Water permeability of alkali-activated slag cement stone vs. slag fineness.
\n
Strength classes of the alkali-activated cements (compressive strength at age of 28 days) are designated in the national standard of Ukraine DSTU B V.2.7-181:2009 “Cements, alkaline” [9]. High properties of the alkali-activated cement stone are attributed to its structure, which is different from that of portland cement, considerably lower solubility of hydration products and absence in them of Ca(OH)2 and calcium sulphoaluminate hydrates [10, 11].
\n\nAccording to the national standard of Ukraine [12], heavyweight and super heavyweight alkali-activated cement concretes are designated in classes in compressive strength at standard age (28 days).
\nIn compressive strength, the alkali-activated cement concretes are designated, similar to EN-206, as below:
\n\tC8/10; C12/15; C16/20; C20/25; C25/30; C30/37; C35/45; C40/50; C45/55; C50/60; C55/67; C60/75; C70/85; C80/95; C90/105; C100/115; C110/125.
In flexural strength, the alkali-activated cement concretes are designated as below:
\n\tin axial tension: Ct0.8; Ct1.2; Ct1.6; Ct2.0; Ct2.4; Ct2.8; Ct3.2; Ct3.6; Ct4.0.
\tin tensile bending strength: Ctв0.8; Ctв1.2; Ctв1.6; Ctв2.0; Ctв2.4; Ctв2.8; Ctв3.2; Ctв3.6; Ctв4.0; Ctв4.4; Ctв4.8; Ctв5.2; Ctв5.6; Ctв6.0; Ctв6.4; Ctв6.8; Ctв7.2; Ctв7.6; Ctв8.0; Ctв8.4; Ctв8.8.
where Ct is the characteristic strength in axial tension (MPa) and Ctв is the characteristic tensile bending strength (MPa).
\nAs a rule, tensile strength of coarse aggregates in the alkali-activated cement concrete constitutes 10–20% of compressive strength, depending upon type and density of alkaline activator and alkali-activated cement composition.
\nStrength of the alkali-activated cement concretes is kept under control, chiefly, by a proper choice of alkaline activator and its content. The greatest effect on strength characteristics is made by soluble sodium silicates. The alkali-activated cement concretes made using sodium silicates have high compressive strength reaching 120–140 MPa. They have close values of compressive strength measured on cubes not depending upon a modulus of basicity and slag content. This is especially clearly expressed in the steam-cured alkali-activated cement concretes. A conclusion was drawn that the lowering of the slag content in the concrete mix from 500 to 300 kg per 1 m3, the alkaline activator represented by sodium silicates, would affect early strength gain and has no any effect on values of final compressive strength. Strength of the alkali-activated cement concretes made using sodium carbonate as alkaline activator varies between 45 and 80 MPa. Type of slag also affects strength gain, and this is especially clearly expressed in the alkali-activated cement concretes that hardened in normal conditions, which continue to attain strength at the later ages. With decrease in blast-furnace slag basicity and slag content, the strength of these concretes will decrease by 10–15 MPa. The highest compressive strength (116–123 MPa) is characteristic of the steam-cured alkali-activated cement concretes made using neutral blast-furnace slags and low-modulus sodium silicates (silicate modulus Ms = 1–2). Strength of the steam-cured alkali-activated cement concretes increases with decrease in silicate modulus of sodium silicate and is higher than that of the concretes that hardened for 28 days in normal conditions. The concretes hardening in normal conditions, similar to steam-cured concretes, exhibit the highest compressive strength in case of using neutral slags and low-modulus sodium silicates. The alkali-activated acid slag cement concretes have rather slow early strength gain. However, after two years the strength has increased by 2–2.6 times. High-modulus sodium silicates are not recommended for the alkali-activated cement concretes in which acid slags are used and for hardening in water. The above combination of cement components can be used under condition that basicity of the binding system will be increased by introduction of high-basic additives [13, 14].
\nAs follows from Ref. [15], not depending upon slag characteristics and nature of alkaline activator, the alkali-activated cement concretes continue to gain strength steadily in normal conditions, in the air and in water even after they have already gained a 28-day strength.
\nWater permeability is the most widely used key characteristic of permeability of concrete and is expressed as the highest pressure of water at which water still does not penetrate into the test specimen and this characteristic is called a “filtration coefficient”. This coefficient is expressed as a quantity of liquid penetrating through a unit of cross section per unit of time at head gradient of 1.
\nThe alkali-activated cement concretes, to which more strict requirements (low water permeability and high corrosion resistance) are applied, are classified with regard to water permeability as the following: W2; W4; W6; W8; W10; W12; W14; W16; W18; W20; W25; W30 (W—water permeability, pressure in atm) [12].
\nSpecific features of pore structure of the alkali-activated cement concretes, their high water retaining capacity and lack of segregation in the alkali-activated cement concrete mixtures result in possibility to design concretes with the lower water permeability [16].
\nDensity of the alkali-activated cement concretes increases, and water permeability decreases with time and depends upon chemical-mineralogical composition, slag fineness, and cement content (Tables 4 and 5).
\nCharacteristics of water permeability | \nSlag fineness (m2/kg) (measured by Blaine) | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
230 | \n300 | \n420 | \n510 | \n600 | \n|
Pressure at which filtration occurs (MPa) | \n2.5 | \n3.7 | \n4.1 | \n4.3 | \n3.6 | \n
Filtration coefficient (Kf⋅10−13) (cm/s) | \n4.7 | \n3.1 | \n0.6 | \n0.1 | \n0.9 | \n
Water permeability of alkali-activated slag cement stone vs. slag fineness.
Concrete mix design (%) | \nw/c | \nWater adsorption (%) | \nCompressive strength (MPa) | \nPressure at which filtration is observed (MPa) | \nFiltration coefficient (cm/s) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Slag | \nSand | \n|||||
15 | \n85 | \n0.60 | \n8.3 | \n30.1 | \n0.4 | \n1.3 × 10−6 | \n
20 | \n80 | \n0.40 | \n7.2 | \n39.7 | \n0.8 | \n5.3 × 10−7 | \n
25 | \n75 | \n0.36 | \n4.1 | \n45.5 | \n1.8 | \n0.8 × 10−10 | \n
30 | \n70 | \n0.33 | \n3.7 | \n56.7 | \n3.4 | \n0.4 × 10−11 | \n
Water permeability of fine aggregate alkali-activated slag cement concretes vs. slag content.
Strength gain and decrease in water permeability of the alkali-activated cement concrete depend upon the cement content: with the cement content reaching 20%, a decrease in water permeability while hardening of the concrete specimens in high humidity conditions has been reported: by 20 times after 1 year and as much as by 200 times after 5 years. The concretes with the cement content between 25 and 40% at this age were dense enough not to allow water to penetrate into them even at pressures of 4–5 MPa [15].
\nWater permeability of the alkali-activated cement concretes decreases in case of using aggregates with properly selected particle size distribution providing minimum void content. So, the lowest value (Kf = 0.9 × 10−12 cm/s) corresponds to void content of 32.3%. Water permeability of the alkali-activated cement concretes can be improved by addition of clays, which, participating in the structure formation processes, increase density of the concrete. A determining role is played by mineralogical composition of clays. The fine aggregate alkali-activated cement concrete with the highest density was produced using sands containing 10% of coal and mining wastes. Glauconite clay, in its action on water permeability, is similar to kaolinite clay, and its maximum allowed quantity is 5%. The use of bentonite clay is found to be of no favour due to its coagulation during mixing with alkaline activator solutions.
\nFiltration coefficient of the alkali-activated cement concretes made using aggregates containing up to 15% of clay, at the initial test ages, due to its slow interaction with alkaline activators, remained rather high (Kf = 3 × 10−9 cm/s). However, after 1 year it has decreased by 5–7 times, after 5 years by 20 times. The decrease in water permeability can be provided by application of special techniques of mixing, in particular, under vibration which was found to decrease filtration coefficient by 25–30 times compared to mixing in traditional mixers.
\nThe most favourable conditions which allow for to reach similar low water permeability, as those of the concretes hardened in normal conditions, are: steam curing in closed moulds at
According to long-term test results, strength, density, and water permeability of the alkali-activated cement concretes tended to improve with time (Figure 1) not depending upon applied curing conditions, but with the higher rate when the concrete specimens were allowed to cure in water and in high humidity conditions.
\nCompressive strength gain (MPa) and water permeability (MPa) of alkali-activated cement concretes vs. cure conditions:
Due to specific features of a capillary pore structure, water permeability of the alkali-activated cement concretes remained almost unchanged and still rather low after attacks of cyclic unfavourable conditions: heating-cooling, wetting-drying, freezing-thawing (Table 6). Water permeability as a function of concrete structure is the most important physical characteristic defining degree of deterioration under exposure of various aggressive environments, since corrosion processes start at the interfacial surface of external environment and concrete and proceed inward the concrete-reaching pores and capillaries.
\nWater permeability of the alkali-activated cement concrete can be improved by optimization of its composition with application of conventional techniques.
\nComposition no | \nHeating-cooling | \nWetting-drying | \nFreezing-thawing | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cycles | \n|||||||||
50 | \n100 | \n200 | \n50 | \n100 | \n200 | \n50 | \n100 | \n200 | \n|
Permeability expressed as pressure (MPa) | \n|||||||||
1 | \n1 | \n8 | \n7 | \n13 | \n15 | \n14 | \n15 | \n17 | \n16 | \n
2 | \n5 | \n5 | \n4 | \n9 | \n10 | \n11 | \n11 | \n12 | \n13 | \n
Changes in water penetration of alkali-activated slag cement concrete after cyclic exposures.
Notes
1. Concrete mix design (composition no. 1), 1 m3: ground granulated blast-furnace slag—500 kg, ultrafine (desert) sand—300 kg, coarse aggregate (5/20)—1175 kg, and sodium metasilicate (density = 1220 kg/m3)—200 l.
2. Concrete mix design (composition no. 2), 1 m3: portland cement—500 kg, river sand—300 kg, coarse aggregate (5/20)—1175 kg, and water—200 l.
Durability of the alkali-activated cement concrete in mineral salt solutions is affected by ion composition, concentration and exposure conditions and is predetermined by specific features of micro- and macrostructure affected by slag composition, type and quantity of alkaline activator, as well as by cure conditions. The alkali-activated cement concretes exhibit high resistance in solutions of magnesium chlorides and nitrates considerably exceeding those of sulphate-resisting portland cements [17].
\nResistance of the alkali-activated cement concretes in sulphate solutions is determined by cations of sulphate salts as well as by alkali-activated cement composition. In sodium sulphate solutions, the alkali-activated cement concretes, not depending upon alkali-activated cement composition, are not subjected to deterioration. This is attributed to lack of conditions for the formation of insoluble corrosion products.
\nSulphates of polyvalent metals (magnesium, manganese, aluminium, nickel, copper, zinc, etc.), as well as those of ammonia that form insoluble (silicate hydrates, hydroxides) or volatile (ammonia) compounds, are more aggressive environments. These compounds react actively with the alkali-activated cement stone solid phase with the formation of gypsum dehydrate. A degree of aggressiveness of these sulphate compounds is determined by properties of cations, permeability of corrosion products and pH-values of the formed hydroxides.
\nDepending upon properties of cation, resistance of the alkali-activated slag cements in sulphate solutions decreases in the following sequence: Na+ >
Nos | \nAlkaline activator | \nCoefficient of corrosion resistance after immersion, duration in months | \n|||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3% concentration | \n6% concentration | \n||||||||
1 | \n3 | \n6 | \n12 | \n1 | \n3 | \n6 | \n12 | \n||
1 | \nSodium hydroxide | \n1.02 | \n1.00 | \n0.63 | \n0 | \n1.15 | \n– | \n– | \n– | \n
2 | \nSodium carbonate | \n1.10 | \n0.74 | \n0.65 | \n0 | \n1.18 | \n0.42 | \n0.29 | \n0 | \n
3 | \nSodium metasilicate | \n1.01 | \n1.04 | \n1.24 | \n0 | \n1.49 | \n0.43 | \n0.27 | \n0 | \n
4 | \nSodium disilicate | \n1.37 | \n1.28 | \n3.60 | \n1.35 | \n1.51 | \n1.40 | \n2.87 | \n1.07 | \n
5 | \nSodium silicate (Ms = 3.0) | \n2.97 | \n4.49 | \n9.90 | \n3.09 | \n3.62 | \n9.05 | \n13.96 | \n2.50 | \n
Corrosion resistance of alkali-activated slag cement concretes made with various alkaline activators in MgSO4 solutions.
Corrosion of the alkali-activated cement stone in MgSO4-solutions takes place similar to corrosion of portland cement stone: occurrence of cracks, mainly perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of a specimen, curvature of the specimen, increase in linear dimensions and volume, deterioration.
\nAt equal densities of alkaline activators, the corrosion resistance of the alkali-activated cements in MgSO4 solutions tends to improve depending upon a type of alkaline activator in the following sequence: NaOH < Na2CO3 ≈ Na2SiO3 < Na2Si2O5 < Na2O ⋅ 2.65SiO2 (Table 7).
\nAn alkaline activator solution content to slag content ratio affects corrosion resistance in MgSO4 solutions. The higher is this ratio, the lower is the corrosion resistance due to the higher porosity and higher is the permeability of the resulted stone.
\nHeat-treated alkali-activated cement concretes made with sodium silicate (Ms = 1–3) have the lower resistance compared to that of similar concretes that hardened in normal conditions. The use in this case of non-silicate compounds of alkali metals has positive effect on corrosion resistance of the alkali-activated cements in MgSO4 solutions.
\nIn general, the comparative test results of the alkali-activated, portland and sulphate-resisting portland cements showed that in the conditions of full immersion, the alkali-activated cement concretes had higher resistance in the solutions of sodium sulphates (Kr24 ≥ 1), magnesium chloride, and nitrate and had similar corrosion resistance in marine environment to that of sulphate-resisting cement (Kr24 ≥ 0.55. Whear: Kr—ratio of strength of a specimen exposed to aggressive environment to that of a specimen stored in water; 24—a number of months).
\nAnalysis of specific deterioration of the alkali-activated cement stone and known types of corrosion suggested that alkali-activated cement hydration products were represented by four groups of substances varying in resistance in aggressive environments:
\n–\tthe most easily dissolved—“free” (unbound) alkaline activator;
–\tless dissoluble compared to alkalis, but relatively easily dissoluble substances of the sodium silicate or calcium-sodium silicates types that are present in a gel-like state;
–\trelatively resistant to dissolution calcium silicate hydrates and calcite;
–\tthe most poorly dissoluble crystalline calcium silicate hydrates and sodium aluminosilicate hydrates.
Prevalence of one of these or those groups in the cement hydration products determines variations in corrosion resistance.
\nCorrosion resistance of the alkali-activated slag cement concretes in organic environments is dependent upon an alkali-activated cement composition, character of pore structure of the resulted concrete as well as reactivity of aggressive environments.
\nCorrosion resistance expressed by Kr was measured on the specimens made from alkali-activated and portland cement concretes 24 months after immersion in hydrocarbon media (kerosene, diesel, mineral oil, petroleum) and water as reference medium (Kr24) (Table 8). A conclusion was drawn that corrosion resistance of the alkali-activated cement concretes was higher than that of portland cement concretes. This is explained by formation of the concrete structure with the lower capillary porosity and continuation of hydration processes in the alkali-activated cement in organic environments [19].
\nAggressive environment | \nVariations of Kr24 after storage in the conditions of full immersion of concrete specimens made from | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|
Name | \npH | \nAcidity measured by titration (mol/l) | \nAlkali-activated cement | \nPortland cement | \n
Gasoline | \n– | \n0.0005 | \n0.98…0.99 | \n0.98…0.99 | \n
Benzene (benzole) | \n– | \n0.0007 | \n0.96…1.00 | \n0.70…0.90 | \n
Kerosene | \n– | \n0.0008 | \n0.92…0.99 | \n0.60…0.78 | \n
Mineral oil | \n– | \n0.0011 | \n0.64…0.96 | \n0.50…0.70 | \n
Diesel | \n– | \n0.0009 | \n0.72…0.94 | \n0.50…0.67 | \n
Sulphur-bearing crude | \n– | \n0.0013 | \n0.5…0.97 | \n0.56…0.40 | \n
Animal fat | \n– | \n0.0500 | \n0.56…0.97 | \nDestroyed | \n
Solution of sugar 30% concentration | \n– | \n0.0100 | \n0.68…1.18 | \n0.30…0.64 | \n
Pickle (saline) solution of meat processing factory | \n– | \n– | \n0.68…1.18 | \n0.30…0.64 | \n
Acetic acid of 10% concentration | \n2.80 | \n– | \n0.25…0.45 | \n0.15…0.24 | \n
Milk acid of 10% concentration | \n3.45 | \n– | \n0.3…0.79 | \n0.20…0.35 | \n
Resistance of fine aggregate alkali-activated cement and portland cement concretes in various organic environments after 24 months.
Depending upon the alkaline activator used, resistance of the alkali-activated cement concretes in aggressive petroleum environments increases in the following sequence: NaOH > soda-alkali melt (by-product of chemical industry) > Na2CO3 > Na2SiO3 > Na2O2SiO2.
\nHigh-molecular organic environments are less aggressive for the alkali-activated cement concretes. After 24 months of storage of the specimens in pickle (saline) solution, animal fat and 30% concentration solution of sugar, the resistance was more than by three times higher compared to that of portland cement concrete.
\nResistance of the alkali-activated cement concrete in low-molecular compounds (glycerine, acetic and milk acids) is comparable to that of portland cement concrete and somewhat exceeds it. This may be attributed to the lower solubility of hydration products of the alkali-activated cements and lack of Ca(OH)2, high-basic calcium silicate and aluminate hydrates in the hydration products.
\nThus, on the contrary to conventional cements, the alkali-activated cements exhibit the higher physico-mechanical properties such as strength, water permeability, corrosion resistance. The alkali-activated cements possess a complex of the above properties and can be classified as cements with polyfunctional properties.
\nCapability with regard to biodegradability and bio-fouling was tested according to the following: the specimens were stored in solution of sulphuric acid (pH = 3–4) [20].
\nAfter exposure to aggressive environment, the concrete specimens were tested to determine compressive and flexural strength characteristics.
\nWhen a ratio of strength after testing to that before testing is higher than 0.8, the cements are classified as corrosive resistant cements. Test results are given in Table 9.
\nConcrete class | \nCompressive/flexural strength (MPa) after | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3 months | \n6 months | \n9 months | \n||||
Normal curing | \nIn sulphuric acid | \nNormal curing | \nIn acid solution | \nNormal curing | \nIn sulphuric acid | \n|
C45/50 | \n53.4/11.4 | \n50.5/10.7 | \n54.7/9.6 | \n60.6/11.1 | \n60.7/10.6 | \n55.6/10.5 | \n
C100/115 | \n122.6/12.1 | \n105.4/11.0 | \n113.1/10.3 | \n93.2/12.1 | \n115.8/12.0 | \n105.8/12.0 | \n
Strength variations after exposure of aggressive environment.
From given results, both concretes under study showed stability of strength properties even after storage in aggressive environment for 9 months. So, it is clear that the alkali-activated slag concretes are resistant to biodegradability and bio-fouling.
\nReplacement of portland cement with blast-furnace slag suppresses chloride diffusion in the hardened cement pastes, mortars and concretes [20]. Other study [5] has indicated that the addition of alkalis to blended portland slag cement not only increased cement strength but also decreased chloride diffusion in the cement paste significantly (Figure 2). The other clear trend is that diffusion rate of chloride decreases with increase in slag substitution.
\nThe developed diffusion cell test is often used to measure the apparent diffusivity of Cl− through hardened cement pastes and concrete. Chloride diffusion test on both the F-cement (a variety of alkali-activated cement) and portland cement pastes indicated that the diffusion rate of Cl− through F-cement pastes is about 30–40 times slower than that through portland cement pastes for a given water-to-cement or water-to-slag ratio (Table 10). It was also noticed that cracks of 10–50 microns wide, induced by drying below 50% relative humidity, did not show any influence on the Cl− diffusion rate of the specimens. However, the specimens with cracks wider than 50 microns running through the specimens had much higher Cl− diffusion rate [20].
\nEffect of alkaline activation on chloride diffusion in portland slag cement.
Nos | \nCement paste | \nWater to cement (slag) ratio | \nDiffusion coefficient (cm2/s) | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nPortland cement | \n0.23 | \n321 × 10−12 | \n
2 | \nAlkali-activated slag cement | \n0.23 | \n75 × 10−12 | \n
3 | \nPortland cement | \n0.35 | \n6390 × 10−12 | \n
4 | \nAlkali-activated slag cement | \n0.35 | \n240 × 10−12 | \n
Chloride permeability test results of various cements [20].
Age | \nVoltage—30 V; time—24 h | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No | \nI0/mA | \nT0/ | \nIf/mA | \nTf/ | \nL/cm | \nDfucc/×10−12 | \n|
3 days | \nCH1 | \n21.9 | \n23.8 | \n17.8 | \n22.5 | \n1.33 | \n2.91 | \n
CH2 | \n29.1 | \n23.7 | \n28.0 | \n21.4 | \n1.53 | \n3.37 | \n|
CH3 | \n29.5 | \n23.5 | \n19.2 | \n22.2 | \n1.55 | \n3.42 | \n|
Mean | \n\n | 3.23 | \n|||||
7 days | \nCH1 | \n22.8 | \n25.9 | \n16.4 | \n23.7 | \n1.27 | \n2.78 | \n
CH2 | \n18.6 | \n25.8 | \n15.8 | \n23.6 | \n1.22 | \n2.67 | \n|
CH3 | \n23.6 | \n25.5 | \n21.7 | \n23.8 | \n1.37 | \n3.01 | \n|
Mean | \n\n | 2.82 | \n|||||
28 days | \nCH1 | \n16.8 | \n24.2 | \n20.3 | \n22.8 | \n0.81 | \n1.71 | \n
CH2 | \n19.4 | \n24.1 | \n16.4 | \n22.8 | \n0.79 | \n1.66 | \n|
CH3 | \n21.7 | \n23.9 | \n20.8 | \n22.7 | \n1.04 | \n2.53 | \n|
Mean | \n\n | 1.71 | \n
Chlorine ions diffusion parameters [20].
Notes: I0, T0, initial current (T); If, Tf—final current (T); L—diffuse depth; Dfucc—diffusion coefficient.
Analysis of the obtained results showed that all concretes had good resistance to chloride ions penetration. According to ASTM standard, such properties are characteristic of exclusively for polymer concretes. Thus, it is possible to predict high durability of all tested concretes.
\nDependences between chloride diffusion and age of concrete are shown in Table 11.
\nA key factor affecting durability of a cement stone is its pore structure which determines, in particular, its freeze-thaw resistance. For example, frost destruction of water-saturated portland cement stone takes place, chiefly, during spasmodic freezing of microcapillary water during a period starting from ice formation and until T = 253 K.
\nFrost destruction of the water-saturated alkali-activated cement stone occurs when the remaining portions of microcapillary moisture get frozen at temperatures below T = 223 K.
\nAt temperatures of 243 K, the alkali-activated cement stone is subjected to residual deformations; after cooling to T = 233 K, the residual deformations were 0.01 mm/m, after cooling to T = 213 K—0.15 mm/m (Figure 3) or of about 10% of residual deformations after freezing to 173 K and thawing [21].
\nDeformations of alkali-activated slag cement concrete (water-to-slag ratio = 0.3) under attacks of freezing-thawing:
Differences in mechanism of temperature-induced deformations of the water-saturated portland cement and alkali-activated cement stones are attributed to the presence in the capillaries of the latter of true solutions of strong electrolytes, the lowering of the freezing temperature and promoting step-by-step removal of water due to freezing. Mechanism of water removal from a pore space of the alkali-activated cement stone is different from that in portland cement stone, thus determining a difference in the rate of their deformations in the process of cooling and heating. Pore liquid in portland cement stone capillaries gets frozen spasmodically with elimination of meniscus and in the capillaries of the alkali-activated cement stone step-by-step, with maintaining the meniscus in a frozen state, resulted in the lowering of temperature of precipitation (settling-out) of eutectic mixtures.
\nA freezing temperature of pore liquid is largely determined by a type of alkaline activator. For example, in case of potash a freezing temperature of the eutectic mixture is 237 K, in case of soda only 270.9 K. The other reason causing different behaviour of the frozen water-saturated specimens from portland cement and alkali-activated slag cement concretes is attributed to specific features of their pore structure; in particular, the alkali-activated cement stone is characteristic of the increased microcapillary porosity.
\nA temperature of ice formation in the alkali-activated cement concretes is shifted to the region of the lower temperatures, since contents of fine pores (3–8 nm) in the alkali-activated cement stone are somewhat higher than those in portland cement concrete.
\nThe alkali-activated cement concretes made with soluble sodium silicates have the highest freeze-thaw resistance, high density and strength. Their freeze-thaw resistance, depending upon production technology and other factors affecting strength characteristics, is 300–1300 cycles [22].
\nAlternate (cyclic) wetting-drying, carbon dioxide and temperature variations are among factors associated with weather exposure.
\nLong-term cyclic wetting-drying will increase irreversible shrinkage deformations and deterioration of the concrete structure and may cause in the future loss of its load carrying ability.
\nAlternate wetting-drying of the alkali-activated cement concretes has no effect on its compressive strength: after 50 cycles of wetting-drying, a compressive strength of the alkali-activated cement concrete made with sodium carbonate of technical grade (commercial product) in solution has lowered by 4%, with sodium metasilicate—by 1.5% [13].
\nStrength properties of the alkali-activated cement concrete exposed to alternating atmospheric conditions can be improved through regulation of rate of crystallization of a gel phase, adjustment of the hydration product phase composition and directed synthesis of the materials with a required pore structure The influence of these factors on durability of the artificial stone is evident and may be taken in account in choosing the appropriate process parameters for manufacture of the alkali-activated cement concrete with desired physico-mechanical characteristics.
\nWeather resistance was tested according to the prescribed testing procedure [23]. The specimens were immersed in water for 4 h and then dried at temperatures of 378–383 K for 15 h.
\nThree characteristics were studied: compressive and flexural strength and mass changes after testing. Test results are given in Tables 12 and 13.
\nSample No | \nDrying-wetting | \nNormal curing | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C70/85 | \nC100/115 | \nC70/85 | \nC100/115 | \n|||||
Flex. | \nComp. | \nFlex. | \nComp. | \nFlex. | \nComp. | \nFlex. | \nComp. | \n|
After 75 cycles (MPa) | \n||||||||
Sample no 1 | \n8.2 | \n76.9 | \n11.0 | \n116.3 | \n9.9 | \n50.9 | \n10.8 | \n103.0 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n7.1 | \n75.6 | \n9.9 | \n113.8 | \n9.8 | \n46.4 | \n11.7 | \n110.1 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n6.4 | \n74.5 | \n10.0 | \n116.3 | \n9.0 | \n48.1 | \n11.2 | \n105.3 | \n
Mean strength | \n7.2 | \n75.7 | \n10.3 | \n115.5 | \n9.6 | \n48.5 | \n11.2 | \n106.1 | \n
After 100 cycles (MPa) | \n||||||||
Sample no 1 | \n8.7 | \n88.1 | \n11.4 | \n115.1 | \n9.5 | \n51.3 | \n11.6 | \n113.1 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n8.5 | \n87.1 | \n12.1 | \n117.8 | \n9.1 | \n52.3 | \n11.8 | \n108.5 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n7.6 | \n88.2 | \n12.1 | \n115.6 | \n9.7 | \n58.0 | \n11.8 | \n110.2 | \n
Mean strength | \n8.3 | \n87.8 | \n11.9 | \n116.1 | \n9.4 | \n53.9 | \n11.7 | \n110.6 | \n
After 150 cycles (MPa) | \n||||||||
Sample no 1 | \n7.4 | \n83.3 | \n11.1 | \n119.1 | \n8.2 | \n48.9 | \n11.9 | \n112.9 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n7.8 | \n79.3 | \n10.4 | \n120.9 | \n10.1 | \n44.2 | \n11.9 | \n113.6 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n8.5 | \n83.3 | \n11.5 | \n117.3 | \n8.5 | \n46.7 | \n11.6 | \n110.7 | \n
Mean strength | \n7.9 | \n82.0 | \n11.0 | \n119.1 | \n8.9 | \n46.6 | \n11.8 | \n112.4 | \n
After 200 cycles (MPa) | \n||||||||
Sample no 1 | \n9.2 | \n86.7 | \n11.0 | \n110.1 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
Sample no 2 | \n8.2 | \n92.2 | \n11.5 | \n125.1 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
Sample no 3 | \n8.1 | \n85.1 | \n9.0 | \n112.4 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
Mean strength | \n8.5 | \n88.0 | \n11.3 | \n113.9 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n |
Residual strength characteristics of alkali-activated slag cements concretes vs. curing conditions.
Test results showed that both concretes passed 200 cycles without any sign of deterioration.
\nWearing can be classified into three categories: abrasion, erosion and cavitation [20].
\nSpecific features of wear in abrasion of the alkali-activated cement stone are attributed to its mineralogical and phase compositions, size of crystals and specific surface of a solid phase. Due to intensive processes of structure formation, a time-based approach to assessment of this characteristic was applied.
\nTests were carried out according to a standard procedure on cube specimens (70 × 70 × 70 mm). A standard river sand was used as an abrasive material. Wear in abrasion was expressed as changes of mass and linear dimensions of the specimens subjected to wear. The results of wear in abrasion of the alkali-activated slag cement concrete are reported in (Table 14) [24].
\n\n | C70/85 | \nC100/115 | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
Before | \nAfter | \nBefore | \nAfter | \n|
After 75 cycles (g) | \n||||
Sample no 1 | \n559.0 | \n558.0 | \n562.0 | \n560.0 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n561.0 | \n560.0 | \n562.0 | \n556.0 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n563.0 | \n563.0 | \n570.0 | \n564.0 | \n
Mean mass | \n561.0 | \n560.3 | \n564.7 | \n560.0 | \n
Mass change (%) | \n0.125 | \n0.832 | \n||
After 100 cycles (g) | \n||||
Sample no 1 | \n553.0 | \n555.0 | \n562.0 | \n559.0 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n564.0 | \n567.0 | \n578.0 | \n571.0 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n558.0 | \n561.0 | \n573.0 | \n573.0 | \n
Mean mass | \n558.3 | \n561.0 | \n571.0 | \n567.7 | \n
Mass change (%) | \n−0.484 | \n0.578 | \n||
After 150 cycles (g) | \n||||
Sample no 1 | \n554.0 | \n555.0 | \n578.0 | \n572.0 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n553.0 | \n554.0 | \n563.0 | \n555.0 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n555.0 | \n558.0 | \n571.0 | \n561.0 | \n
Mean mass | \n554.0 | \n555.7 | \n570.7 | \n562.7 | \n
Mass change (%) | \n−0.307 | \n1.402 | \n||
After 200 cycles (g) | \n||||
Sample no 1 | \n567.0 | \n562.0 | \n573.0 | \n568.0 | \n
Sample no 2 | \n564.0 | \n559.0 | \n566.0 | \n561.0 | \n
Sample no 3 | \n562.0 | \n556.0 | \n562.0 | \n560.0 | \n
Mean mass | \n564.3 | \n559.0 | \n567.0 | \n563.0 | \n
Mass change (%) | \n0.939 | \n0.705 | \n
Mass changes of alkali-activated slag cement concretes.
Wear resistance of the alkali-activated slag cement concrete decreases with its compressive strength increase. This dependence can be approximated to a linear one and described by the following expression [25]:
where
Sodium carbonate | \nSodium silicate | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Normal conditions | \nSteam curing | \nNormal conditions | \nSteam curing | \n||||
Compressive strength (MPa) | \nWear in abrasion (g/cm2) | \nCompressive strength (MPa) | \nWear in abrasion (g/cm2) | \nCompressive strength (MPa) | \nWear in abrasion (g/cm2) | \nCompressive strength (MPa) | \nWear in abrasion (g/cm2) | \n
35.0 | \n0.470 | \n33.0 | \n0.550 | \n37.5 | \n0.462 | \n40.0 | \n0.497 | \n
37.0 | \n0.437 | \n34.0 | \n0.547 | \n44.5 | \n0.441 | \n42.0 | \n0.484 | \n
47.5 | \n0.450 | \n41.0 | \n0.540 | \n59.5 | \n0.465 | \n61.5 | \n0.455 | \n
52.5 | \n0.394 | \n48.5 | \n0.490 | \n65.0 | \n0.420 | \n64.0 | \n0.418 | \n
54.5 | \n0.420 | \n51.0 | \n0.470 | \n66.5 | \n0.377 | \n67.5 | \n0.423 | \n
62.0 | \n0.358 | \n59.0 | \n0.453 | \n80.0 | \n0.379 | \n83.5 | \n0.362 | \n
67.5 | \n0.330 | \n60.5 | \n0.430 | \n88.5 | \n0.368 | \n89.5 | \n0.375 | \n
Wear in abrasion of alkali-activated slag cement concretes vs. compressive and curing conditions.
Wear in abrasion of the alkali-activated cement concrete tends to reduce with time, especially until the age of 180 days, that is, during a period of intensive structure formation. Analyzing the results of measurements of wear of the alkali-activated cement concrete specimens for a period of 24 months suggested to reveal a correlation between age of the alkali-activated cement concrete and express it mathematically [24]:
where
Correlation between the rate of cavitation-induced degradation of various concretes vs. compressive
The alkali-activated cement concretes exhibit not only high wear resistance in normal service conditions, but are resistant to cavitation damage (Figure 4). Cavitation resistance of the alkali-activated cement concrete, expressed as specific mass change of the concrete per unit of time (measured rate of deterioration, cm3/h), correlates well with strength characteristics and is described by a hyperbolic-type equation.
\nCavitation-induced wear (cavitation damage) on concrete surface is most common in case of spillway in dams. This leads to cracks on the concrete surface which further increases the risk of damage to concrete due to sulphate attack, freeze-thaw, alkali-silica reaction and other means. Cavitation damage occurs on concrete surface when discontinuity or irregularities is encountered in the path of high velocity water flow.
\nAccording to Ref. [16], cavitation resistance of the alkali-activated cement concrete structures working in the zones of wave-cut/break is higher than that of portland cement concretes. In high humidity service conditions, the alkalis that are present in the alkali-activated cement stone allow for self-healing of the zones of stress concentrations and strengthening of the alkali-activated cement concrete due to “renewal” (re-start) of the processes of hydration and hardening resulting in densification of the concrete structure and filling of its defects (pores, etc.) with hydration products (Table 15).
\nCuring/exposure conditions | \nAlkali activated slag cement concrete | \nPortland cement concrete | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strength (MPa) | \nWear (cm3/h) | \nStrength (MPa) | \nWear (cm3/h) | \n|||
Compressive | \nTensile bending | \nCompressive | \nTensile bending | \n|||
28 days in normal conditions (after steam curing) | \n50.00 | \n4.00 | \n8.27 | \n40.50 | \n4.40 | \n6.36 | \n
39.00 | \n4.00 | \n9.11 | \n30.00 | \n2.80 | \n12.25 | \n|
180 days in sweet water | \n53.50 | \n6.14 | \n6.21 | \n43.00 | \n5.20 | \n6.21 | \n
41.50 | \n5.40 | \n7.38 | \n32.40 | \n3.30 | \n10.36 | \n|
180 days in sea water | \n55.60 | \n8.24 | \n5.42 | \n41.50 | \n4.13 | \n6.43 | \n
45.00 | \n7.23 | \n5.96 | \n28.60 | \n3.18 | \n11.34 | \n
Wear caused by cavitation (cavitation resistance) of alkali-activated cement and portland cement concretes vs. curing/exposure conditions.
Note: Fine aggregate alkali-activated slag cement concrete (soluble sodium carbonate as alkaline activator).
Thus, durability of the alkali-activated cement concretes, assessed in terms of endurance and wear resistance, is comparable and even exceeds that of portland cement concretes, especially in unfavourable (extremely severe) service conditions.
\nOne of the reasons associated with concrete durability is an alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR), which is a reaction between alkali of cement and alkali-susceptible aggregate. Rate of this reaction is determined by a type and quantity of alkalis, and type and content of reactive silica. In case of the alkali-activated cements, which contain alkalis in much higher contents compared to that of portland cements, this problem is important. For this, a number of research projects have been performed [26–28], which showed a possibility to keep the AAR under control with a so called “positive” effect. The results of study showed that it could be possible due to introduction into the cement or concrete composition of aluminate-containing additives, in the presence of which a destructive (“negative”) process of corrosion converts into a constructive (“positive”) one. This is attributed to binding of the corrosion products with the formation of the alkali-activated aluminosilicate hydrates according to the following scheme:
\nThe resulted compound forms a dense and strong cage (shell) around the aggregate thus preventing corrosion processes.
\nThis conclusion coincides well with the results of the following experiment: the metakaolin additive in a quantity of 15% was introduced into the cement composition to minimize influence of the destructive processes in the interfacial transition zone.
\nThe influence of additive type on expansion deformations is shown in Figure 5. As follows from Figure 5a, non-admissible high expansion deformations were observed in the concretes made from portland cement with the increased content of Na2O (1.3%) and from the alkali-activated portland cement with the Na2O content of 2.5% in which andesite rock was used as coarse aggregate.
\nInfluence of aggregate type (olivine, basalt, andesite) and metakaolin additive on deformations of the concrete specimens:
Corrosion products in the interfacial transition zone and microcracks occurring in the aggregates of the concretes made using portland cement with the increased contents of Na2O and the alkali-activated slag portland cement are clearly seen in the electron microscope images. On the contrary, the use of the alkali-activated cements is not at any risk, and the interfacial transition zone “cement stone—alkali-susceptible aggregate” remained clear.
\nThe introduction of the additive will allow to shift all concrete compositions not only from the zone of not allowable critical expansion and deterioration, but also from the zone of risk, not depending upon a cement type and aggregate type. The interfacial transition zone in this case is clear and without sign of corrosion. This may be attributed to the fact that conditions required for synthesis of alkaline zeolite-like aluminosilicate hydrates of the general formula Na2O⋅Al2O3⋅mSiO2⋅nH2O are created in the interfacial transition zone in the presence of reactive Al2O3 in a strongly alkaline medium, that is, the alkali starts to bind very quickly.
\nThe alkali-activated cement stone has low deformation expansions even without the metakaolin additive. This may be attributed to high contents of reactive Al2O3 in the glass phase of the slag.
\nTheoretical data in combination with those obtained experimentally that have been collected by a scientific school headed by Professor Viktor Glukhovsky (currently is headed by Professor Pavel Krivenko) allowed as early as in 1958 to launch first pilot scale production of the alkali-activated cement concrete products and to continue in 1962 with industrial-scale production of a number of concrete small-size building elements and structures.
\nThe majority of alkali-activated slag cement concrete structures manufactured in 1960s was intended for hydro-engineering, in particular, marine engineering application that work in extreme service conditions (corrosive exposure of running waters, alternate freezing-thawing in winter, wetting and drying in summer, etc).
\nRegular continuous observations over the alkali-activated cement concrete small-size building elements and structures showed their higher performance properties compared to those of portland cement concretes as reference (Tables 16–18).
\nFrom these tables, performance properties of these concretes tended to increase during the whole period under review. This may be attributed to permanent deepening of the hydration processes, resulted in the formation of low basic calcium silicate hydrates and zeolite-like water-resistant final products of the alkaline as well as mixed (alkaline- alkali earth) composition. Low water permeability and high resistance of the alkali-activated cement concretes in aggressive environments can be explained by nature of their hydration products [17, 29].
\nThe results of chemical analysis showed that quantities of free (unbound) alkalis in the alkali-activated cement concretes varied from 0.3 to 0.5%. A pH-index inside the alkali-activated slag cement concretes was 12.7–12.9. This is an evidence of presence in these concretes of an alkaline medium which is required for the further flow of processes of hardening in the alkali-activated cements as well as for passivation of reinforcement steel. The alkalis are released in very small quantities. This is attributed to the increased density of the alkali-activated slag cement concrete, closed porosity and nature of hydration products.
\nStructure (small-size building element) | \nMnfg year | \nAggregate | \nAlkaline activator | \nInitial strength (MPa) | \nTest results (1973) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Freeze/thaw resistance (cycles) | \nStrength (MPa) | \n|||||
Cast-in-situ facing concrete covering of main irrigation channel (under water level) | \n1962 | \nHeavy sandy loam | \nNa2CO3 | \n15 | \n900 | \n42.60 | \n
The same, above water | \n1962 | \nThe same | \nNa2CO3 | \n15 | \n900 | \n40.00 | \n
Pre-stressed precast concrete elements of irrigation system | \n1964 | \nSea sand (fineness modulus = 0.9…1.1) | \nNa2CO3 | \n25 | \n700 | \n59.50 | \n
Precast concrete piles | \n1964 | \nThe same | \nNa2CO3 | \n30 | \n600 | \n71.80 | \n
Cast-in-situ road pavement | \n1965 | \nThe same | \nNa2CO3 | \n10 | \n250 | \n47.60 | \n
Cast-in-situ breakwater massive elements | \n1965 | \nThe same | \nNa2CO3 | \n30 | \n570 | \n62.00 | \n
Prefabricated pavement slabs | \n1965 | \nThe same | \nNa2CO3 | \n25 | \n437 | \n67.00 | \n
Centrifuged pipes ( | \n1966 | \nRiver sand (fineness modulus = 1.65) | \nNa2CO3 | \n30 | \n– | \n83.00 | \n
Large-size wall blocks | \n1967 | \nWaste of shell rock | \nNa2CO3 | \n10 | \n300 | \n31.30 | \n
Performance properties of alkali-activated cement concretes after long-term service in various exposure conditions.
Type of concrete | \nDesign compressive strength (MPa) | \nCompressive strength (MPa) after exposure in sea water during | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 year | \n3 years | \n5 years | \n7 years | \n||
Slabs of embankment | \n|||||
Alkali activated slag cement (alkaline activator—sodium carbonate) | \n40.0 | \n40.0 | \n47.8 | \n53.8 | \n57.0 | \n
Portland cement | \n39.0 | \n39.0 | \n38.5 | \nDestroyed | \n|
Slabs immersed in sea water (under layer of biomass) | \n|||||
Alkali activated slag cement (alkaline activator—sodium carbonate) | \n40.0 | \n40.0 | \n59.6 | \n60.1 | \n61.4 | \n
Portland cement | \n39.0 | \n39.0 | \n47.6 | \n51.6 | \n50.0 | \n
Performance properties of alkali-activated cement slag concretes after service in sea water (Black Sea, Odessa, Ukraine).
Large-scale production of the alkali-activated cement concretes in the USSR showed their high efficiency. Cost savings (30–40%) were achieved due to the use of by-products and waste materials, as well as longer span of service life, especially in extreme conditions. These alkali-activated materials are in line with principles of global sustainable development: near-zero carbon dioxide emissions, low-energy consumption (no high temperature processes), preservation of natural resources, etc.
\nStructure (small-size building element) | \nAge of concrete (years) | \nWater permeability (MPa) | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Initial (1 month after placing) | \nAfter service | \n||
Cast-in-situ concrete facing of main irrigation channel (under water level) | \n12 | \n0.6 | \n1.8 | \n
Chutes, pre-stressed, precast Pre-stressed precast concrete elements of irrigation system | \n9 | \n1.0 | \n2.0 | \n
Massive (large-size) water breaks, precast blocks Cast-in-situ breakwater massive elements | \n8 | \n0.8 | \n2.0 | \n
Slabs in service under layer of biomass | \n8 | \n0.8 | \n2.0 | \n
The same, isolated from biomass | \n8 | \n0.8 | \n2.0 | \n
Water permeability of alkali-activated slag cement concretes after long-term service.
Numerous studies held on alkali-activated cement concretes supported by test results showed that they could work successfully with high efficiency in various structures withstanding extreme service conditions (alternate freezing-thawing, aggressive environments, dynamic and static loads, etc.). In their performance properties (freeze-thaw resistance, water permeability, corrosion resistance, etc.), the alkali-activated cement concretes are superior to portland cement ones and can be recommended for marine engineering applications, especially for so called “responsible use” structures that are in service in extreme weather conditions and under exposure of alternating loads and aggressive environments.
\nInduction of Labour (IOL) is one of the common obstetric procedures and or intervention encountered in maternity unit(s) all over the world [1]. Usually, the risk of continued pregnancy is far more detrimental to the mother or her unborn baby or both [1, 2]. Therefore, a balance in favour delivery is anticipated and planned with the anticipating mother using a woman centered approach [3, 4]. Decision for induction of labour should be led by the most experienced obstetrician on ground in consultation with the team managing such pregnancy. IOL will set up a cascade of events cumulating to the delivery of the baby and automatically elevates that pregnancy state to high risk [2]. These processes are important that they are closely monitored to end point and beyond.
The incidence of induction of labour varies between different settings and appears to be on the rise especially in developed countries. In the United States the rate of IOL is quoted to be approximately 30 percent [5]. While in the United Kingdom (UK) the recent maternity figures show an increase rate of 2.1% from the 29.4% in 2016–2017 to 31.6% in 2017–2018 [6] according to the Hospital Episode Statistics. This increase in induction rates in developed countries and particularly in the UK is attributed to improved diagnostic tools and better understanding of maternal medicine, advanced maternal age, and socioeconomic class variation [7, 8, 9]. The incidence of induction in Africa has been found to be below 10 percent in most settings. In a recent cross-sectional study to assess the prevalence, outcome and associated factors among women delivered at public hospitals in Ethiopia, Lueth et al. [10] reported a prevalence of 9% and failed IOL was responsible for 3.3% increase in caesarean section rates. Vogel et al. [11] in a secondary analysis of data for World Health Organization (WHO) global survey on maternal and neonatal health found that the unmet needs of IOL were between 60% and 80% with an average rate of IOL of 4.4%. In resource-constrained settings there is less capacity due to inadequate facilities, lack of trained staff and limited centers where safe caesarean sections can be performed on a 24 h basis.
In order to understand the concept of induction of labour, some key terms need to be clearly understood:
Labour diagnosis is one of the most important clinical judgements in maternity care and is much more important to understand its onset. However, the mechanisms involved in the onset of labour still remains blurred and why some women will reach postdate or post term without spontaneous onset of labour is elusive. Our narrow understanding of the mechanism of onset of labour makes IOL difficult [19]. Usually, a cascade of biochemical events heralds the onset of a complex well-regulated process that results in cervical ripening, occasional membrane rupture and high frequency myometrial contraction that result in the expulsion of the fetoplacental unit [20].
The mechanism of spontaneous onset of labour has a fetal, placental/fetal membranes and maternal components that contribute to its onset via series of paracrine/autocrine hormones. Uterine quiescence that is maintained throughout pregnancy is switched off by the withdrawal of the functional inhibitory effect of progesterone via progesterone receptor (PR). There is an increase unbalance ratio of progesterone receptor key isoforms with more expression of progesterone receptor A (PR-A) compared with progesterone receptor B (PR-B) that increases with advancing gestational age and might also inhibit the PR-B genes. The overwhelming increased ratio of PR-A to PR-B may promote transcription of contractile protein CX43 [20, 21] and increase gap junctions’ formation in the myometrium [22]. Oxytocin receptors (OXTR) gradually increase with advancing gestational age which may directly increase intracellular calcium concentrations [23].
Prostaglandins (PG) play major roles in initiation and maintenance of uterine contraction via prostaglandin receptors. The prostaglandins that play major role in inducing myometrial contractility are prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) which induces intracellular calcium by opening calcium gated channels. Spontaneous labour is also associated with sterile inflammation with increase infiltration of leucocytes and upregulation of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, particularly interleukin 1B which increases expression of calcium transport protein. Though there are plethora of literatures toward the physiology of the onset of labour, its exact pathway remains elusive [20, 21, 22, 23].
The indication(s) for induction of labour should be weighed on the scale of clinical judgement to ascertain that the benefit(s) of delivery outweighs continuation or prolongation of such pregnancy. This decision should be taken seriously, and there should be shared decision between the managing clinicians and the woman as well as appropriate informed consent taken. Prior to informed consent there should be a dialogue on the primary indication for IOL and other contributory factors, risks and benefits, methods and rationale, and realistic expectations [24].
Indications [13, 25] | Contraindications [13, 25] ] confirmed |
---|---|
Post term >42 weeks Late term pregnancy/postdate 41 0–41 6 weeks Preeclampsia >37 weeks Eclampsia Chronic hypertension Gestational hypertension >38 weeks Twin gestation • Uncomplicated dichorionic twin pregnancy > 38 weeks • Uncomplicated monochorionic twin pregnancy > 36/37 weeks Diabetes in pregnancy or gestational diabetes Alloimmune disease near term or at term IUGR IUFD Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy Prelabour rupture of membrane at term or near term Preterm Prelabour rupture of membrane with GBS colonisation Oligohydramnios Chorioamnionitis Significant but stable antepartum haemorrhage Obstetric Cholestasis | Maternal refusal Prior classical, De Lee or inverted T incision Significant prior uterine surgery (e.g. full thickness myomectomy) Previous hysterotomy Two or more previous caesarean sections Previous uterine rupture Fetal malpresentation (e.g. transverse lie, footling breech) Placenta previa Vasa previa Cord presentation Active genital herpes Invasive cervical cancer |
Controversial | |
Prior IUFD Care giver or maternal request Suspected fetal macrosomia One previous caesarean section | Previous vesicovaginal fistula Previous OASIS |
Indication for induction of labour (Table 1).
The Bishop’s score is used to assess the pre-inductive state of the cervix and to forecast the favorability of the cervix to comply during IOL. IOL is highly likely to fail if it is embarked upon without a proper assessment of the woman and consideration of the bishop score. The cervix retains its firm rigidity throughout pregnancy. As the uterus enlarges, the cervix becomes softer and distensible in preparation for labour and delivery by ripening. Ripening is a complex series of biochemical processes that results in softening of the cervix, effacement, and dilation. This usually occurs prior to uterine contractions for both spontaneous and iatrogenic labour. The cervix is composed of fibroid connective tissue, collagen (type I, III predominately and a small amount of type IV), elastin, vasculature, fibroblast, and smooth muscle [25, 26].
Cervical remodelling is associated with increase vascularity, stromal and glandular hypertrophy. There is concomitant increase in inflammatory activities with production of cytokines which leads to the release of metalloproteases (2 and 9) that degrades cervical collagens. The extracellular matrix which is strengthened by proteoglycans is gradually reduced with an unbalanced increase in glycosaminoglycans. The remodelling of the cervix is associated with decreased cross-linkages between collagen helices which cumulates to increased compliance to softening, effacement, and dilation [26].
Various hormones are responsible for this complex interaction that leads to cervical ripening. Increase in cyclooxygenase −2 lead to rise in the level of local PGE2 and PGF2α. PGE2 will activate a series of reactions: increase dilatation of small vessels in the cervix, increase collagen degradation, increase in hyaluronic acid, increase chemotaxis for leucocytes and increase release of Interleukin −8. PGF2α stimulate an increase in glycosaminoglycans. The role of Nitric Oxide (NO) has been the focus on recent studies on its contribution to cervical ripening. Increased levels of induced Nitric Oxide Synthase (iNOS) activity by resident and migrating inflammatory cells is associated with cervical ripening by dramatic increase in NO. NO might play a role by increased activities of metalloproteases [27, 28, 29].
Dr. Edward Bishop in 1964 proposed a Prelabour scoring system to assess the likelihood of going into spontaneous labour [30]. It has now undergone several modifications to assess the favourability prior to IOL. The score is an aggregate sum of the cervical dilatation, consistency, effacement, position and fetal station [31]. A total score of 6 and above is considered favourable and score below that is deemed unfavourable. The Calder Modification replaces cervical effacement with cervical length with a total score of 12 [31, 32]. In a retrospective study [33] done recently to closely look at the relationship between bishop score and successful induction, a higher bishop score (8–10) at the beginning of IOL is directly proportional to the higher rates of successful IOL compared with bishop score between 6 and 7. There is recent evidence to show that the cervical length assessment by transvaginal ultrasound appear to be superior to the bishop score, however this is not a routine practice [34].
An induction check list is good clinical practice to ensure women are properly prepared, improve IOL success and prevent complications. Every maternity setting should have an IOL check list tailored to meet their local standard. A check list should have the patient’s biodata, informed consent, gestational age, indication for IOL, patient routine booking investigations, associated comorbidity, previous surgeries, and the bishop score. A recent ultrasound with estimated fetal weight - which also rules out any contraindication for vaginal delivery, an admission CTG and the method of cervical ripening and IOL with the responsible doctor’s name and signature should be clearly documented [35].
Cervical ripening and induction agents can be group into pharmacological, mechanical and combination of both. While some agents are intended to ripen the cervix before initiation of induction of labour, majority will progress to initiate uterine contractions. See Table 3.
Prostaglandins have gained wide acceptance as a cervical ripening and induction agent over the decade and is now considered a preferred agent for both. However, they are said to be associated with a small risk for tachysystole and fetal heart rate changes [36]. Misoprostol—a synthetic prostaglandin E1 analogue—is heat stable and low cost compared to Dinoprostone. This has seen its wide usage especially in low resource setting. Misoprostol availability is said to bring equity in the disparity of induction of labour between developed and resource constrained regions of the world and recently a low dose misoprostol preparation was approved for IOL in Nordic countries [37, 38]. The dosing and timing of misoprostol ranges 25–50 mcg every 2–6 h. However, in a study of balancing efficacy and safety, the minimum efficacious dose associated with less complication is 25 mcg [38], while the vaginal compared with the oral route appears to offer significant clinical advantage in successful vaginal delivery [39].
Dinoprostone is prostaglandin E2 that comes in two popular preparations as Cervidil, a control release hydrogel suppository 10 mg vaginal inserted every 12 h at 0.3 mg/h. and Prepidil administered as an intracervical gel of 0.5 mg/2.5 ml or 1 or 2 mg for intravaginal insertion every 4–6 h with a maximum of 3 doses in 24 h. Dinoprostone needs to be refrigerated and is relatively expensive for resource constrained settings [40, 41]. The International Federation of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (FIGO) recently established an expanded chart on the dosage of misoprostol in variety of Obstetric and Gynaecologic conditions in the light of new evidence and through expert contributions which has been endorsed by FIGO safe motherhood and newborn health committee (Table 4) [42].
Pharmacological | Mechanical | Combination |
---|---|---|
Prostaglandins
| Transcervical catheters
Stripping membrane Laminaria Cervical hygroscopic dilators Extra-amniotic saline infusion | Transcervical catheter + Prostaglandins Transcervical catheter + Oxytocin |
Cervical ripening and induction agents.
FIGO misoprostol-only recommended regimens 2017 [42] confirmed.
Oxytocin is a neuropeptide hormone produced by the hypothalamus via the paraventricular nuclei and stored in the posterior pituitary gland. It is secreted when triggered by labour, lactation, social interaction, and stressors. Oxytocin acts on the myometrium to induce uterine contractions via G-proteins with the subsequent release of intracellular calcium stores through a complex interplay on its activity on phospholipase C. Its potency is directly proportional with advancing gestational age when there are sufficient oxytocin receptors [43]. The synthetic oxytocin is a cyclic nonapeptide which is identical to the natural oxytocin obtained via chemical synthesis. Oxytocin acts within a minute of intravenous injection and 2–4 min via the intramuscular route. In a low dose infusion, it causes rhythmic uterine contractions with a repetitive pattern. It can cause sustained uterine contraction at high dose infusion. It reaches its steady state between 20 and 40 min during continuous infusion, and it is metabolised and cleared by the liver and kidneys with about 1 percent unchanged in the urine [43, 44].
Oxytocin might have plausible synergistic effect in cervical ripening, however its role as a cervical ripening agent is not well established [45]. There are still controversies on its optimal regimen for induction of labour with varied protocols in different settings. However, a low dose regimen initiated between 0.5 and 1 mU, and increased by 1 mU/min every 30–40 min interval is preferred over high dose regimen of 4–6 mU [44].
Maternal and Child Health (Obstetrics and Gynaecology Division) University of Namibia
Dosage
The dose of oxytocin is calculated using the formula: 10 units of oxytocin in 1000 ml of normal saline or ringers’ lactate is equivalent to 10,000 mU. Therefore, each ml (1 ml) of fluid mix is 10 mU. In 1000 ml give 6 ml/h (60 mU/h.)
Starting dose at 1 mU/min oxytocin infusion should be escalated at 30 min interval until adequate and strong contractions (3–4 lasting 40–50 s in 10 min) is established.
The 2 IU in 200 ml is recommended because it is cost effective with less water intoxication in resource constrained settings. Oxytocin dose of greater than 20 mU/min highlighted in red is to be administered only by a senior resident doctor or a specialist. Low dose oxytocin infusion should be administered by infusion pump, however in settings where there are no infusion pumps, a senior doctor should closely monitor the infusion at a rate of 10 drops/min in a diluent of concentration of 10 IU in 1000 ml escalated every 30 min maximum of 60 drops/min.
Preparation
Obtain informed consent for oxytocin induction and or augmentation of labour
Do a pre induction and or augmentation CTG before the onset of oxytocin
Continuous CTG is advised for all patients
Do haemoglobin and obtain blood for blood group and save serum
Do not administer oxytocin on a previous uterine scar except by a specialist instruction (such specialist should monitor the patient)
Clearly document the indication for oxytocin use in the labour care guide
Inform all the managing/incoming team/theatre staff/Anaesthetist
For induction of labour: use oxytocin only in patients with bishop score >6 and perform artificial rupture of membrane if the membranes are intact
Do not give oxytocin within 6 h of prostaglandin use
Monitoring
Continuous CTG
Escalate the dosage every 30 min after assessment of maternal condition, fetal condition, and uterine contraction
Maintain, reduce, or stop dose when adequate uterine contractions are achieved (3–4 contractions in 10 min lasting 40–50 s)
Use the labour care guide in monitoring all patients on oxytocin infusion
STOP oxytocin and give plain normal saline whenever there is uterine hyperactivity:
Tachysystole
Hypertonus
Hyperstimulation
The woman should adopt a left lateral position.
Consider supplemental oxygen, especially when there are signs of maternal hypoxia or category III CTG changes characterised by absent baseline variability with any of the following: recurrent late decelerations, recurrent variable decelerations, bradycardia, or sinusoidal pattern. Consider delivery if fetal heart rate abnormality persists.
Fetal rate abnormality may be the earliest sign of uterine rupture especially in patients on oxytocin infusion
After 4 h, stop infusion to reassess if there is any benefit of further infusion
The transcervical extra-amniotic catheters have been one of the oldest methods of cervical ripening and induction of labour [46]. The Foley catheter has a single balloon with a capacity between 30 and 80 ml that is inserted into the extra-amniotic space compared to the more recent Cook’s catheter with double balloons with one inserted into the extra-amniotic space as the uterine balloon and another below the cervix as the vaginal balloon with capacity of 80 ml for both [47]. In a Cochrane data base of systematic review of 23 studies [48], there were no statistically significant difference in comparing Foley catheter and prostaglandins in achieving vaginal delivery within 24 h with similar incidence of caesarean section rates. However, the transcervical Foley’s catheter had lower incidence of tachysystole and or fetal heart rate abnormalities [48].
In a randomised controlled trial comparing a 30 and 80 ml Foley catheter balloon for preinduction cervical ripening, 80 ml provided faster labour, more dilatation and decrease need for oxytocin [49]. However, no significant difference was found between 12- and 24-h duration in induction delivery interval [46]. Other additives like applying traction and weight to the catheter has demonstrated faster expulsion of the Foley without any effect on the induction delivery interval (Figure 1) [50].
Transcervical extra-amniotic Foley’s catheter [
A single transcervical Foley catheter without extra-amniotic saline has better patient satisfaction with less discomfort compared with the double balloon catheter and it is cost effective especially in resource constrained settings [51]. Recent evidence is suggesting that highly motivated women can use transcervical Foley balloon in an outpatient setting with no increase in morbidity and or adverse outcome [52].
One of the major concerns of transcervical balloon catheters is theoretical risk of infection. This risk has not been validated and the rates of puerperal and neonatal infection appear similar to other methods of induction [53, 54, 55].
Combination of mechanical and pharmacologic methods has been one of the recent advances in labour induction to increase efficiency and efficacy, reduce cost and reduce adverse effects of induction agents to the mother and her baby. The BIGIN trial was a randomised control trial that compared buccal versus vaginal misoprostol with Foley catheter. The vaginal misoprostol with Foley catheter resulted in a shorter induction delivery time with similar caesarean section rates, perinatal and maternal morbidity among both arms of the study. Therefore, vaginal misoprostol combination is recommended as the preferred method for combination method [56].
This is an old but reliable method of inducing cervical remodelling to comply with induction of labour. It is a mechanical method that involves a digital vaginal examination with the aim of placing one or two gloved fingers -usually the index and the middle - into the cervix and thereafter performing a circular sweeping motion. This is an artificial separation of the membrane that increases the activity of PGF2 and phospholipase which induces the complex cascade of cervical ripening [57]. In a recent Cochrane review [58], there is more likelihood to have spontaneous vaginal delivery among women who had their membranes swept. NICE guidelines on IOL recognised sweeping of membrane as an adjunct to formal induction [13]. Membrane sweeping can be offered to women from 39 weeks of gestation and thereafter additional membrane sweep could be offered at 40 and 41 weeks if there is no onset of spontaneous labour after the first membrane sweep [13]. There are concerns on the possibility of large doses of bacteria pushed above the internal os resulting in increased risk of maternal and fetal infection especially when there is a prolonged delay between membrane sweep and the onset of labour [57]. The role of cervical massage as an alternative method to membrane sweeping appears promising with significant effect on bishop score and can be considered as a reasonable option; especially if the cervical os is closed [59].
Laminaria are dried seaweed stems (Laminaria japonica or Laminaria digitalis) that can be placed in the cervix to induce cervical ripening by absorbing water and expanding to cause cervical dilation and provoke endogenous prostaglandin release [60, 61]. Dilapan-S (MEDICEM, the Netherlands) is a sterile hygroscopic cervical dilator that has demonstrated no increased risk of infection like the laminaria tents. They are polymer rods which consist of the dilating part made of hydrogel and a polypropylene handle. An international observation study has revealed that Dilapan-S has not increased the risk of hyperstimulation and may be used in an outpatient setting [61, 62].
Amniotomy can be used as an adjunct to induction of labour in a woman whose cervix is accessible and favourable. It is usually a prelude to oxytocin induction. However, in recent NICE guideline, it is not recommended as a sole method of induction with or without oxytocin except where prostaglandins are contraindicated [13, 61]. A recent randomised controlled trial has found that immediate oxytocin administration after AROM was not associated with shorter AROM to delivery time compared to delay of 4 h. Therefore, the decision to use any method should follow local protocols based on resources and maternal choice [63]. It is important to remember that there is a major risk of the cord prolapse with an unengaged presenting part.
Other methods of cervical ripening and induction of labour are yet to be clinically validated. Therefore, the use of mifepristone, acupuncture, homoeopathy, hypnotic relaxation, baths, enema, sexual intercourse, breast stimulation, intracervical hyaluronidase, relaxin, corticosteroids, and oestrogen need further research [64].
Certain obstetric conditions occur more commonly, therefore a brief overview of IOL in these conditions are highlighted.
Prolonged pregnancy is a loose term that applies to all pregnancy beyond estimated due date which comprises of postdate and post term pregnancy. It occurs in about 5–10% of all pregnancy and the rate is reduced to incidence of 2–5% with ultrasound dating in the first trimester. A better classification of term pregnancy underscores the importance of late term (41 0/7–41 6/7 and post term (42 0/7 and beyond) on uteroplacental insufficiency with increase perinatal morbidity and mortality. The risk of still birth, macrosomia, shoulder dystocia, birth injury, postpartum haemorrhage and meconium aspiration syndrome are higher at late term and post term compared with early term (37 0/7–38 6/7) and full term (39 0/7–40 6/7) [13, 65]. Therefore, NICE guidelines and WHO recommends IOL at 41 weeks and beyond. In the rare circumstances when the woman declines IOL beyond 42 weeks, she should have twice weekly CTG and ultrasound and be counselled based on findings [1, 13]. Neonatal outcome did not improve following IOL at 39 weeks compared with expectant management in a multicenter trial (ARRIVE) in the United States, however the rate of caesarean section was lower in the intervention arm [66].
Hypertension complicates about 10% of pregnancies and remains one of the major causes of perinatal and maternal morbidity and mortality [67, 68]. Preeclampsia is considered a severe form of hypertension in pregnancy with an incidence of 2–5% of all hypertensions in pregnancy. Early onset (<34 weeks) and preterm preeclampsia (<37 weeks) could present with severe disease to prompt immediate delivery [68]. Following the HYPITAT Trial I, women with gestational hypertension or preeclampsia at term should be offered delivery. While HYPITAT II trial, recommends that non severe hypertension between 34 and 37 weeks should be delivered at 37 weeks [69, 70].
The rupture of amniotic sac before the onset of labour is termed as prelabour rupture of membrane which can occur before (preterm prelabour rupture of membrane) or after 37 weeks of gestation (term prelabour rupture of membrane) [71]. Preterm (24/0–36/6) prelabour rupture of membrane (PPROM) complicates about 3% of pregnancies and is responsible for about 30–40% of preterm births. The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists recommend conservative management for uncomplicated PPROM to 37 weeks. Prelabour rupture of membrane should be offered delivery after 37 weeks if it occurs and there is no onset of labour within 24 h or when PPROM is complicated by infection [72]. The induction method can either be by prostaglandin or oxytocin, however, the Bishop Score should be made favourable before such induction is embarked upon.
Hyperglycaemia is considered as one of the most common medical conditions in pregnancy with one in every 6 live births occurring in women with some degree of hyperglycaemia. Gestational Diabetes Mellitus is the most common type, and it is responsible for 84% of hyperglycaemia in pregnancy. There are higher incidences of perinatal and maternal morbidities and mortalities among pregnant women with any form of hyperglycaemia. A balance of glycaemic control and fetal maturity should be weighed to consider the timing of delivery. FIGO recommends delivery for women at 40–41 weeks for a well-controlled hyperglycaemia with fetal weight of <3800 g while delivery via induction is recommended at 38–39 weeks for poorly controlled hyperglycaemia with babies that are between 3800 and 4000 g. Elective caesarean section is the preferred delivery mode for babies weighing 4000 g and above [73].
The high rates of uterine rupture in patients with previous caesarean section is well established. There is a 2–3 times higher risk of uterine rupture in patient induced or augmented with previous caesarean section. This risk should be understood by both the physician preferably, a senior obstetrician, and the patient before undergoing induction or augmentation of labour in women with previous caesarean section. The risk of uterine rupture is lower with mechanical methods (Foley catheter and amniotomy) compared with prostaglandins [74].
Improving the efficiency of uterine contractions by increasing the frequency, duration, and intensity in women with inadequate or uncoordinated uterine contractions of spontaneous onset to reduce or prevent adverse outcome for the babies and their mother associated with prolonged labour is best describe as augmentation [75, 76]. The term AOL is loosely applied to women undergoing induction of labour, but this is a misnomer because contractions in induction of labour are not of spontaneous onset. The decision to augment the labour process should be carefully and meticulously evaluated after a thorough history and examination excluding any cephalopelvic disproportion and establishing that the cause of unsatisfactory progress of cervical dilatation and descent of the presenting part is solely the problems of power. Every local maternity setting should have a protocol of AOL using oxytocin infusion which is usually the same strength and frequency with induction protocol (see Table 5). Low dose oxytocin regimen is favoured because of less complications related to augmentation [76]. AROM can be considered as a sole method AOL because it enhances uterine contractions by increasing plasma prostaglandins, however the effectiveness of AROM appears to be debatable [77, 78].
Oxytocin regimens | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Time from start (min) | Oxytocin dose (mU/min) | Volume of infusion (ml/h) | |||
10 IU in 500 ml | 10 IU in 1000 ml | 2 IU in 200 ml | 10 IU in 1000 ml Without infusion set | ||
0 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 6 | 10 drops |
30 | 2 | 6 | 12 | 12 | 20 drops |
60 | 4 | 12 | 24 | 24 | 30 drops |
90 | 8 | 24 | 48 | 48 | 40 drops |
120 | 12 | 36 | 72 | 72 | 50 drops |
150 | 16 | 48 | 96 | 96 | 60 drops |
180 | 20 | 60 | 120 | 120 | |
210 | 24 | 72 | 144 | 144 | |
240 | 28 | 84 | 168 | 168 | |
270 | 32 | 96 | 192 | 192 |
Low dose oxytocin infusion for induction and augmentation of labour. Version (1.0) 2021.
Oxytocin dose of greater than 20 mU/min highlighted in red can only be administer by a specialist or a senior resident doctor.
Prior to preforming AROM, an informed consent is necessary, and patient should be informed of the benefits of AROM and the possible complications therein and the fetal heart rate is checked. AROM can be performed with an Amniotomy finger cot (Amnicot) or Amniotomy hook (AmniHook) or a spinal needle for control release of amniotic fluid. The woman adopts a supine position and flexes her hips and knees (frog legged), or it can be done in the lithotomy position. A sterile glove finger is introduced using the dominant hand to performed vaginal examination and noting the cervical dilatation, effacement, position, station and to exclude cord presentation and possible vasa previa is noted. During the vaginal examination the amniotic perforator can be introduced with the non-dominant hand and the tip of the amniotomy hook is pushed against the sac with the index and middle finger guiding it and pull back. With successful rupture of membrane, the examining fingers should be held back to exclude cord prolapse and the amniotic fluid should be assessed for volume, colour, smell or particle within. It is good practice to recheck fetal heart and observe the woman closely for any vaginal bleeding [75, 76, 79]. For control release with spinal needle a bivalved speculum is required.
Artificial contractions are said to be more painful than spontaneous ones, more so the intensity and the duration might be more exaggerated than natural contractions. Therefore, the rates of complications associated with artificial uterine contractions are multiple folds compared with contractions from spontaneous onset [13]. The complications of IOL and AOL could range from tachysystole, hypertonus or an outright tachysystole with fetal heart rate abnormalities, placenta abruption or uterine rupture [80, 81] which occur in about 1–5% of women undergoing IOL. It is estimated that IOL could fail in 15% of patient with unfavourable cervix [81]. Both IOL and AOL could result in cord prolapse following AROM. There is a tendency of increasing the risk of infection, operative vaginal delivery and increased caesarean section rate [80] in women undergoing IOL. Poor childbirth experience was encountered in about 4.5% of patient undergoing IOL in a recent study to assess maternal childbirth experience [82]. The risk of primary post-partum haemorrhage in patients undergoing IOL is well documented [83]. Fetal complications can be in the form of fetal distress, meconium stained liquor and neonatal jaundice. Litigation from the abuse of oxytocin has been enormous in the past decade globally [84].
There is an increased rate of IOL especially across developed countries, however the unmet need for IOL in developing countries is bridged by the availability of misoprostol and Foley’s catheter at cost effective rates. Timely and appropriate IOL can lead to reduction in perinatal and maternal morbidity and mortality. Therefore, there is need for obstetricians and physicians that provide care in women’s health to keep abreast with the best external available evidence on the subject matter. It is important to employ the concept of respectful maternity in the pre-induction, induction, and post induction phase to improve outcomes, reduce litigations and enhance women satisfaction. A diagnosis of failed induction does not translate to automatic caesarean section if the fetal and maternal conditions are adjudged to be normal and stable; a pause and restart can be initiated after 24–48 h with lower threshold for intervention in the second cycle.
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This chapter aimed at providing some basic and fundamental properties of ceria, the importance of oxygen vacancies in this material, nano‐size effects and various synthesis strategies to form diverse structural morphologies. Finally, some key applications of ceria‐based nanostructures are reviewed. 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Marquis, Éric Guillaume and Carine Chivas-Joly",authors:[{id:"44307",title:"Dr",name:"Damien",middleName:"Michel",surname:"Marquis",slug:"damien-marquis",fullName:"Damien Marquis"},{id:"44317",title:"Prof.",name:"Carine",middleName:null,surname:"Chivas-Joly",slug:"carine-chivas-joly",fullName:"Carine Chivas-Joly"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71103",title:"Preparation of Nanoparticles",slug:"preparation-of-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:3229,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Innovative developments of science and engineering have progressed very fast toward the synthesis of nanomaterials to achieve unique properties that are not the same as the properties of the bulk materials. The particle reveals interesting properties at the dimension below 100 nm, mostly from two physical effects. The two physical effects are the quantization of electronic states apparent leading to very sensitive size-dependent effects such as optical and magnetic properties and the high surface-to-volume ratio modifies the thermal, mechanical, and chemical properties of materials. The nanoparticles’ unique physical and chemical properties render them most appropriate for a number of specialist applications.",book:{id:"9109",slug:"engineered-nanomaterials-health-and-safety",title:"Engineered Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Engineered Nanomaterials - Health and Safety"},signatures:"Takalani Cele",authors:[{id:"305934",title:"Dr.",name:"Takalani",middleName:null,surname:"Cele",slug:"takalani-cele",fullName:"Takalani Cele"}]},{id:"72636",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",slug:"nanocomposite-materials",totalDownloads:2197,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Nanocomposites are the heterogeneous/hybrid materials that are produced by the mixtures of polymers with inorganic solids (clays to oxides) at the nanometric scale. Their structures are found to be more complicated than that of microcomposites. They are highly influenced by the structure, composition, interfacial interactions, and components of individual property. Most popularly, nanocomposites are prepared by the process within in situ growth and polymerization of biopolymer and inorganic matrix. With the rapid estimated demand of these striking potentially advanced materials, make them very much useful in various industries ranging from small scale to large to very large manufacturing units. With a great deal to mankind with environmental friendly, these offer advanced technologies in addition to the enhanced business opportunities to several industrial sectors like automobile, construction, electronics and electrical, food packaging, and technology transfer.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Mousumi Sen",authors:[{id:"310218",title:"Dr.",name:"Mousumi",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"mousumi-sen",fullName:"Mousumi Sen"}]},{id:"38951",title:"Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrode",slug:"carbon-nanotube-transparent-electrode",totalDownloads:4028,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3077",slug:"syntheses-and-applications-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",title:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",fullTitle:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites"},signatures:"Jing Sun and Ranran Wang",authors:[{id:"153508",title:"Prof.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"jing-sun",fullName:"Jing Sun"},{id:"153596",title:"Ms.",name:"Ranran",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"ranran-wang",fullName:"Ranran Wang"}]},{id:"49413",title:"Electrodeposition of Nanostructure Materials",slug:"electrodeposition-of-nanostructure-materials",totalDownloads:3753,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"We are conducting a multi-disciplinary research work that involves development of nanostructured thin films of semiconductors for different applications. Nanotechnology is widely considered to constitute the basis of the next technological revolution, following on from the first Industrial Revolution, which began around 1750 with the introduction of the steam engine and steelmaking. Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization, production, and application of materials, devices and systems by controlling shape and size of the nanoscale. The nanoscale itself is at present considered to cover the range from 1 to 100 nm. All samples prepared in thin film forms and the characterization revealed their nanostructure. The major exploitation of thin films has been in microelectronics, there are numerous and growing applications in communications, optical electronics, coatings of all kinds, and in energy generation. A great many sophisticated analytical instruments and techniques, largely developed to characterize thin films, have already become indispensable in virtually every scientific endeavor irrespective of discipline. Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). The metal ions themselves derive either from metal salts added to solution, or by the anodic dissolution of the so-called sacrificial anodes, made of the same metal that is to be deposited at the cathode.",book:{id:"4718",slug:"electroplating-of-nanostructures",title:"Electroplating of Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Electroplating of Nanostructures"},signatures:"Souad A. M. Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"71346",title:"Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement",slug:"application-of-nanomaterials-in-environmental-improvement",totalDownloads:1756,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"In recent years, researchers used many scientific studies to improve modern technologies in the field of reducing the phenomenon of pollution resulting from them. In this chapter, methods to prepare nanomaterials are described, and the main properties such as mechanical, electrical, and optical properties and their relations are determined. The investigation of nanomaterials needed high technologies that depend on a range of nanomaterials from 1 to 100 nm; these are scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffractions (XRD). The applications of nanomaterials in environmental improvement are different from one another depending on the type of devices used, for example, solar cells for producing clean energy, nanotechnologies in coatings for building exterior surfaces, and sonochemical decolorization of dyes by the effect of nanocomposite.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Ali Salman Ali",authors:[{id:"313275",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"ali-salman",fullName:"Ali Salman"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"208",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81438",title:"Research Progress of Ionic Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting",slug:"research-progress-of-ionic-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:38,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101771",abstract:"Thermoelectric material is a kind of functional material that can mutually convert heat energy and electric energy. It can convert low-grade heat energy (less than 130°C) into electric energy. Compared with traditional electronic thermoelectric materials, ionic thermoelectric materials have higher performance. The Seebeck coefficient can generate 2–3 orders of magnitude higher ionic thermoelectric potential than electronic thermoelectric materials, so it has good application prospects in small thermoelectric generators and solar power generation. According to the thermoelectric conversion mechanism, ionic thermoelectric materials can be divided into ionic thermoelectric materials based on the Soret effect and thermocouple effect. They are widely used in pyrogen batteries and ionic thermoelectric capacitors. The latest two types of ionic thermoelectric materials are in this article. The research progress is explained, and the problems and challenges of ionic thermoelectric materials and the future development direction are also put forward.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jianwei Zhang, Ying Xiao, Bowei Lei, Gengyuan Liang and Wenshu Zhao"},{id:"79274",title:"Molecular Simulation of Cholesteric Liquid-Crystal Polyesteramides: Conformational and Structure Analysis by Rietveld Refinement",slug:"molecular-simulation-of-cholesteric-liquid-crystal-polyesteramides-conformational-and-structure-anal",totalDownloads:73,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100388",abstract:"Molecular modeling techniques are applied to polyesteramides designed as PNOBDME (C34H38N2O6)n and PNOBEE (C26H22N2O6)n, synthesized and characterized as cholesteric liquid crystals -through the condensation reaction between 4 and 4′-(terephthaloyl- diaminedibenzoic chloride (NOBC) and racemic glycol: DL-1,2 dodecanediol, or DL-1,2-butanediol, respectively, being chemical modifications of precursor multifunctional cholesteric LC polyesters, adding new properties but holding their helical macromolecular structures. Although the starting raw materials were racemic, these cholesteric LC polymers exhibit unexpected optical activity and chiral morphology. For that reason, conformational analysis is studied on the monomer models of PNOBDME and PNOBEE. Four helical conformers models, experimentally observed by NMR, are proposed for each cholesteric polyesteramide: Rgg, Rgt, Sgg, Sgt. Polymerization of the monomeric conformers, with minima energies, have been simulated and used to reproduce the crystalline fraction observed by x-ray diffraction. Three orders of chirality are observed in the structure of the polymer chains: One due to the asymmetric carbon atoms, a second chirality due to the two successive rotations of the benzene groups, along the main chain, within the monomer which implies the formation of helical molecules, for both R and S chirality and still, a third chirality corresponding to the twisting of the rigid/semirigid cholesteric LC polymer chains. All these factors contributing to the net optical activity observed in these materials. Crystal packing is simulated in triclinic primitive P1cells, with molecular chains oriented parallel to the z-axis (c lattice parameter equal to the pitch length of each simulated polymer helix) and parameters a, b, α, β and γ, obtained by Pawley refinement from the known structures of precursor polyesters. The simulated x-ray diffraction patterns of the proposed crystal models fit, after successive Pawley and Rietveld refinement cycles, the experimental WAXS. Powder Quantitative Phase Analysis applied to an ideal mixture with the four possible helical conformers, for each degree of polymerization, allows to refine their relative weight and determine the major phase relative amount. These results would confirm the theory of a preferable recrystallization, among the four possible helical diastereoisomers, depending on the synthetic conditions.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Mercedes Pérez Méndez, José Fayos Alcañiz and Marc Meunier"},{id:"80636",title:"The LCD Interfacing and Programming",slug:"the-lcd-interfacing-and-programming",totalDownloads:173,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102408",abstract:"This chapter will discuss 10 subchapters that will make it more detailed and easier for the reader to master and implement them in their project. Before discussing the subchapters in detail the author discusses the wide use of LCD in various equipment that needs display and the superiority of it compared to the conventional existing displays especially in the low energy consumption of it compare to the rest of the displays, then the author ended this general discussion by mentioning the type of LCD known in the market right now (passive matrix and active matrix). After discussing the LCD in general, the author starts discussing the detailed 10 subchapters. The 10 subchapters are 1. 2 × 16 LCD; 2. LCD controller; 3. LCD instructions; 4. LCD initialization; 5. More instructions; 6. LCD initialization subroutine; 7. Displaying a character on the LCD; 8. Displaying more than 1 character on the LCD; 9. A 4-bit mode 2 × 16 LCD module. To give the readers with a succinct overview of important details or interesting information, the author provides the summary of this chapter in subchapter 10. The author also provided the glossary to enable the readers to quickly study the general terms used in this chapter. Finally, the author provides some questions to enable the reader to test their own knowledge of this chapter. The references is also provided to enable the readers to refer to some articles as the sources of this subchapter and to enable them to enrich their knowledge of this chapter.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Dahlan Sitompul and Poltak Sihombing"},{id:"80473",title:"Overview of Liquid Crystal Research: Computational Advancements, Challenges, Future Prospects and Applications",slug:"overview-of-liquid-crystal-research-computational-advancements-challenges-future-prospects-and-appli",totalDownloads:79,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101417",abstract:"Liquid crystal (LC) is a fascinating state of matter that combines order and mobility at multiple hierarchical levels, spanning from nanoscale to the macroscale, or from molecular to the macroscopic, and is composed of molecules and layers as thin as of a few nanometer in size. This unique combination allows such a system to adapt to a wide range of external stimuli, including temperature, magnetic field, electric field, mechanical stress, light, chemical reaction, and electrochemical response, by determining a new lowest energy configuration. Liquid crystalline nanostructures efficiently transmit and amplify information and attributes over macroscopic sizes due to their dynamic nature. The responsiveness and diversity of LCs provide enormous potential and challenges for fundamental scientific insights as well as opening the door to countless applied applications. Recent breakthroughs in nanotechnology have boosted the discipline, both in terms of theoretical simulations and the ability to fabricate nanoscale structures such as sub-wavelength gratings, nanoporous materials, and nanoparticles. Because LC materials are switchable, a new family of active plasmonic and nanophotonic devices is emerging, describing fascinating basic research processes as well as the creation of upgraded devices. This chapter discusses the fundamentals, computational advances, future prospects and challenges, as well as potential applications of LCs.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Malik, Muhammad Aamir Iqbal, Wajeehah Shahid, Syed Zaheer Ud Din, Mujtaba Ikram, Nadia Anwar, Samiah Shahid and Faryal Idrees"},{id:"80010",title:"Phase Transitions and Structure of Liquid Crystalline Cellulose Ether Solutions in a Magnetic Field and in Its Absence",slug:"phase-transitions-and-structure-of-liquid-crystalline-cellulose-ether-solutions-in-a-magnetic-field-",totalDownloads:87,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101451",abstract:"The results of research studies of a magnetic field effect on structure and phase transitions of liquid crystalline polymer systems are described. Influence of intensity of the magnetic field, molecular weight, and concentration of polymers in solutions on the phase diagrams is analyzed. The dependences of boundary curves on the chemical structure of polymers and solvents are discussed. Results of theoretical researches of the magnetic field effect on the diamagnetic macromolecule orientation in solutions are described. The shift of boundary curves of liquid crystalline cellulose derivative systems is compared with the energy of magnetic field stored by solutions.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Sergey Vshivkov and Elena Rusinova"},{id:"77670",title:"Thermoelectric Elements with Negative Temperature Factor of Resistance",slug:"thermoelectric-elements-with-negative-temperature-factor-of-resistance",totalDownloads:75,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98860",abstract:"The method of manufacturing of ceramic materials on the basis of ferrites of nickel and cobalt by synthesis and sintering in controllable regenerative atmosphere is presented. As the generator of regenerative atmosphere the method of conversion of carbonic gas is offered. Calculation of regenerative atmosphere for simultaneous sintering of ceramic ferrites of nickel and cobalt is carried out. It is offered, methods of the dilated nonequilibrium thermodynamics to view process of distribution of a charge and heat along a thermoelement branch. The model of a thermoelement taking into account various relaxation times of a charge and warmth is constructed.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Yuri Bokhan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:11},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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