hamster [37, 125] after Cd exposure of 1.2 mg/kg BW that induce tyrosine phosphorylation of DLD leads to lower the dehydrogenase activity, and thus affect the mitochondria and sperm motility. Only few studies are reported the effect of Cd during sperm capacitation. As capacitation process involve the influx of Ca2+ ions, thereby in presence of Cd which is also having similar charge as Ca, may mimic or replace the Ca entry by competitive binding and, thus affecting the capacitation process. More research is warranted to find out the molecular mechanism of Cd toxicity on capacitation in different species with different doses.
Arsenic is mainly present in four forms namely arsenate (As(V)), arsenite (As (III)), MMA (monomethylarsonic acid), and DMA (dimethylarsenic acid) [126]. Trace quantities of arsenic were found in drinking water of rats, hamsters, goats, chickens and humans [127]. Arsenic-induced male infertility is reported to cause abnormal sperms, decreased sperm count, and decreased sperm motility in both humans and animals [128, 129, 130]. Exposure of the cells to arsenic increased total cellular tyrosine phosphorylation of 110–120, 90, 70, 56, and 40 kDa proteins [131]. Arsenic-induced tyrosine-phosphorylation in EGFR [132]. It is not known how arsenic induces the activation of EGFR either by the conformational changes or by dimerization of EGFR, which results in the activation of EGFR [133]. It was proposed that arsenic might activate EGFR through generation of ROS that, in turn, triggered the conformational changes in the receptor [134, 135]. The arsenic-induced activation of EGFR recruits Sh-c and phosphorylates its tyrosine residues, which results in enhancement of the interactions between Sh-c and Grb2. Signals are then relayed to the downstream signaling proteins [132]. Inhibition of EGFR kinase blocked arsenic-induced activation of MAPKs [136]. Arsenic may activate with the vicinal sulfhydryl groups of the Src molecule, (2) direct interactions with extracellular matrix proteins to induce integrin rearrangements, or (3) the generation of ROS [137, 138]. Biscardi and colleagues found that Src was able to phosphorylate EGFR at two unique tyrosine residues, distinct from the autophosphorylation sites, to activate EGFR in association with the activation of other cell signaling proteins [139, 140]. Arsenic induces Src and that activates downstream proteins e.g., MAPKs via EGFR-dependent and EGFR-independent pathways [138, 141]. Shim et al. [142] reported that arsenic inhibits Ca2+ influx into antigen-activated mast cells and inhibit tyrosine phosphorylation. These results indicate that the target of arsenic is upstream of the Ca2+ influx which is a major pathway of sperm capacitation as well. Thus, further detailed studies are warranted to find out the effects of arsenic on sperm capacitation mechanism.
Six months exposure to sodium arsenite (1, 5, or 25 mg/L) reduced Voltage-dependent anion channel protein 3 (VDAC3), which leads to impaired capacitation and fertilization process in male rats [143, 144]. cAMP activates the serine/threonine Kinase and cAMP-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit alpha (PRKACA), which in turn activates tyrosine through phosphorylation. Blocking of PRKACA altered the tyrosine phosphorylation at the protein level which results in impairment of capacitation of sperm [143, 144]. Arsenic exposure on the proteome and metabolome in rat testis leads to 36 up-regulated and 34 down-regulated proteins and 13 metabolites (8 high and 5 low). Theses altered proteins were related to spermatogenesis, fertilization, fertility, and mating behavior which may be mediated by the ERK/AKT/NF-κB-dependent signaling pathway [143, 144]. However, these studies indicate the toxic effect of arsenic, but arsenic-induced male reproductive toxicity, particularly effect on capacitation and tyrosine phosphorylation mechanisms are still far from being completely understood.
It is well known that there has been a worldwide decrease in human male fertility in recent years. One of the main factors affecting this is environmental pollution. Lead is one of the major heavy metal contaminants that threatens the health of animals and human beings at global level. It is a naturally occurring element and widely used in acid batteries, paints, smelters, and paper printing. It accumulates into human and animal blood, bone and soft tissues with a half-life of 35 days in blood and 20–30 years in bone via contaminated food, and drinking water [145]. Pb has also been reported to accumulate in the epididymus and some glands [146, 147] and is considered a male reproductive toxicant [148]. The mechanism of toxicity of Pb is still not very clear. Pb mainly targets events of spermatogenesis and spermatozoa function via free radical generation, apoptosis, motility, and DNA fragmentation, and ultimately declines the rate of fertilization [149]. Recently Hassan et al. [150] reported that exposure of 20 mg PbAc/kg bwt, orally in rats for 45 days resulted in significant decrease in testis weight, spermatozoa count, testosterone levels, and antioxidant enzymes levels. Histological study indicated that Pb -exposed group was devoid of germ cells and maturation arrest with the formation of giant primary spermatocytes. Some studies reported that Pb has the ability to displace zinc and results in alteration in Ca2+ mediated process [151].
Capacitation is highly Ca2+ dependent process which means lead exposure could inhibit or induce the capacitation. Only few studies are reported about the effect of Pb on tyrosine phosphorylation during capacitation. Yuanqiao et al. [152] reported that 10–100 μM lead acetate dose-dependently inhibited total and progressive motility measures, capacitation and progesterone-induced acrosome reaction in humans. It also decreased the intracellular concentrations of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and intracellular calcium (Ca2+ )i, and reduced the tyrosine phosphorylation of sperm proteins, all of which are thought to be key factors in regulation of capacitation. These findings suggest that lead inhibits human sperm functions by reducing the levels of sperm intracellular cAMP, (Ca2+)i and tyrosine phosphorylation of sperm proteins
Heavy metals affect tyrosine phosphorylation during capacitation of spermatozoa and lead to male infertility. Alteration in tyrosine signaling might be a result of various stress conditions which are produced by heavy metals in cells like oxidative stress, apoptosis, mitochondrial damage, calcium influx and change in osmolarity of cells. Particularly Hg, Pb, As and Cd inhibit or induce tyrosine phosphorylation of sperm proteins. There are several factors including animal species and strains, gender, age, stress, genetic disorders, nutritional status, smoking, alcohol consumption, use of medicines, and concomitant exposure to other chemicals or even physical factors which will influence both the metabolism and the dose–response relationships including reproduction that affects biological processes specifically signaling mechanism. Therefore, extensive research is warranted focusing on tyrosine phosphorylation signaling during sperm capacitation using large sample size or population with minimum dose which are reported in human blood after exposure of lead, mercury, arsenic and cadmium. It is now generally accepted that the mammalian testes are very sensitive to heavy metals, and these induce changes in the testicular biochemical functions via ROS and DNA damage that ultimately affect the fertilizing ability particularly capacitation in spermatozoa.
We are thankful to IntechOpen for inviting corresponding author to write this chapter.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
No financial assistance was provided from any source to write this chapter.
The history of dyes began over 4000 years ago, and for many years, dyes were extracted from natural sources, such as flowers, vegetables, wood, insects, and roots, among others [1]. The synthetic dye industry began with the synthesis of mauveine, by researcher William Henry Perkin, in 1865. This dye, which until then was extracted from coal tar, was synthesized by Perkin while the researcher was looking for a new synthetic route for quinine, a drug used to treat malaria [2]. Perkin’s discovery marked the creation of a new generation of dyes [3].
Synthetic dyes are organic compounds that are produced from raw materials of petrochemical origin. Such compounds may or may not be soluble in water, are generally easily absorbed, and quickly impart color to substrates [1]. Structurally, dyes contain three essential groups: the chromophore, which is the active site of dyes where atoms interacting with visible electromagnetic radiation are located [2]; auxochrome, which has functional groups that introduce the chromophore, increase the fiber’s affinity to color, and decrease its solubility in water [4] and conjugated aromatic structures, such as benzene, anthracene and perylene rings [2]. Dyes are classified according to their chemical structure and application mode. Thus, according to the chemical structure of the dye, this is classified into azo, anthraquinone, sulfur, phthalocyanine, and triarylmethane [2]. Depending on its method of application, the dye is classified as reactive, direct, dispersed, basic, and by vat dyeing [5].
The chemical composition of the dye reflects in its pigmentation (formation of its color), being also responsible for the lighter or darker tone of each dye. The coloring is due to the absorption of light of a certain wavelength in the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is, the dye is a molecule capable of absorbing certain light radiations and then reflecting the complementary colors [6]. Table 1 brings together the main classes of dyes used in the textile industry, the types of fiber or substrates to which the dyes of each class are applied, the types of interaction between dye and fiber or substrate, and the methods of application or dyeing.
Classes | Fiber type | Interaction between dye and fiber | Method of application |
---|---|---|---|
Acid dye | nylon, wool, silk | Electrostatics; hydrogen bond | Neutral to acid dye baths. |
Basic dye | modified nylon, polyester | Electrostatics | Acid baths. |
Direct dye | cotton, rayon, leather, nylon | Intermolecular forces. | Neutral or slightly alkaline baths containing additional electrolytes. |
Dispersed dye | polyester, polyamide, acetate, plastic, acrylic | Hydrophobic - solid-state mechanism | High or low-temperature pressure transport methods. |
Reactive dye | cotton, nylon, silk, wool | Covalent bond | Under the influence of heat and pH of the medium, which must be alkaline, the dye reacts with the fiber functional group, with which it covalently bonds. |
Sulfur dye | cotton, rayon | Covalent bond | Aromatic substrate covered with sodium sulfide and reoxidized to sulfur-containing products, insoluble in fiber. |
Vat dye | cotton, rayon | Impregnation and oxidation | Water-insoluble dyes are solubilized by reduction with sodium hydrosulfite and then exhausted into the fiber and reoxidized. |
Main classes of dyes used in the textile industry, types of fiber to which the dyes of each class are applied, types of interaction between dye and fiber, and methods of application or dyeing [7].
Dyes are materials of great importance in different industrial sectors, such as fabric production, papermaking, plastics, cosmetics, as well as in medicine and biology [8]. Currently, the world production of dyes is about 800 tons a year and most of the dyes produced, about 70 million tons a year, are used in the textile industry [1].
With high world production, the textile industry occupies the second place among the industrial sectors that most pollute since during the dyeing stage a large amount of dyes is released into the environment due to the nonadhesion of the dye to the substrate to be dyed [2]. Therefore, the search for economically viable and ecologically sustainable alternatives for the treatment of effluents containing textile dyes is of extreme importance and interest, whereupon bioremediation is a process that can help to solve this industrial problem.
This chapter brings together the main and most recent information reported in the scientific literature on the enzymatic bioremediation of dyes from textile industry effluents. In this context, the negative impacts of dyes used in this industrial segment on human and animal health are discussed, as well as methods conventionally used for the treatment of industrial effluents containing dyes, the principles of enzymatic bioremediation, the enzymes used in this process, and their by-products.
Textile industry effluents are considered the most polluting compounds both by the volume generated and discarded and by their toxicity [9]. Wastewater from the textile industry is estimated to contain between 10 and 200 mg L−1 of dyes, as well as other organic chemicals, inorganic compounds, and additives. Even after the treatment of such effluents, about 90% of the dyes are still dumped in water bodies without undergoing chemical changes [1]. The biodegradation of such dyes is hampered by their xenobiotic nature, aromatic structure, high thermal resistance, and photostability [4].
In recent studies, Gita et al. [9] have observed that the toxicity of dyes is generally low for mammals and aquatic organisms, however, secondary products formed by biodegradation, especially aromatic amines from anaerobic dye reduction, can be harmful. In addition, these authors found that the concomitant presence of dyes and other pollutants in textile wastewater, such as heavy metals, can have a synergistic effect, causing considerable damage to the aquatic environment.
The main concern about the discharge of dyes is the presence of genotoxic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic effects, observed in animal studies [9]. Carcinogenicity is related to the formation of ions that bind to DNA and RNA, causing mutations and leading to the formation of tumors. In this sense, benzidine and 2-naphthylamine dyes are associated with a high incidence of bladder cancer [10]. Azure-B dye is capable of interspersing in the helical structure of the DNA and may have cytotoxic effects since it is an inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), an enzyme that acts on the central nervous system and is important to human behavior [10]. Sudan 1 dye, widely used in the textile industry, although illegal in many European countries and the US, is also used in foods, such as paprika. Such dye, when present in the body of humans and animals, is transformed by the action of enzymes in carcinogenic aromatic amines [10]. Furthermore, human exposure to dyes can still generate skin and lung irritations, headaches, congenital malformation, and nausea [11].
Triphenylmethane dyes are phytotoxic to agricultural plantations, cytotoxic to mammals, and generate tumors in several fish species [10]. The violet crystal dye is also a powerful carcinogen, capable of inducing tumors in fish, such as hepatocellular carcinoma and reticular cell sarcoma in several organs [10].
Some of the main environmental problems related to the disposal of synthetic dyes are—
In the literature, a correlation is described between the increase in the concentration of dyes and the decrease in the growth of microalgae, reaching the total suppression of their growth [9]. In that study, different concentrations of three dyes were used to evaluate the specific growth rate of green algae
Aquatic macrophytes are used as natural ecological markers to quantify the phytotoxicity of textile dyes when exposed to effluents that contain those since there is a change in all their parameters [4]. In the presence of two textile dyes,
Among thousands of dyes studied, found in effluents, more than 100 have the potential to form carcinogenic amines. However, these potentially toxic dyes are still marketed and used, especially in small textile factories. In several places around the world, the demands of export and cheap labor sustain the existence of factories with a small-scale activity that clandestinely releases toxic dyes into water bodies [10].
Textile industry effluents contain large quantities of biodegradable organic compounds and nonbiodegradable compounds [14]. According to the literature, there are more than 8000 substances, such as acids, surfactants, salts, metals, oxidizing agents, reducing agents, as well as dyes and their auxiliaries [15]. Wastewater from the textile industry contains characteristic color, resulting from the mixture of dyes, in addition to the presence of metals, organic carbon, ammonium salts, nitrate, and orthophosphate [5].
Due to the environmental impact of this type of effluent, pretreatment is necessary before such compounds are released into natural water bodies, and the textile industry shows interest in controlling this problem [14]. However, even after treatment, effluents are still discarded in rivers with up to 90% of dyes that have not undergone chemical changes [1]. Table 2 shows information related to the studied treatment processes for the removal of textile dyes from industrial effluents and the main results obtained, as reported in the literature.
Name of dyes | Treatment Method | Main Results | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Reactive Yellow 138, Reactive Red 231, and Navy HEXL® Procion | Electrolysis, carried out in a filter-press cell, under galvanostatic conditions. | Complete discoloration (99%) was observed in all cases. | [14] |
Reactive Red 120 | Biodegradation and dye biosorption by | The immobilized VITSAJ5 bacterium exhibited maximum adsorption of 87%. There was only 37% of removal without immobilization of the microorganism. | [15] |
Malachite Green, Reactive Red 198, and Direct Yellow 31 | Chitosan adsorption. | The amount of dye adsorbed depends on the mass of the adsorbent and decreased with its increase. | [16] |
Basic Blue 9 (MB), Basic Green 4 (MG), and Acid Orange 52 (MO) | Adsorption using synthesized materials | Fast adsorption of MB, MG, and MO in the initial 60 min. After 240 min, adsorption equilibrium is reached. | [17] |
Basic Blue 26 (BB26), Basic Green 1 (BG1), Basic Yellow 2 (BY2), and Basic Red 1 (BR1) | Adsorption on carbonaceous materials (acai seeds and Brazil nut shells), activated in the following ways: chemical activation with H3PO4, heat treatment, and oxidation with HNO3. | The adsorbents activated by heat treatment showed good performance for the removal of BB26 (87 and 85%) and BG1 (100 and 99%) but were not efficient for the removal of BY2 and BR1. Chemical activation was the most efficient for all dyes tested. Oxidation with HNO3 showed the worst results. | [18] |
Diamine Green B (DG-B), Acid Black 24 (AB-24), and Congo Red (CR) | Cellulose adsorption on cationized rice husk (CRHC). | Maximum adsorption capacities of DG-B, AB-24, and CR: 207.15, 268.88, and 580.09 mg g−1 at pH = 8, respectively, following the order CR > DG-B > AB-24. | [19] |
Methylene Blue (MB) | Photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes with nanocomposites | Synthesized nanocompounds showed high catalytic activity for the reduction of methylene blue under solar irradiation, efficiency of up to 90.1%, simple and low-cost method. | [20] |
Basic Yellow 28 (BY28), Acid Brown 75 (AB75) | Adsorption of cationic and anionic dyes by natural clays rich in smectite. | BY28: removal efficiency increased (97%) with increasing pH. AB75 anionic dye: adsorption was high in acidic medium (86%). | [21] |
Reactive Violet 5 (RV5) | Decolorization of azo-reactive dyes using sequential chemical treatment and activated sludge. | Almost complete decolorization was obtained for dye concentrations up to 300 mg L−1. Fenton’s reagent was unable to decolorize at concentration ≥ 500 mg L−1 (87.4% dechlorination). | [22] |
Procion Red HE-3B (RR120) | Photoelectrocatalysis | Treatment proved to be efficient, with up to 100% of decolorization in 30 min, concentration 10 mg L−1 of the dye RR120. The efficiency is only effective at low concentrations, with increasing concentration the decolorization occurs to a certain extent, then stabilizes. | [23] |
Reactive Red 120 | Simultaneous adsorption, filtration, and photoelectrocatalytic oxidation processes | The simultaneous performance of the treatments demonstrated that the dye was completely removed in solution. No pretreatment of intermediate by-products was necessary. | [24] |
Acid Blue 25 | Adsorption | The absorbent material was shown to reach an equilibrium constant in 270 min, as was observed to reduce absorption with alkaline solutions. The mortality rate of | [25] |
Acid Blue 25 | Adsorption Chitosan beads (CB) and chitosan beads with immobilized | The adsorbent with immobilized The adsorption capacity increased in both treatments with acidification, and also varied with temperature. There was a significant decrease in toxicity with the CBY treatment. | [26] |
Examples of treatment processes used to remove textile dyes.
The composition, as well as the standards allowed for each substance present in the composition of effluents from textile factories, aiming at its release in surface water bodies, vary according to the standards of each country. In China, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and chrominance of wastewater from dyeing and finishing processes cannot exceed 80 mg L−1 and 60, respectively, so that such effluents can be released into the environment. In the United States, according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the limit value for COD is 163 kg per ton of fabric, however, in practice, cod effluents are up to 15 times higher than the legal standard [27]. Therefore, it is essential to apply efficient treatment strategies that ensure the complete removal of pollutants or that ensure the sustainability of the environment for future generations through physical, chemical, and biological technologies or a combination of them [10].
Physical methods, such as membrane filtration (nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis), sorption techniques, or chemical methods, such as coagulation or flocculation combined with flotation and filtration, flocculation by precipitation, electroflotation, and electrokinetic coagulation, considered for the removal of various dyes, do not degrade them. Such methods simply promote the reduction of the concentration of dyes, converting them from one chemical way to another, thus creating secondary pollution [6]. Among the several processes used for the removal of wastewater dyes, such as chemical oxidation, biodegradation, electrochemical treatment, adsorption, and photocatalytic degradation, the use of photocatalyst provides good results with high efficiency, low cost, speed, and better performance in environmental conditions when sunlight is used in the process [28].
Several natural materials, such as chitosan, are used in physical dye adsorption processes. Chitosan is a modified natural biopolymer, derived from the deacetylation of chitin, which is the most abundant polymer on the planet, derived from important biomass produced by inferior plants and animals, such as arthropods, shells of crustaceans, lobsters, shrimps, crabs, and squid [16]. Adsorption is one of the most efficient methods for removing dyes, however, there is a need for further treatment of the residue resulting from the process.
In addition to the physical and chemical processes aimed at the removal of dyes from wastewater, biological processes also play an important role. Among the biological methods that can be used to remove dyes from industrial wastewater, phytoremediation is a process that has advantages compared to chemical and physical methods of removal. The removal of textile dyes by plants occurs by adsorption, accumulation, and subsequent degradation, mediated by enzymes [29].
In situations where the application of chemical products must be continuous, the use of microorganisms may be considered a simpler and low-cost process, since microorganisms can be added only once in the effluent to be treated, as they have the potential to multiply [30]. Within this context, the activated sludge is commonly used in bioreactors for effluent treatment, which is one of the most used processes by the textile industry [10]. Another possible biological method for the treatment of effluents is the use of bacterial cultures. The isolation of pure cultures from textile wastewater is usually not performed, as it can be a slow and laborious process. Thus, mixed bacterial cultures are commonly used, which, due to cooperation to achieve a potentiated effect, provide better results in discoloration and mineralization of toxic aromatic amines [1].
Bioremediation techniques have been gaining increasing prominence worldwide due to high public acceptance, low cost compared to conventional remediation methods, high availability of enzymes, and minimal impact on the environment [31]. The exploration of enzymes for bioremediation has been of great interest due to their ability to function in wider ranges of pH and temperature, in the presence of contaminants and saline concentrations [32]. Enzymatic bioremediation is an ecological, economical, promising, and innovative technique. The process consists of exploring the typical characteristics of microorganisms or genetically modified organisms capable of producing specific enzymes to catalyze or metabolize the pollutant, transforming the toxic form into a nontoxic form and sometimes into new products [33].
Among the enzymes involved in bioremediation processes are laccases, dehalogenases, and hydrolases. Laccases are enzymes capable of catalyzing the oxidation of phenolic compounds, aromatic amines, and their compounds. Dehalogenases degrade a wide range of halogenated compounds by cleaving C – X bonds (X = halogen atom, such as Cl). Hydrolases break chemical bonds using water and convert larger molecules into smaller molecules, decreasing their toxicity. These enzymes facilitate the cleavage of C – C, C – O, C – N, S – S, S – N, S – P, C – P bonds [33].
Enzymes can be used in free or immobilized form, the latter having the following advantages—long-term operational stability, easy recovery, and reuse in industrial applications, which improve process performance and lower overall cost [34]. Immobilization consists of coupling the enzyme with an insoluble support matrix to maintain an adequate geometry, which guarantees greater stability to the enzyme [32]. The bioremediation process using microbial enzymes can be slow and so far, only a few bacterial species have been able to produce enzymes with potent biodegradation capacity. Thus, the use of genetically modified organisms is more common due to their ability to produce large amounts of enzymes under optimized conditions [33].
Enzymes from aerobic bacteria, such as
In the treatment of effluents from the textile industry, enzymes act on the dyes, generating precipitates that can be easily removed or chemically transformed into easy-to-treat compounds [35]. The rate of dye degradation by enzymes will depend on the chemical structure of the dye, salt content, the concentration of metal ions, pH, and temperature of the wastewater [36]. The enzymatic degradation of pollutants in textile effluents has several advantages, such as specificity and selectivity to the substrate, in addition to being an accessible, efficient method that meets the principles of green chemistry [37]. The requirement of large amounts of enzyme, high cost, thermal instability, inhibition of enzymatic activity, attack of certain enzymes by proteases, and the formation of undesirable by-products are the main difficulties or challenges related to the use of enzymatic degradation for wastewater treatment [30].
Some of the problems listed can be solved, at least partially, by immobilizing effective enzymes in low-cost matrices, leading to their separation and reuse, in addition to application in continuous bioreactors [30]. To control the reactions in the biodegradation process, the use of enzymes is often more advantageous than the use of cells [37]. As for the high cost of the enzymes themselves due to the fact of trying to obtain an enzymatic solution as pure as possible, the tendency is that it will decrease as technologies and techniques advance and the exploration of cheaper growth substrates for the reproduction of microorganisms increases.
Enzyme-mediated bioremediation has gained notoriety due to its versatility and efficiency in the degradation of persistent organic pollutants, thus being applied in industrial, biotechnological, and environmental processes [38]. These enzymes can be obtained from the extraction of intracellular and extracellular metabolites from cultures of certain species of bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants [39].
Table 3 shows some studies related to the degradation of dyes by enzymes produced by microorganisms. As it is shown, many of the tested can decolorize the dyes, as well as provide a decrease in their toxicity, as in the case, for example, of horseradish peroxidase, which promotes the decrease in the toxicity of the methyl orange dye.
Study objective(s) | Results and by-products of degradation | Reference |
---|---|---|
Use of ionic liquids (ILs) with surfactant characteristics in the degradation of Indigo Carmine (IC) dye by laccase. | Rapid and significantly higher discoloration of the IC dye in 0.5 h. Color removal percentage: 82% (against 6% obtained without ionic liquids). By-products from IC oxidation induced by laccase: indole-2,3-dione, which is decomposed into aminobenzoic acid. Both are less toxic than the IC. | [38] |
Use of the isolate of | The Accumulation of various intermediates during degradation as naphthalene derivatives, for example. These products are less toxic than CR. | [40] |
Validation of a novel bioinformatics amalgamation and bacterial remediation approach using non-native strains for decolorization and degradation of azo dyes: Drimaren Red CL-5B (Reactive Red 195). | The gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis of the degradation products indicated the formation of low molecular weight metabolites, confirming the dye degradation. Need to carry out microbial toxicity, cytotoxicity, and phytotoxicity tests before large-scale bioremediation. | [41] |
Development of an airlift bioreactor for the use of copper alginate laccase in the degradation of dyes: Indigo Carmine (IC), Remazol Brilliant Blue R (RBBR), Bromophenol Blue (BB), Crystal Violet (CV), Malachite Green (MG), Congo Red (CR), Direct Blue 15 (DB) and Direct Red 23 (DR). | 100% decolorization of IC and RBBR, quickly. Discoloration percentages of MG, BB, and CV: 82; 64.4, and 48.5%; respectively. Percentages of discoloration of azo dyes CR, BD, and DR: 64, 54, and 22%, respectively. Isatin sulfonic acid was confirmed as the main degradation product. | [36] |
Development of a hydrogel blended with an agarose-chitosan polymer for plant-based horseradish peroxidase (HRP) immobilization and its use in the degradation of synthetic textile dye RB-19. | During the degradation process, the chromophore was fragmented into respective smaller fractions, leading to discoloration. The RB-19 has degraded into its possible daughter compounds. There is no result of toxicity studies of these compounds. | [42] |
Use of a packed bed reactor equipped with polyacrylamide gel-immobilized horseradish peroxidase (PAG-HRP) for the purpose of sequentially degrading the Methyl Orange (MO) dye. | PAG-HRP biocatalytic system: efficient in biologically based degradation. The MO degradation efficiency was 93.5% at pH 6. Significant reduction in the toxicity of azo textile dyes according to the results of acute toxicity bioassays together with phytotoxicity. | [43] |
Study the potential of | High CR removal (85%). 97% of discoloration results from the combination of two processes: adsorption and enzymatic biodegradation. Detoxification by According to phytotoxicity and microtoxicity analysis results, the metabolites generated after the CR biodegradation are less toxic than the crude dye. | [44] |
Evaluate the performance of a new | Maximum decolorization efficiency: ranged between 55.81 (blend III) and 80.56% (blend VI) in 24 h of treatment with MG-Y-SH at 18°C and static conditions. Maximum decolorization efficiency by MG-Y-SH reached 100% for 100 mg L−1 of RR120 in 3 h. Phytotoxicity results indicate the ability of MG-Y-SH to convert the toxic azo dye RR120 into non-toxic metabolites. | [45] |
Test a new consortium of oleaginous yeasts that produce lipase and xylanase in the removal of Sigma-Aldrich, Reactive Black 5 (RBB), Reactive Green 19 (G19R), Reactive Red 120 (HE3B), Reactive Blue 19 (B19R), Reactive Violet 5 (V5R) and Reactive Orange 16 (O3R) textile dyes. | Discoloration rate obtained by the Phytotoxicity assay results: metabolites generated after biodegradation of RBB are less toxic when compared to the original dye. | [46] |
Examine Methylene Blue (MB) dye removal performance by an immobilized enzyme. | The immobilized enzyme showed the highest removal efficiency (99%) compared to the pure nanocarrier and the free enzyme (81 and 36% removal, respectively). No result of toxicity analysis of by-products was presented. | [47] |
Evaluation of a new strain of white-rot fungus, | The discoloration occurred by the absorption of mycelia and by degradation by manganese peroxidase (MnP) and laccase enzymes. By-products or intermediates identified: naphthylamine and benzidine (very toxic to an organism). At 48 h the by-products were more toxic than the original dye, demonstrating the dye can take a long time to become harmless. | [48] |
Immobilization of lignin peroxidase (LiP) on Ca-alginate granules, its application in the degradation of dyes, and its potential for reducing the cytotoxicity of Reactive Red 195a (VR), Reactive Blue 21 (AR21), Reactive Blue 19 (AR19); Reactive Yellow 154a (AR154); Sandal-Fix Black CKF. | Discoloration efficiencies: 66, 59, 52, 40, and 48% were observed for VR, AR21, AR19, sandal-fix black CKF, and AR154, respectively with free LiP, which increased to 93, 83, 89, 70, and 80% with immobilized LiP. It was an efficient catalyst for the decolorization and detoxification of synthetic dye solutions. Results of the hemolytic and brine shrimp lethality tests—they showed that Ca-alginate beads entrapped LiP may be an effective biocatalyst for bioremediation of dye-based textile industry effluents. | [49] |
Biochemical characterization of stable azoreductase enzyme from | The lower value of the Michaelis–Menten constant (KM) indicates a very high affinity of the three dyes with the azoreductase enzyme. Azo dye metabolites resulted from the action of enzyme: they had reduced toxicity on fibroblast cell lines (L929) as compared to raw and intact dye. | [50] |
Main results of studies on dye bioremediation by enzymes and degradation by-products.
As reported in the literature, dye-decolorizing microorganisms produce a variety of enzymes, including azoreductase, riboflavin reductase, laccase, peroxidases, NADH-DCIP reductase, tyrosinase, reductase, and aminopyrine N-demethylase, lignin peroxidase, and veratryl alcohol oxidase [39]. Among those enzymes, the main ones responsible for the discoloration of azo dyes are azoreductases, laccases, and peroxidases [35].
Azoreductases are considered the main degradation enzymes produced by bacteria [30]. Such enzymes can be of two types—
Peroxidases also play a role in the degradation of the azo dye and are oxidoreductases, which contain heme. Peroxidases are present in plants, microorganisms, and animals. The mechanism of action of such enzymes is similar to that of laccases, providing the degradation of the dye without the production of toxic by-products [30]. Peroxidases act especially on synthetic dyes, degrading their respective constituents through the oxidative polymerization of phenolic compounds to form insoluble polymers [52]. An association between oxide-reducing enzymes can significantly reduce the toxicity of dyes [39].
Enzymes are proteins easily affected by changes in pH, and small variations in the medium’s pH can result in changes in the ionization phase of the active site and the distribution of charge in the protein structure, possibly affecting its affinity for the substrate [52]. Thus, one of the main challenges of enzymatic treatment is the deactivation of the biocatalyst caused, mainly, by the denaturation of the enzyme, due to the pH of the medium or extreme temperatures, which can alter the conformation of the enzyme’s active site [53]. Despite the many advances in enzymatic engineering, enzymes are still expensive and/or labile and, as a result, the industrial application of enzymes often requires their immobilization in a matrix (support) [54].
It is essential to evaluate the toxicity of effluents containing dyes after they have undergone enzymatic biodegradation, as some degradation products are mutagenic and carcinogenic, which represents a threat to human and animal health [30]. Thus, phytotoxicity tests are widely used and, according to the literature, among the bioindicators considered suitable for the detection of environmental toxicity,
Ali et al. [55] performed phytotoxicity studies, whose results indicate that MG-Y-SH can convert the toxic azo dye RR120 into nontoxic metabolites. However, many studies reported in the literature lack further tests to evaluate the by-products of enzymatic dye degradation, as well as the effects of these by-products on the environment.
Much of the textile dyes are still discharged into rivers without undergoing chemical changes, even with conventional effluent treatments. Pollution generated by dyes from textile industry effluents is harmful to human and animal health, presenting carcinogenic, genotoxic, mutagenic effects, in addition to having direct effects on the survival of aquatic species, as such dyes can accumulate in the food chain, conferring toxicity to water and soil and interfere with the development of crops of agricultural interest.
A more rigorous inspection of the release of dyes is important given its potential toxicity, as well as the factories that may be clandestinely dumping effluents containing toxic dyes in water bodies, without any treatment. Studies must be carried out to optimize effluent treatment methods, which must be ecological and efficient, making use of new technologies provided by modern science.
Among the methods currently used, photocatalytic degradation presents good results, is cheap, and uses sunlight, a clean source of energy. In addition to this method, there is phytoremediation, considered an ecologically correct process, and enzymatic remediation. The enzymes used in the enzymatic bioremediation of textile industry effluents are mainly azoreductases, laccases, and peroxidases.
Enzymatic bioremediation or even conventional treatment can generate by-products that are equally toxic to the starting compounds. But in some cases, less toxic intermediate compounds are generated, such as those presented in this chapter. Therefore, due importance must be given to these secondary products or by-products, identifying them, quantifying them, and subjecting them to proper handling and treatment.
The key point for the treatment of dyes is to have greater investment by companies to put the results of scientific research into practice. An alternative would be to carry out tests in simulation stations, as if on an industrial scale. In addition, genetic engineering has significantly revolutionized the field of bioremediation, with the possibility of modifying organisms or their metabolites so that they are more efficient in degrading pollutants.
This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – Brazil (CAPES) – Finance Code 001. We are grateful to this research funding agency and the Agricultural and Livestock Graduation Program, São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Agricultural and Veterinarian Sciences (FCAV).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
All publications on this website are published under the Open Access model, without any subscription, registration, or access fees required from the user or his/her institution. In accordance with the Budapest Open Access Initiative's (BOAI) definition of Open Access, users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, and link to the full text versions of all Chapters. To read more about our Open Access Statement click here.
\n\nFor Editorial Policies for journals please consult individual journal pages.
',metaTitle:"Editorial policies",metaDescription:"Editorial policies",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/editorial-policies",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\\n\\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\\n\\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\\n\\n\\n\\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\n\\n\\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\\n\\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\\n\\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\\n\\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\\n\\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\\n\\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\\n\\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\\n\\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\n\n\n\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
\n\n\n\n\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6654},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5945},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2452},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12681},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1014},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17701}],offset:12,limit:12,total:133951},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"1",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",src:"ECM",topicId:"8,9,10,11,14,15,17,20,22,24"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11837",title:"Ecology and Geography of the Mediterranean",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bbb25987a982d61da4f47fb13614ba3c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11837.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11858",title:"Terahertz Radiation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f08ee0bf20cd8b5fa772b4752081f2fe",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11858.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11938",title:"Ballistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c64ef67aac55216f08c65a2a179835c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11938.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11942",title:"Updates on Spatial Audio",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4ac095defb765e0e9bfebc06dac719e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11942.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11915",title:"Ontology in Information Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b52397215f6b5e05a22368f629695704",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11915.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12071",title:"Massive Open Online Courses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4918898cbe91bb691a397bbde7138b1",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12071.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12062",title:"Public Transportation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c045089da37d46be1ee7e5e74f93cc93",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12062.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12017",title:"Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1912acc4811b724cc0a15dba11f5af79",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12017.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12024",title:"UWB Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6158349f714de7cee2337adf57b2617d",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12024.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12025",title:"Cognitive Radio Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"75b14778d5efbcfe9c1f51d2e31f6aeb",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12025.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12022",title:"Statistical Sampling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d95646776d1cb0b10161dc68c9c07781",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12022.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12026",title:"Induction Motor",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0273a4ffd6bc66faed9db00380771240",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12026.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:30},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:83},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:77},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4422},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10774",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b58571ac10c9b636c5d85ec5e54",slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",slug:"protein-detection",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"4",title:"Social Sciences and Humanities",slug:"social-sciences-and-humanities",parent:null,numberOfBooks:297,numberOfSeries:3,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:5391,numberOfWosCitations:2993,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3092,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5669,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"4",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11258",title:"Innovation, Research and Development and Capital Evaluation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a644b267db0cddd8a16f0dfadf03bad6",slug:"innovation-research-and-development-and-capital-evaluation",bookSignature:"Luigi Aldieri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11258.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"246585",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Aldieri",slug:"luigi-aldieri",fullName:"Luigi Aldieri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10889",title:"Aphasia Compendium",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f2c0b1c302f68d0c86ae8e057d1cc90e",slug:"aphasia-compendium",bookSignature:"Dragoș Cătălin Jianu and Dafin Fior Mureșanu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10889.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"45925",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragoș",middleName:null,surname:"Cătălin Jianu",slug:"dragos-catalin-jianu",fullName:"Dragoș Cătălin Jianu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11004",title:"Medical Education for the 21st Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8863875cdefa578f26a438ea21bdc1e",slug:"medical-education-for-the-21st-century",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Stanislaw P. Stawicki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11004.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael S.",middleName:null,surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10207",title:"Sexual Abuse",subtitle:"An Interdisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1ec1d5a7093490df314d7887e0b3809",slug:"sexual-abuse-an-interdisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Ersi Kalfoğlu and Sotirios Kalfoglou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10207.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68678",title:"Dr.",name:"Ersi",middleName:null,surname:"Kalfoglou",slug:"ersi-kalfoglou",fullName:"Ersi Kalfoglou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10914",title:"Effective Elimination of Structural Racism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6a2562646c0fd664aca8335bc3b3e69",slug:"effective-elimination-of-structural-racism",bookSignature:"Erick Guerrero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10914.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"294761",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero",slug:"erick-guerrero",fullName:"Erick Guerrero"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11196",title:"New Updates in E-Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6afaadf68e2a0a4b370ac5ceb5ca89c6",slug:"new-updates-in-e-learning",bookSignature:"Eduard Babulak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11196.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"10086",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduard",middleName:null,surname:"Babulak",slug:"eduard-babulak",fullName:"Eduard Babulak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86a6d33cf601587e591064ce92effc02",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. Samim Al Azad and Slimane Ed-dafali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10915",title:"Leadership",subtitle:"New Insights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d72e79892f2a020cee66a52d09de5a4",slug:"leadership-new-insights",bookSignature:"Mário Franco",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10915.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105529",title:"Dr.",name:"Mário",middleName:null,surname:"Franco",slug:"mario-franco",fullName:"Mário Franco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:297,seriesByTopicCollection:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],seriesByTopicTotal:3,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"42656",doi:"10.5772/55538",title:"Conceptual Frameworks of Vulnerability Assessments for Natural Disasters Reduction",slug:"conceptual-frameworks-of-vulnerability-assessments-for-natural-disasters-reduction",totalDownloads:9976,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:75,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"Roxana L. Ciurean, Dagmar Schröter and Thomas Glade",authors:[{id:"163703",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Glade",slug:"thomas-glade",fullName:"Thomas Glade"},{id:"164141",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Roxana",middleName:"Liliana",surname:"Ciurean",slug:"roxana-ciurean",fullName:"Roxana Ciurean"},{id:"164142",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Schroeter",slug:"dagmar-schroeter",fullName:"Dagmar Schroeter"}]},{id:"58010",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72304",title:"Fourth Industrial Revolution: Current Practices, Challenges, and Opportunities",slug:"fourth-industrial-revolution-current-practices-challenges-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:6371,totalCrossrefCites:42,totalDimensionsCites:68,abstract:"The globalization and the competitiveness are forcing companies to rethink and to innovate their production processes following the so-called Industry 4.0 paradigm. It represents the integration of tools already used in the past (big data, cloud, robot, 3D printing, simulation, etc.) that are now connected into a global network by transmitting digital data. The implementation of this new paradigm represents a huge change for companies, which are faced with big investments. In order to benefit from the opportunities offered by the smart revolution, companies must have the prerequisites needed to withstand changes generated by “smart” system. In addition, new workers who face the world of work 4.0 must have new skills in automation, digitization, and information technology, without forgetting soft skills. This chapter aims to present the main good practices, challenges, and opportunities related to Industry 4.0 paradigm.",book:{id:"6291",slug:"digital-transformation-in-smart-manufacturing",title:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing",fullTitle:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing"},signatures:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Raffaele Cioffi and Federico\nZomparelli",authors:[{id:"161682",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"De Felice",slug:"fabio-de-felice",fullName:"Fabio De Felice"},{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"},{id:"205141",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Zomparelli",slug:"federico-zomparelli",fullName:"Federico Zomparelli"},{id:"208748",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaele",middleName:null,surname:"Cioffi",slug:"raffaele-cioffi",fullName:"Raffaele Cioffi"}]},{id:"40977",doi:"10.5772/53885",title:"The Emergence of Scientific Reasoning",slug:"the-emergence-of-scientific-reasoning",totalDownloads:4520,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:null,book:{id:"654",slug:"current-topics-in-children-s-learning-and-cognition",title:"Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition"},signatures:"Bradley J. Morris, Steve Croker, Amy M. Masnick and Corinne Zimmerman",authors:[{id:"154336",title:"Prof.",name:"Bradley",middleName:null,surname:"Morris",slug:"bradley-morris",fullName:"Bradley Morris"},{id:"154337",title:"Prof.",name:"Steve",middleName:null,surname:"Croker",slug:"steve-croker",fullName:"Steve Croker"},{id:"154338",title:"Prof.",name:"Amy",middleName:null,surname:"Masnick",slug:"amy-masnick",fullName:"Amy Masnick"},{id:"154339",title:"Prof.",name:"Corinne",middleName:null,surname:"Zimmerman",slug:"corinne-zimmerman",fullName:"Corinne Zimmerman"}]},{id:"35715",doi:"10.5772/38693",title:"The Role and Importance of Cultural Tourism in Modern Tourism Industry",slug:"the-role-and-importance-of-cultural-tourism-in-modern-tourism-industry",totalDownloads:41056,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:57,abstract:null,book:{id:"2298",slug:"strategies-for-tourism-industry-micro-and-macro-perspectives",title:"Strategies for Tourism Industry",fullTitle:"Strategies for Tourism Industry - Micro and Macro Perspectives"},signatures:"Janos Csapo",authors:[{id:"118766",title:"Dr.",name:"János",middleName:null,surname:"Csapó",slug:"janos-csapo",fullName:"János Csapó"}]},{id:"37707",doi:"10.5772/51110",title:"Principle of Meat Aroma Flavors and Future Prospect",slug:"principle-of-meat-aroma-flavors-and-future-prospect",totalDownloads:7443,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:null,book:{id:"3276",slug:"latest-research-into-quality-control",title:"Latest Research into Quality Control",fullTitle:"Latest Research into Quality Control"},signatures:"Hoa Van Ba, Inho Hwang, Dawoon Jeong and Amna Touseef",authors:[{id:"153361",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Van Ba",slug:"hoa-van-ba",fullName:"Hoa Van Ba"},{id:"163181",title:"Prof.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Amna",slug:"touseef-amna",fullName:"Touseef Amna"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58890",title:"Philosophy and Paradigm of Scientific Research",slug:"philosophy-and-paradigm-of-scientific-research",totalDownloads:13759,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Before carrying out the empirical analysis of the role of management culture in corporate social responsibility, identification of the philosophical approach and the paradigm on which the research carried out is based is necessary. Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2204,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:null,title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:null},{id:"58969",title:"Corruption, Causes and Consequences",slug:"corruption-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:27589,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Corruption is a constant in the society and occurs in all civilizations; however, it has only been in the past 20 years that this phenomenon has begun being seriously explored. It has many different shapes as well as many various effects, both on the economy and the society at large. Among the most common causes of corruption are the political and economic environment, professional ethics and morality and, of course, habits, customs, tradition and demography. Its effects on the economy (and also on the wider society) are well researched, yet still not completely. Corruption thus inhibits economic growth and affects business operations, employment and investments. It also reduces tax revenue and the effectiveness of various financial assistance programs. The wider society is influenced by a high degree of corruption in terms of lowering of trust in the law and the rule of law, education and consequently the quality of life (access to infrastructure, health care). There also does not exist an unambiguous answer as to how to deal with corruption. Something that works in one country or in one region will not necessarily be successful in another. This chapter tries to answer at least a few questions about corruption and the causes for it, its consequences and how to deal with it successfully.",book:{id:"6487",slug:"trade-and-global-market",title:"Trade and Global Market",fullTitle:"Trade and Global Market"},signatures:"Štefan Šumah",authors:[{id:"228073",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Sumah",slug:"stefan-sumah",fullName:"Stefan Sumah"}]},{id:"55499",title:"Human Resources Management in Nonprofit Organizations: A Case Study of Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts",slug:"human-resources-management-in-nonprofit-organizations-a-case-study-of-istanbul-foundation-for-cultur",totalDownloads:2294,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency and importance of human resources management in nonprofit organizations. The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"59152",title:"Marketing Strategies for the Social Good",slug:"marketing-strategies-for-the-social-good",totalDownloads:1594,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Social network sites (SNS) have proven to be a good environment to promote and sell goods and services, but marketing is more than creating commercial strategies. Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. By providing an understanding on how SNS can provide an adequate environment for the design of social marketing strategies, we believe our work has practical implications both for academicians and marketers who want to contribute in the transformation of consumer behavior and the achievement of well-being and social change.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Alicia De La Pena",authors:[{id:"196878",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"De La Pena",slug:"alicia-de-la-pena",fullName:"Alicia De La Pena"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"4",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82405",title:"Does Board Structure Matter in CSR Spending of Commercial Banks? Empirical Evidence from an Emerging Economy",slug:"does-board-structure-matter-in-csr-spending-of-commercial-banks-empirical-evidence-from-an-emerging-",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105589",abstract:"This chapter examines the impact of board elements on CSR spending by private commercial banks in an emerging economy, considering Bangladesh as a case. In doing so, we collected necessary data from the annual reports of 30 commercial banks listed on the Dhaka Stock Exchange, covering the period 2007–2020. In addition, we reviewed the patterns of CSR spending by commercial banks to understand the CSR universe in Bangladesh. We adopted the OLS model with two-way clustering to measure the effects of board elements on CSR spending. Our results confirm that factors, such as independent directors and board size, have a significant and positive relationship with CSR expenditures, while board gender deters the same. Also, board meetings do not have any significant connection with CSR spending. For control variables, factors, such as firm size and leverage, tend to promote the CSR spending of commercial banks, while profitability has no such relationship. As for the sectoral distribution of CSR funds, we found that although the absolute amount of CSR expenditures by banks has increased substantially over the years, they are primarily limited to health, education, natural disasters, and humanitarian activities. These findings are expected to have significant policy implications.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Bishnu Kumar Adhikary and Ranjan Kumar Mitra"},{id:"82395",title:"Toward a Better Understanding of Green Human Resource Management’s Impact on Green Competitive Advantage: A Conceptual Model",slug:"toward-a-better-understanding-of-green-human-resource-management-s-impact-on-green-competitive-advan",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105528",abstract:"Today, green human resource management (GHRM) has become a key business strategy where HRM plays an active role in the ongoing green movement. Thus, the topic of GHRM is of growing interest among management scholars. However, despite the theoretically important role of GHRM, relatively small number of research has been discovered so far about how GHRM, in companies striving to achieve environmental sustainability, could help them gain a green competitive advantage (GCA). Thus, based on the resource-based view (RBV) arguments, the main objective of this paper is to develop a conceptual model of the relationship between GHRM and green competitive advantage through green knowledge, green values, and green commitment. This model is expected to provide a strategic map that could be utilized by the practitioners and managers so that GHRM implementation can be more effective in contributing to green competitive advantage. Overall, the present article extends knowledge on the resource-based view by contributing to the literature on GHRM and its interactions with the main assets that lead to green competitive advantage.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Hosna Hossari and Kaoutar Elfahli"},{id:"82394",title:"Learning by Doing Active Social Learning",slug:"learning-by-doing-active-social-learning",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105523",abstract:"Project-based learning and future-based pedagogy are important and effective tools for teaching and learning in the twenty-first century. They are especially suited to instilling social activism among students, which is extremely valuable in today’s multicultural society. This study examined the impact of such learning among Arab and Jewish students and teachers in Israel. Following a collaborative program on social activism, in which students from different sectors worked together via digital platforms and face-to-face encounters, the impact of the program and its pedagogical tools were examined. The program, called Living in a Multicultural Society, reflects the mosaic of different people and communities, living side by side yet separated by religion, culture, and language. Through this program, students who may not have otherwise met worked together to learn, research, and create. This study was conducted using the mixed-method approach, whereby the qualitative data were gathered via interviews, and the quantitative data were collected through questionnaires. The findings show that this project-based learning program led to significant encounters, understandings, and co-operations between different sectors, and to meaningful end-products relating to social activism. This study enhances the concept that significant pedagogical processes increase students’ motivation, in-depth learning, and outcomes.",book:{id:"11481",title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg"},signatures:"Anat Raviv"},{id:"81785",title:"Social Distancing Disbanding Learner Groupings: A Case on Language Development",slug:"social-distancing-disbanding-learner-groupings-a-case-on-language-development",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104893",abstract:"Information sharing is a fundamental aspect in learning an unfamiliar, yet, an additional language, with specific regards to reading comprehension. Language teachers are faced with a task to monitor development, performance, and effectiveness in learner reading proficiencies. This chapter aims to measure if disbanding learner groupings as per the social distancing protocols brought about by COVID-19 restrictions has any impact on language enhancement. Henceforth, there are limited suggestions by literature in relation to disbanding learner groupings, yet improved reading proficiency is one of the crucial language aspects to be mastered for one to be a successful scholar. Nonetheless, this chapter aims to provide teaching strategies applied by English language teachers to necessitate transmitted learning in accordance with information sharing as learners are dependent on one another for language enhancement, thus leading to academic achievement.",book:{id:"10912",title:"Psychosocial, Educational, and Economic Impacts of COVID-19",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10912.jpg"},signatures:"Bulelwa Makena and Thandiswa Mpiti"},{id:"82248",title:"Sustainability and Excellence: Pillars for Business Survival",slug:"sustainability-and-excellence-pillars-for-business-survival",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105420",abstract:"The chapter presents an overview of management models starting with self-assessment (ISO 9004) and continuing with the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) Excellence Model. Stakeholders’ analysis and their needs and expectations diagnostic are the baseline for building sustainable businesses. Sustainability and excellence are connected, and particular details of these approaches’ implementation are presented. Partnership development appears a key principle in the EFQM model. Based on companies’ strategies analysis, a simplified model may be proposed in order to support business survival in changing environments. Some guidelines to allow assessment of excellence fundamentals implementation are given. Based on experience and without seeing as exhaustive, a summary sheet of possible approaches and deployments is given. This may be used as a practical tool to connect actions implemented in organizations with the excellence model enablers, so as to facilitate assessment to explore the performance maturity level. The same sequence of Plan-Do-Check-Act relates approaches stated by ISO 26000 and sustainability initiatives. Embedding excellence and sustainability into business strategic objectives allows the management to define the framework for competitive continuous improvement.",book:{id:"11476",title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg"},signatures:"Irina Severin, Maria Cristina Dijmarescu and Mihai Caramihai"},{id:"82269",title:"CSR Reporting and Blockchain Technology",slug:"csr-reporting-and-blockchain-technology",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105512",abstract:"Blockchain technology is a public ledger that stores data in a chain of blocks which can radically improve the quality of our records from “records that might be trustworthy” to “records that trust is absolute”. This chapter explores one area that blockchain technology can radically transform but has not yet received significant attention. We evaluate the suitability of applying blockchain technology for corporate social responsibility (CSR) reporting. We demonstrate that blockchain technology is suitable in the context of CSR reporting since there is a strong need for an immutable common database shared among various stakeholders with potential trust issues. We also argue that blockchain technology does not completely eliminate existing trusted third parties such as governments, international organizations that provide CSR reporting standards, major CSR reporting assurance companies and major CSR infomediaries. In particular, blockchain technology can be used as a platform that integrates all traditional trusted third parties, transforms their functions, and reduces their drawbacks for advancing CSR reporting. We also demonstrate that a permissionless public blockchain would be the most suitable structure.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Pattarake Sarajoti, Pattanaporn Chatjuthamard, Suwongrat Papangkorn and Piyachart Phiromswad"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:275},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null},editorialBoard:null},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{id:"82285",title:"Parvovirus Vectors: The Future of Gene Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105085",signatures:"Megha Gupta",slug:"parvovirus-vectors-the-future-of-gene-therapy",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. Faustino-Rocha, Paula A. Oliveira, João Mesquita and Helena Vala",slug:"virtual-physiology-a-tool-for-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:151,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78543",title:"Pulmonary Vein: Embryology, Anatomy, Function and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100051",signatures:"Chan I-Ping and Hsueh Tung",slug:"pulmonary-vein-embryology-anatomy-function-and-disease",totalDownloads:182,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78564",title:"Anatomy of the Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta): The Essentials for the Biomedical Researcher",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99067",signatures:"Christophe Casteleyn and Jaco Bakker",slug:"anatomy-of-the-rhesus-monkey-macaca-mulatta-the-essentials-for-the-biomedical-researcher",totalDownloads:345,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"77999",title:"Bronchus-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (BALT) Histology and Its Role in Various Pathologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99366",signatures:"Tuba Parlak Ak",slug:"bronchus-associated-lymphoid-tissue-balt-histology-and-its-role-in-various-pathologies",totalDownloads:210,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78242",title:"Genomic Instability and Cyto-Genotoxic Damage in Animal Species",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99685",signatures:"María Evarista Arellano-García, Olivia Torres-Bugarín, Maritza Roxana García-García, Daniel García-Flores, Yanis Toledano-Magaña, Cinthya Sofia Sanabria-Mora, Sandra Castro-Gamboa and Juan Carlos García-Ramos",slug:"genomic-instability-and-cyto-genotoxic-damage-in-animal-species",totalDownloads:150,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78503",title:"Biomechanics of the Canine Elbow Joint",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99569",signatures:"Thomas Rohwedder",slug:"biomechanics-of-the-canine-elbow-joint",totalDownloads:179,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78018",title:"Application of Noble Metals in the Advances in Animal Disease Diagnostics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99162",signatures:"Gabriel Alexis S.P. Tubalinal, Leonard Paulo G. Lucero, Jim Andreus V. Mangahas, Marvin A. Villanueva and Claro N. Mingala",slug:"application-of-noble-metals-in-the-advances-in-animal-disease-diagnostics",totalDownloads:111,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"77455",title:"Marek’s Disease Is a Threat for Large Scale Poultry Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98939",signatures:"Wojciech Kozdruń, Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk and Natalia Styś-Fijoł",slug:"marek-s-disease-is-a-threat-for-large-scale-poultry-production",totalDownloads:261,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"74655",title:"Taxon-Specific Pair Bonding in Gibbons (Hylobatidae)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95270",signatures:"Thomas Geissmann, Simone Rosenkranz-Weck, Judith J.G.M. Van Der Loo and Mathias Orgeldinger",slug:"taxon-specific-pair-bonding-in-gibbons-hylobatidae",totalDownloads:394,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"