The community members’ progress (source: “Awramba” community information desk established by the community and located in the center of the community).
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83768-394-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-393-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-395-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"ee9205fd23aa48cbcf3c9d6634db42b7",bookSignature:"Dr. Tao Huang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12177.jpg",keywords:"DNA Methylation, 3D Genome, RNA Modification, Tumorigenesis, Early Detection Biomarker, Development, Chromatin Dynamics, Hi-C, Topologically Associating Domains, Contact Map, N6-Methyladenosine, Eraser",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 10th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 25th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 24th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A Highly Cited Chinese Researcher with over 200 journal papers published, and a high h index (48). 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\nThe concept of intraoperative ultrasound (IOUS) was first introduced in the 60s and was used to evaluate renal lithiasis when doing nephrolithotomy. Due to the limitations of A-mode ultrasonography (difficulty in interpreting images), IOUS began to be more applicable in the surgical sphere later, in the early 80s [1], when high-frequency real-time B mode-ultrasound was introduced [2]. The use of IOUS in hepato-bilio-pancreatic surgery was emphasized for the first time in the literature in the mid-80s [3]; later, it became an exploratory technique routinely performed in specialized centers for staging liver disease and guiding surgical procedures on patients diagnosed with hepatocarcinoma on cirrhotic liver [4, 5, 6, 7]. Studies in the 90s showed that the information provided by IOUS may modify the initial therapeutic plan in up to 53% of cases [8, 9].
\nAlthough first reports related to laparoscopic transducers used in A-mode date back to early 1964, the laparoscopic IOUS technique has been developed relatively recent [10].
\nCurrently, there is a wide range of equipment for IOUS, probes of different types and shapes, adapted according to the type and localization of the lesion. Standard transductors for transabdominal ultrasound can also be used, but there may be some limitations on image resolution and on the large size of the transducer that do not offer optimal maneuverability [1]. Conventional transducers can be used at the beginning of the liver examination to obtain an overview of the organ anatomy [1, 11]. The transducers used in IOUS usually operate at high frequency: 7.5–10 MHz [12]. There are different shapes: linear T-shaped probes, interdigital probes, microconvex probes and more recently, T-shaped probes with trapezoidal scanning window [13]. In case of liver surgery, the ideal transducer should be a small one that can be easily manipulated in narrow spaces, with a special design to allow the probe to be held in the palm between two fingers, thus allowing the operator to have permanent contact with the surface of the liver, without omitting to scan some areas [11, 14] (Figure 1).
\nScanning the liver surface with a intraoperative mini-convex probe, 1–13 MHz, 65°, Hitachi Aloka Medical, Ltd., Japan (intraoperative aspect, from the personal archive of the authors).
When necessary, IOUS can also be used in laparoscopic surgery, with special transducers suitable for this type of approach. Transducers used during laparoscopic surgery are either linear or curved, mounted at the end of a long, thin articulated arm, with a design that allows insertion and manipulation inside the trocar (Figure 2) [15].
\nIntraoperative laparoscopic ultrasound of the liver. HCC on cirrhotic liver. L44LA intraoperative probe, 13–2 MHz, 36 mm, Hitachi Aloka Medical, Ltd., Japan (intraoperative aspect, from the personal archive of the authors).
The possibility of performing intra-operative contrast ultrasound (CE-IOUS) is an important factor in choosing the ultrasound equipment. Nowadays, the most commonly used contrast agents are SonoVue (Gaseous sulfur hexafluoride, Bracco, Milan Italy) and Sonazoid (Gaseous perflutane, GE Healthcare, Norway/DaiichiSankyo, Japan) [11, 16, 17, 18, 19].
\nIn order to ensure a good examination, the ultrasound machine should be positioned in front of the main operator, the patient (the organ to be examined) being located between the surgeon and the monitor (a collinearity between operator, organ and monitor) in order to view simultaneously the ultrasound monitor and the surgical field. The ultrasound monitor should have size and resolution large enough to allow optimal remote viewing. Examination must always begin with the inspection and palpation of the liver and of the entire peritoneal cavity. These steps should not be avoided in favor of IOUS [20]. Mobilization of the liver begins with the sectioning of suspensory ligaments, thus creating enough space to manipulate the ultrasound transducer. Worth mentioning some of the artifacts that may appear on the examination of the VIIIth and IVa liver segments after the sectioning of the cavo-hepatic adhesions. Therefore, in the case of suspected lesions located in these areas (adjacent to the cavo-hepatic region), dissection at this level should be performed only after ultrasound exploration.
\nBenign tumors can develop on a normal or steatotic liver, may be solitary or multiple, with increased echogenity (hemangiomas, focal nodular hyperplasia) or anechogenic, with posterior acoustic strengthening (serous cysts) and distinct contours (hydatid cysts), with no vascularization or characteristic circulatory pattern; may have a mass effect on liver structures or even adjacent organs. A characteristic for benign tumors is the fact that they have elastic consistency and do not invade vascular elements [20, 21].
\nFor
Differentiation between focal nodular hyperplasia and hepatic adenoma is important for establishing the therapeutic indication, surgery being indicated for large adenomas, due to the risk of rupture and hemorrhage as well as due to its malignant potential.
\nBecause sometimes it is difficult to make a benign-malignant US differentiation, intraoperatory, when the situation imposes, might by necessary to make a bioptic puncture for establishing a correct diagnosis [20]. IOUS has an important guiding role, especially in the case of lesions located in the depth of the liver parenchyma, hard to reach when palpating.
\nPercutaneous ultrasound guided treatment with cyst evacuation is often possible, but is followed by an increased risk of relapse, with the rebound of collection. In this idea, the laparoscopic surgical resection of the cystic dome is indicated. This technique is easy if the lesions are located superficially, in segments II, III, IVB, V, VI (after Couinaud) [23]. The lesions localized intraparenchymatous can be approached safely only when using IOUS [24].
\nDepending on the evolutionary stage,
IOUS finds its usefulness in liver surgery for both primary and secondary malignant lesions facilitating the detection, characterization of lesions and guiding the surgical procedure [26, 27]. Most studies have evaluated the role of IOUS for treatment of hepatocarcinomas and hepatic metastases due to colorectal cancer, these pathologies being considered the most common liver malignant lesions. Intraoperative detection and local treatment of these lesions may have a major impact in choosing surgical strategy [28, 29].
\nHCC is the most common primary malignancy in the liver, and is frequently associated with cirrhosis [30, 31].
\nEcographically, this tumor has the appearance of a solid tumor with irregular contours, heterogeneous, uni-, or multilocular (“encephaloid form”). Typically, it invades the liver vessels, primarily the portal branches, but also the suprahepatic veins. Doppler screening usually highlights a high-speed arterial flow. Vessel distribution is irregular, disordered. CE-US shows hypercaptation in the arterial phase with a specific “washout” of contrast substance in the venous phase. In the late phase, the tumor appears as hypoechoic. This behavior is usually described in tumor nodules larger than 2 cm [21].
\nIn the case of HCC, IOUS is superior in detecting lesions measuring less than 1 cm, preoperative MRI having a lower sensitivity and specificity for these lesions [11, 32]. It has also been shown in several studies that CE-IOUS can modify in 19–29% of the cases the initial treatment plan [33, 34]. CE-IOUS finds its usefulness especially in cirrhotic patients when it comes to differential diagnosis between malignant lesions and regenerative nodules [29, 35]. It has been demonstrated that neoangiogenesis of tumor nodules is a specific criteria for distinguishing hepatocarcinomas from dysplastic or regenerative nodules [35].
\nCE-IOUS has a sensitivity of 100%, a specificity between 69 and 100% and can modify the surgical strategy in up to 79% of patients [36, 37, 38], most frequently by detecting new lesions. The literature emphasizes that the filling pattern of the contrast agent in nodules found by IOUS can guide surgical resection [36]. It has also been shown that the vascular pattern of HCC visualized by using CE-IOUS has been associated with the expression of some genetic profiles, suggesting that CE-IOUS images can be used as an indicator for predicting prognosis of patients [39].
\nDuring hepatic resection, which is the standard treatment for HCC, particular attention should be paid in preserving as much hepatic parenchyma as we can, the remaining hepatic volume being an important prognostic factor for the short outcome [37, 39, 40]. Thus, local resection of the tumor formation or its ablation under IOUS guidance may be chosen to minimize the volume of resected liver parenchyma, respecting the oncological resection margin. Also, in order to minimize the risk of postoperative complications (hemorrhage, necrosis of the liver parenchyma) and remote relapse (by satellite micrometastases, specific for HCC), the use of IOUS is vital in guiding anatomical resections. These involve the ultrasound identification of vascular pedicles corresponding to the affected hepatic segments and through various associated maneuvers (digital compression, injection of contrast agents) an exact delimitation of the targeted resection area can be obtained (Figure 3). More details will be given in the following rows, in the sub-section dedicated to the role of IOUS in guiding hepatic resections.
\nAnatomical resection: ischemic delimitation of sixth and seventh liver segments (intraoperative aspect, from the personal archive of the authors).
Despite significant advances in preoperative staging diagnostic procedures (conventional CE-US, multi-sliced CT, CE-MRI, and PET-CT), studies have shown that 10–30% of the patients with colo-rectal cancer remain with undiagnosed hepatic metastases during primary tumor surgery [41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46].
\nIn this respect, IOUS and CE-IOUS have a special role in completing the diagnosis, in addition to the liver’s palpation technique. IOUS is considered the “gold standard” in open surgery for colorectal cancer since 1980, being able to detect liver metastases that cannot be palpated intraoperatively and that have not been visualized with preoperative imaging techniques [8, 47, 48, 49, 50].
\nLiver metastases have a non-characteristic echographic appearance, being circumscribed lesions with imprecise or halo delineation, with a homogeneous or heterogeneous pattern. They may be solitary (usually liver metastases from colonic neoplasms) or multiple. Their echogenicity is variable. When they are large, they can compress the bile ducts (which may appear to be dilated) and the liver vessels. As for their vascularization, they may be hypovascular (in gastric, colon, pancreatic, or ovarian cancers) with hypoechoic pattern in arterial phase and similar in the venous and late phases or hypervascular (neuroendocrine tumors, malignant melanomas, sarcomas, renal tumors, breast, or thyroids), with a hyperechoic appearance during the arterial phase, with wash out during the venous phase and hypoechoic pattern at about 30 s after the injection of the contrast substance [51].
\nSeveral studies in the literature have shown that after the surgical treatment of the primary tumor, the ultrasound of metastasis after colorectal cancer can be correlated with prognosis. Thus, Gruenberger et al. [52] demonstrated that in patients with hyperechoic ultrasound liver metastases, survival is longer than in those with the hypoechoic aspect of the lesions. This suggests that the role of IOUS is more than a diagnostic one and can be useful in establishing prognosis [53].
\nThe CE-IOUS applied for colorectal liver metastases has an 96% accuracy, in contrast to 74 and 79%, percentages associated with pre-operative CT and MRI [34, 54]. The fact that undetected preoperative liver metastases represent the main cause of recurrent neoplasia [55] highlights the important role that IOUS has in the management of patients diagnosed with colorectal cancer. This is why routine IOUS is recommended in these patients [56].
\nChemotherapy is an important, standardized element in regard with the adjuvant and neoadjuvant therapy in colorectal cancer patients. [57, 58] Regarding hepatic metastases, good results of cytostatic treatment mean either stagnation or regression of these lesions [59, 60]. A particular situation is when liver metastases are no longer visible in CT and/or MRI performed after chemotherapy. Literature indicates that the complete, real response is found in up to 66% of cases [61, 62]. For the rest of the cases (34%), chemotherapy can affect the echogenity of the metastases making them difficult to be identified with preoperative imaging (CT, MRI, even IOUS) [13, 33]. In these situations, CE-IOUS allows the surgeon to check areas where hepatic lesions have been described before chemotherapy [11]. The role of this technique is highlighted in many studies that have shown that only be confirmation given by the CE-IOUS in regard with the lack of lesions can be associated with a complete therapeutic response [59, 62].
\nResection or ablation of all lesions is the gold standard in the treatment of colorectal liver metastases [63]. Even in patients with unresectable metastases, local ablation or combination between ablation and surgical resection of the lesions has been shown to be able to locally control the disease [64]. It is obvious that IOUS plays a major role in liver surgery for the detection and localization of metastatic lesions [28].
\nThe laparoscopic approach and minimally invasive surgery have more and more indications and thus the role of IOUS in laparoscopic surgery has become increasingly important. Of course, laparoscopic surgery has some disadvantages in assessing the liver because the surgeon loses the advantage of palpating the structures and lesions. IOUS manages to compensate for most of these laparoscopic minuses by providing intraoperative high utility imaging with greater sensitivity in detecting liver lesions than most preoperative imaging techniques [65, 66, 67, 68, 69]. Intraoperative laparoscopic ultrasound (LIOUS) has a sensitivity and specificity similar to that in open surgery [69]. Several authors have suggested routine use of LIOUS in laparoscopic colorectal surgery [70] and prior to planned laparotomies for liver resections [71]. In cases where hepatic disease is known, with the help of LIOUS data, around 64% of cases could be exempted from laparotomy [71, 72].
\nThe success of the laparoscopic approach depends primarily on the location of the lesions [73, 74]. Guiding surgical maneuvers by the use of LIOUS is possible especially in superficial tumors on the left lobe or on the anterior segments of the right lobe (hepatic segments II, III, IVb, V, and VI). Direct visualization and LIOUS should be used to compensate for the impossibility of liver palpation in laparoscopic surgery [75, 76]. In the case of laparoscopically treated malignant lesions, it is important to mark by IOUS imaging the oncological resection margins, this way ensuring their tracing by minimally invasive approach. Furthermore, the completion of the treatment is possible using ablative techniques (radiofrequency, microwave). The laparoscopic approach finds its indications especially for higher-risk cirrhotic patients (altered hepatic markers, clotting disorders) with subcapsular neoplastic lesions (Figure 4).
\nLaparoscopic ultrasound guided radiofrequency ablation of HCC on cirrhotic liver (intraoperative aspect, from the personal archive of the authors).
With the evolution of technology and the experience of surgical teams, laparoscopic approaches to hepatectomies have become more and more used in centers of excellence. Several studies have shown that laparoscopic hepatectomy is a safe procedure and could have advantages over open surgery, translated by reduced blood loss and a shorter hospitalization stays [77, 78]. As for LIOUS, it should guarantee the same performance as the ultrasound used in conventional liver surgery. Although, LIOUS has been introduced since 1981, few studies have addressed this subject. Although reported to be a safe and accurate method [79], it is currently not routinely used in laparoscopic surgery [80], although the reliability of LIOUS in the staging of liver disease has been demonstrated to be similar to conventional IOUS [81]. Moreover, although many articles mention LIOUS as an important technique, few scientific papers described this technique [82, 83, 84, 85].
\nIt has been demonstrated that making biopsies under IOUS guidance, laparoscopic or “classic,” have a high diagnostic accuracy and are considered safe procedures with possible impact on surgical management [86, 87]. For example, liver metastases detected intra-operatively and confirmed by histopathological examination as having pancreatic origin could be a contraindication for pancreatic radical surgery [58].
\nIn terms of non-excisional treatment of hepatic tumor formations, this can also be achieved by ablative techniques, such as ethanol injection [88], RFA (coagulation necrosis induced by high-frequency alternating currents-thermal energy) [89] and MWA (same as RFA, although MWA uses different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum) [90]. Although the elective treatment is by percutaneous approach, there are situations when both classical or laparoscopic method are indicated.
\nLaparoscopic approach is particularly preferred on patients who are on the waiting list for liver transplantation or for those who cannot benefit from liver resection due to comorbidities, liver cirrhosis, or hepatic dysfunction due to chemotherapy, especially when percutaneous procedures are not possible [91, 92, 93]. Indications are subcapsular lesions located in the immediate vicinity of important structures (diaphragm, stomach, and gallbladder) or difficult to approach (caudal lobe). [84, 94, 95, 96]. Moreover, these ablation techniques can be combined with hepatic resections or can be performed serially after surgical resections, improving the oncological outcome and prognosis [97, 98, 99]. In the majority of cases treated by these procedures, IOUS is used as a guidance tool and for evaluation the efficacy of the treatment and appearance of complications [94].
\nMultiple studies have demonstrated that IOUS-guided ablations are a safe and an effective treatment option that provides excellent local control of both primary and secondary hepatic tumor lesions [64, 94, 100, 101, 102]. Recent studies have also reported that intraoperative RFA has a local recurrence rate equivalent to that obtained from low-grade HCC surgery [11, 96] and colorectal hepatic metastases [64, 100].
\nLocalization of liver lesions is related to portal branches and suprahepatic veins, which are used to define segmental boundaries. Without the use of IOUS, it would probably be impossible to define correctly, anatomically, the hepatic segments and often the limits of the tumors, especially due to the existence of multiple anatomical variants [13].
\nHepatic resections are known to be the standard treatment for malignant liver tumor formations, being the only procedure that provides oncological radicality [58]. Preservation of hepatic parenchyma should be a goal of the surgical team, especially in patients with cirrhotic liver, whose liver function and prognostic could be influenced by extensive resection. In these situations, IOUS plays an essential role because it allows the evaluation of the intrahepatic tumors, facilitating a limited but oncological liver resection. Thus, in modern hepatic surgery, whether HCC or colorectal liver metastases, the use of IOUS allows the realization of the so-called “radical but conservative surgery.” Thus, obtaining continuous information on the relationship between liver lesions and intrahepatic bilio-vascular structures, the surgeon can guide his resection line, respecting the Glisson pedicles, and suprahepatic veins, with the ultimate goal of preserving as much functional hepatic parenchyma as possible [11, 12, 103, 104].
\nIOUS is also a real help for anatomical resections. This technique involves the compression of segmental portal branches between the transducer and the operator’s fingers, resulting in a transient ischemia of the target parenchyma. This area can be marked with the electrocautery, and then the resection is made along the demarcation line [105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110].
\nStarting from the use of IOUS, Torzilli introduces new types of resection, such as mini-mesohepatectomy, for tumor formations located at the confluence of the cave vein with superhepatic veins [11, 12, 111]. These resections are based on the ultrasound study of the relationship between the tumor and the suprahepatic veins and the analysis of the blood flow at this level after clamping the proposed vein for resection. Evidence of an inverse flow in the peripheral portion of the compressed vein or of a collateral shunt between the clamped vein and the other superhepatic vein or cava vein will allow the ligation and segregation of the tumor-affected suprahepatic vein and the achievement of a limited resection, while maintaining the principles of oncological radicality [11, 12].
\nSummarizing, the use of IOUS allows the extension of surgical indications for certain liver lesions that were either considered unresectable or required major surgery [104].
\nIOUS is still characterized by several drawbacks: it cannot detect lesions smaller than 3 mm, its accuracy is dependent on the surgeon’s skill and experience, the images are 2D and there is a “blind area “of about 1 cm below the surface of the liver, which is particularly problematic in the case of small hepatic metastases due to colorectal cancer that are mainly located on the surface of the liver. Of course, associating contrast agents has greatly improved IOUS accuracy; however, the disadvantage of visualization of the lesions for a too short period of time makes this technique to be of limited applicability in guiding hepatic resections that may last between 2 and 6 h [112].
\nRecently, a new fluorescent approach, using indocyanine green (ICG), has been proposed to improve the intraoperative detection of neoplastic lesions [113, 114]. ICG is a non-specific molecule that allows detection of tumor tissue, but with limited specificity. The main advantage of its use is its safety and its commercial availability as a contrast substance. The imaging technique of intraoperative fluorescence using ICG was initially used for the detection of sentinel lymph nodes in patients with gastric, colon, and breast cancer [115, 116]. Several studies have shown that malign liver tumors show strong fluorescence when preoperative ICG administration is made [117, 118]. This technique is based on the fact that ICG binds to plasma proteins and together emit light with a peak wavelength of approximately 830 nm when illuminated with infrared light [119].
\nInitially, ICG-fluorescence imaging was limited to open surgery alone. After year 2010, as laparoscopic and robotic imaging systems with fluorescence have developed, ICG-fluorescence imaging has been extended to minimally invasive abdominal surgery, especially for the visualization of extrahepatic biliary tract anatomy (during laparoscopic/robotic cholecystectomies) [120], an approach known as fluorescence cholangiography [121]. In 2014, the use of ICG-fluorescence imaging was reported for the identification of subcapsular hepatic tumors before liver transection [122]. A new laparoscopic imaging system is starting to be used, this system overlapping pseudo-color fluorescence images with white color-light images in real-time (fusion ICG-fluorescence imaging) with the proposal to identify segmental hepatic margins and localization of liver tumors [123]. Thus, ICG has the ability to “label” bile ducts [121, 124, 125, 126], hepatic tumors [118, 127, 128, 129, 130], edges of liver segments [117, 131, 132, 133], this being due both to ICG fluorescence [134], and to its property to be excreted into the bile [135]. Due to the property of being eliminated for more than 6 h after intravenous injection [126, 135], ICG-fluorescence imaging can also be used to identify small biliary fistulas after hepatectomy [136].
\nAs for ICG-fluorescence imaging sensitivity in detecting liver metastases, it varies between 69 and 100%. However, sensitivity is limited because the examination does not have the ability to detect hepatic lesions at a depth greater than 8 mm in the hepatic parenchyma. It has also been shown that this method can detect new metastatic lesions in up to 43% of cases [137]. In fact, it has been reported that ICG-fluorescence imaging can detect superficial lesions of up to 2 mm in both HCC and metastases liver disease due to colorectal cancers [127, 129].
\nCurrently, a combination of a fluorophore, such as ICG, with an anti-tumor antibody is evaluated in preclinical studies. These new molecules could present a major advantage in the future for clinical applications that would allow the detection of tumor lesions with a higher TBR (tumor-to-background ratio between the intensity of fluorescence in tumor tissue and normal surrounding tissue). Recently, Harlaar et al. reported the first clinical trial using IRD-800CW-labeled bevacizumab for the detection of peritoneal metastases of colorectal origin [138].
\nThe IOUS has applications in both open or laparoscopic abdominal surgery.
For benign hepatic tumors, IOUS has the role to localize and to visualize the relationships with the intrahepatic structures.
For intraoperative interventional maneuvers (biopsies, ablative techniques), IOUS guidance is mandatory.
In the case of HCC, IOUS is superior in detecting lesions measuring less than 1 cm.
In the case of HCC, CE-IOUS finds its usefulness especially in cirrhotic patients for the differential diagnosis between malignant lesions and regenerative nodules.
IOUS is considered the “gold standard” in open surgery for colorectal cancer.
CE-IOUS allows the surgeon to check areas where hepatic metastasis have been described before chemotherapy.
IOUS is mandatory for anatomic resections and for limited but radical hepatectomy.
Bartoș Adrian is the coordinator of this chapter.
\nThe authors have no conflict of interest.
One of the leading concerns in community psychology has been to capture the feelings that people have about the communities of which they are part. Following Sarason cited in [1], it is this area of work that has come to be associated with the term “sense of community” (SOC). The concept of SOC is necessarily a multidimensional one, covering various facets of people’s opinions about their communities. There are a number of further complexities to the question, not the least of them being the problem of how people define their communities in the first place. For example, in England, research has suggested that people often refer to their immediate localities when asked to say where they live and where they feel they belong, while at the same time they think in terms of a series of overlapping maps of different sizes, each significant in different ways. Furthermore, there is a need to come to terms with the fact that while many people may define their communities in territorial or locality terms, others do so in terms of common identity with a social, religious, or ethnic group [1].
Sense of community has been described as “the sense that one was part of a readily available, mutually supportive network of relationships upon which one could depend and as a result of which one did not experience sustained feelings of loneliness” Sarason cited in [2].
Gusfield cited in [3], distinguished between two major uses of the term community. The first is the territorial and geographical notion of community—neighborhood, town, and city. The second is “relational,” concerned with “quality of character of human relationship, without reference to location.” Gusfield noted that the two usages are not mutually exclusive [3].
According to Sarason cited in [3], the basic characteristics of sense of community are: perception of similarity to others, an acknowledge interdependence with others, a willingness to maintain this inter dependence by giving or doing for others what one expects from them, the feeling that one is part of a larger dependable and stable structure.
McMillan and Chavis defined sense of community as “a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members’ needs will be met through their commitment to be together.” In this key definition, they identify four major elements required for a sense of community: membership, influence, integration and fulfillment of needs, and a shared emotional connection. By their definition, all four elements must be present to define a sense of community.
Membership referred to the feeling of belonging, of being part of a collective. A major part of membership was boundaries; if one belongs to a particular community, then the implication is that there are those who do not. This concept intuitively seems to be a necessary part of any definition of community; to have a sense of community, one must first belong to a community. Emotional safety derived from membership, the sense of belonging and identification with the community of interest, personal investment in the community leading to stronger bonds, and some kind of common symbol system, which unites a community.
The second dimension was that of influence, a bidirectional concept, as for a group to be attractive, an individual must feel they have some control and influence over it, whereas, conversely, for a group to be cohesive, it also must influence its individual members. McMillan and Chavis stated that pressure of conformity from community members actually comes from the needs of individual members for consensual validation. In turn, conformity serves as a force for cohesiveness.
The third dimension, integration and fulfillment of needs, referred to the idea that for a community to maintain a positive sense of togetherness, the individual group association must be rewarding for the individual members. Some of the more obvious rewards examined in their paper are status of membership, success of the community, and the perceived competence of other members.
The last dimension is that of shared emotional connection. McMillan and Chavis suggested that this was in part based on a sense of shared history and identification with the community. The authors suggested that the more people interact, the more likely they are to form close relationships. As this interaction becomes more positive, the bond becomes stronger. Investment in the community determines the importance to individuals of the community’s success and current status. Those who give time and effort to community organizations and events will be more concerned about seeing the positive effects of these events than are those who have not been involved.
McMillan and Chavis stated that these aspects of community contribute to create each of the dimensions, which in turn work together dynamically to create and maintain an overall sense of community.
Generally, the first element is membership. Membership is the feeling of belonging or of sharing a sense of personal relatedness. The second element is influence, a sense of mattering, of making a difference to a group and of the group mattering to its members. The third element is reinforcement: integration and fulfillment of needs. This is the feeling that members’ needs will be met by the resources received through their membership in the group. The last element is shared emotional connection, the commitment and belief that members have shared and will share history, common places, time together, and similar experiences [3].
Knowing how people from diverse cultures form attachments to social groups is important, so general objective of the study is to capture an understanding of sense of community in the “Awramba” experience. Based on this general objective, this study tried to answer the following questions.
What and how the community was established?
What are the criteria to be part of the community?
What are the shared values of social practice that has survived for the test of time?
As far as the researcher knowledge, there is empirical gap in the study of sense of community on “Awramba” community. But there are two research studies conducted related to women right and the nature of group communication under Addis Ababa University, which were: Women’s Decision-Making Rights in the Household [4], and a study of the Nature of Group Communication [5].
Solomon [4] found in his study on the community that, “it can be concluded that gender equality exists in most household matters in ‘Awramba’ community. The findings also indicate that the ‘Awramba’ community’s culture is women friendly; it respects the equality of every member especially men and women. In this community women are relatively emancipated from cultural domination and traditional patriarchal practices. Most married women in the home life have equal rights with their male counterparts.”
Tilahun [5] also found in his study on the community that, “the community exercises democratic principles in the sense that equal engagement and distribution of resources to the members. Developing brotherhood empathy, helping the misfortune and conflict reduction are basic principles of the community. A significant enhancement has also been made in empowering women. Unlike to the surrounding culture, the community could reshape the traditionally perceived role of women and men. The guiding perceived principle to ensure gender equality in the community is interpreted by assigning tasks regardless of sex, but ability”.
In addition to the above, there are problems of moral value deterioration in everywhere such as in respecting elders, being honest, and the problems of conflict, which is a practical gap. So, finding the answer for how the community is dealing with this problem is another reason for conducting this study.
The reason that sensitized the researcher to select the “Awramba” community for the study is that the shared values social practice that has survived for the test of the time. An indicator for this can be the following: (1) Women and children right existed in the community; elder care existed in the community, and (2) their commitment and cooperative work.
The method applied to the study of the “Awramba” community was realist ethnography. Realist ethnography is an objective account of the situation, typically written in the third-person point of view and reporting objectively on the information learned from participants at a site. In this ethnographic approach, the realist ethnographer narrates the study in a third-person dispassionate voice and reports on what is observed or heard from participants. The ethnographer remains in the background as an omniscient reporter of the “facts.” The realist also reports objective data in a measured style uncontaminated by personal bias, political goals, and judgment. The researcher may provide mundane details of everyday life among the people studied. The ethnographer also uses standard categories for cultural description (e.g., family life, communication networks, work life, social networks, and status systems). The ethnographer produces the participants’ views through closely edited quotations and has the final word on how the culture is to be interpreted and presented [6].
Both primary and secondary data were collected for the study. The primary data were generated from in-depth interviews, while secondary data were obtained from information desk of the community established by the community.
The data sources or the target population of the study that included “Awramba” people living in the village is also the researcher source of data.
This study was conducted on “Awramba” community who are living in “Amhara” region, south “Gondor” Zone, “Fogera woreda,” 72 km far from “Bahir dar” city and 7.5 km from “Wereta” on the way road to “Debretabor.” The exact geographical coordinates of the community place are latitude and longitude – 11.9203453, 37.7868649 [7]. As the interviewees told the researcher, the “Awramba” community started to establish in 1971 around 66 individuals living in different “kebeles,” but after the “Derg” regime came to the position, the leader of the community arrested for 6 days and the member of the community became 48 individuals. In 1987, 13 individuals of the community members migrated to southern nation nationalities and people’s region (SNNPR), “Bonga,” and the rest of the community members migrated to “Bonga” in 1988/89, when the community reestablished in 1999, the community members were 19 individuals (Table 1).
Year E.C. | Numbers of the “Awramba” community members | ||
---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | Total | |
196 | 207 | 403 | |
198 | 214 | 412 | |
211 | 221 | 432 | |
250 | 213 | 463 | |
232 | 245 | 480 | |
235 | 245 | 483 | |
240 | 254 | 494 | |
252 | 262 | 514 | |
253 | 263 | 516 | |
254 | 265 | 519 | |
257 | 278 | 535 |
The community members’ progress (source: “Awramba” community information desk established by the community and located in the center of the community).
The respondents of this study were “Awramba” people living in the village. In this community, there are a total of 177 households, for this study matter a total of four samples were purposefully selected to participate in the study.
Four interviewees were participated in the study. Out of the four participants of the study, participant 1 was selected purposefully by the researcher, because she was a person assigned by the community as a tour guide, worker in the museum and information desk of the community. The rest three participants of the study were the community members selected by her, because she assumed that they were knowledgeable about the “Awramba” community (Table 2).
No | Sex | Age | Code | Position |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | F | 30 | Participant:1 | The community member, tour guide, worker in the community museum and information desk of the community. |
2 | M | 27 | Participant:2 | Community member |
3 | M | 59 | Participant:3 | Community member |
4 | F | 53 | Participant:4 | Community member |
Participants of the study.
The data gathering tools employed to gather reliable information from sample participants were in-depth interview questions and observation guide.
First, the researcher prepared the interview questions, go to the community, and explained the objective to the person who assigned by the community to promote and who guides anyone who want to know about the community. Then the researcher conducted the interview with the participants who are selected by the community worker. During the course of the interview, the researcher had note of what has been said by the interviewees and made audio-visual record. And the observation also held simultaneously with the interview through having field note.
The data collected through in-depth interview recorded in audio-visual data changed into written form and the field note together with observation was organized by assembling the responses according to thematically in the result of the study part. The identified themes related to the literatures in the discussion part accordingly. In the interpretation part, the identified themes interpreted according to the objectives of the “Awramba” community and using McMillan and Chavis [3] four elements that define sense of community theory. Original name of participants of the study changed into numbers to keep confidentiality.
The analysis of the data showed 13 themes existed in the transcripts in the “Awramba” community. The 13 key themes were:
Biography of Zumra and the establishment of the community (theme-1)
Membership criteria (theme-2)
Means of income (theme-3)
Handicraft skill and environmental protection (theme-4)
Celebration (theme-5)
Marriage and divorce (theme-6)
Marriage (theme-6a)
Divorce (theme-6b)
Mourning value (theme-7)
Religious view (theme-8)
Gender equality (theme-9)
Commitment (theme-10)
Commitment to be Honesty (10a)
Commitment for the scheduled meetings (10b)
Ways of handling conflict (theme-11)
Services delivered (theme-12)
Elders care (theme-12a)
Preschool and moral education (theme-12b)
Public library
Members who do not share geographical location (theme-13)
The community was established by the now 72-year-old farmer Zumra Nuru. He was born in 1949 in “Este, Gondor.” At the age of 4, he was raised and asked four challenging questions to his family. The first one was, gender equality, he was raised this question for the reason that when he was looking his peasant parents, his father and mother work together at the day time, in the evening his father takes a rest but his mother continues her work in the home without getting any support from her husband, at that time Zumra thought why his father does not support his mother and thought that was not fair.
The second question he was raised was about children right, children were commanded by their parents that was above their capacity, if they fail, insult and physical punishment apply to them, Zumra asks why?
The third question was about the elders, when elder get sick or when they loss their ability to work, no one looks and helps them, Zumra asked, why not they help them?
The fourth one was Zumra’s experience that he faced many times when people attack, rob, talk falsely, and kill another people, he was asked, why people do things to others that they do not want for themselves?
When he raised these four questions, his mother took it as mental disorder and took him to different traditional medicines, but there was no change.
Till the age of 13, he rose in his parent house and his family assumed that “his idea was different from other children and people for the reason that he was born with mental disorder.”
After the age of 13, according to Participant:1, he thought, “If he goes to different places and explain his ideas may be, he would get some people and might understand his ideas,” by considering this, he gone out a journey in different places of “Gondor” and “Gojam” to spread his ideas. At that time most of the time he availed himself in different social gatherings such as social gathering for mourning and so on.
Even though people who listened to his ideas did not consider him as mentally disordered as his family, but they did not take the idea rather they said the ideas are good. He stayed for 5 years to explain his ideas rounding in different places of “Gondor” and “Gojam,” he passes the day time with people and the night time sleeping under the tree, at that time different animals stay with him and leave him at the morning. After 5 years, he thought to go back to home to farm and to help elders and peoples in need, to get mental satisfaction.
Zumra came back to his family after 5 years and told them he wants to marry and to farm the land. His family said according to Participant:1, “the traveling from place to place and the migration taught him so now he became healthy because he is asking us to provide him a girl for marriage and to farm the land.” After he married and worked as a farmer, he started helping the elders and people in need, his family said according to Participant:1, “we said he is recovered from his mental illness, but he is in the worst condition, because he spent his money for non-relatives or others rather than spending it for family and relatives.”
After this occurrence, according to Participant:1, “he raised the fifth question by saying that he gave his money for his people why his family say, he is giving his money for non-relatives or external bodies? his family replied him ‘if he knows he became mentally ill unless he should know that after seven generation people become non-relatives’ external bodies’ and he said ‘after counting seven generation they said non-relatives or external bodies where did they get this saying from? Whose people, are they? considering people as external bodies results hatred, hatred results conflict, people start to fear people because of this, instead if people ignore picturing people as external bodies, and consider all human being as brother and sister so that people can create earthly paradise and we can live in harmony.”
And he was added “as to him all human being are the sons of Adam and Eve, so he gave to his people.” But still his family said “his idea is strange because of his mental illness’ so; he ignored his family start to use his free time after farm and helping people in need for searching people who can understand and accept his ideas.”
Zumra was traveling in different places for searching people who might understand and accept his ideas.
At the time of traveling, he got some peasants who understood and accepted his ideas, they said to him according to Participant:1, “your ideas are good, but how can we establish such like community?” then Zumra thought that “if he moves to this place, they will accept all his ideas” so brought his family to the then place “Awramba” community are living in 1971, and started establishing the community. He did not get all the people who accepted his ideas in the same place because those people are living in different places.
Some of his ideas that explained to the peasants were according to Participant:1, “when we establish the community, we should consider cooperative working, women equality, avoiding bad habits and speech, we bring peace instead of expecting it from others, bad habits and bad attitude are like spiders web it has not root.”
He added “there are two important things, they are bad doing and bad speech, we should avoid bad doing and bad speech that what we do not want to be done for us and to be saying about us, we should avoid anger, insult and bad attitudes. We should do for others what we want to be done for us. If a female works a male work, she is working her father’s work similarly if a male works female work, he is working his mothers work, if we get this it is development, change, if we consider our wives as external body, we are also considering our mothers and sisters like that, so we should avoid such kind of attitudes” some people accepted him still others ignored him.
The people who ignored his ideas replied, when he talks about women right, they said “who is going to bear and who is being bearded” when he talks about child right, they said “child should eat what is provided to him and work what he commanded and should not talk equally with his parents” when he talks about elders care they said “who bear who’s poor” and when he said “we should avoid being liar and captious (‘negeregnanet’)” they also did not accept him. People who ignored his ideas said “he should not take our children” and start working to avoid him, at the time of the occurrence of political conflict between “Tigray” liberation front (TPLF) and “Derg,” those people who opposed Zumra’s idea reported to the “Derg” officers as the member of TPLF and then he was jailed for 6 days. After that, he and peoples who accepted his idea migrated through “Jimma” to the then South Nation Nationalities and Peoples Region specifically a place named “Bonga.” They stayed there for 5 years and returned in 1992/93 to then place of “Awramba” community members are living.
At this time their land was gone, got a small plot of land, though they asked the government body, they got the answer “wait till 1996 at that time we rearrange the land so you will get on that time.” Even though the community asked on the time, people who ignored the community idea collaborated with the field team who were assigned to the rearrangement of the land said, “if we give them the land the ‘Awramba’ community stay here and live forever but if we ignore to give them additional land, they will leave the area and will migrate to other place” and decided not to give them the additional land. Still the community limited to the only 17.5-hectare land.
The community decided and said that “people who depend on only land income cannot improve; we should create additional income generating activities” the community changed this plan into application; they are getting income from different activities.
Though the community faced many problems during the migration and when they reestablished the community in 1999, after they promoted themselves in 2000/2001, not only Ethiopian but also human being around come and appreciate the community and their ideas. Zumra said “previously I lost a single person who understands my ideas but now I got people around the world that understand and accept my ideas therefore I think, I tread one step forward.”
Now he is saying according to Participant:1, “we should reach our ideas to the educated people, let them decide if they accept our ideas, they took it, or if they think our ideas is not accepted let, they decide to ignore, and we should also pass our ides to the next generation and we should think about what should we work and pass, if they accepted or not let them decide by themselves is now the main objective of the community.”
The major criteria to be members of the community are respecting human being, the great asset in the community is human, money is the second asset. Additionally, there are other criteria one should obey to be members of the community, they are: avoiding being liar, captious, theft, adultery, addiction (chewing khat or drinking alcohol). Avoiding bad doing and speech, collaborating with the community, if anyone interested to be member of the community and fulfill the above criteria can be accepted by the community.
From this it is clear that respecting human being and the norm of the major community are the criteria used to be a member of that community.
As they are limited to 17.5-hectare land, the community used it effectively for market garden and created other sources of income because begging is not accepted in the community.
They work different businesses such as shops, cafe, mill, traditional cloths store, guest house for tourists, and weaving workshops, which produce different traditional raiments.
Currently the community started producing food oil and exports it to different places such as “Bahir dar” (see Figures 1–4).
The community traditional cloth shop (photo of the author).
The community guest house (photo of the author).
The community weaving workshop (photo of the author).
The community is building storage and working place for the production of food oil (photo of the author).
After watching the “Awramba” community members; hard working outputs and the community members’ ethics of the community that is living around, the community started to say according to Participant:2, “please stay here for our children, we hated you unknowingly,” the interviewee added what their leader Zumra said to them before long time ago when the surrounding community members treating the community in bad way, “if they did not talk to you, try to talk them, if they did not salute you try to salute them, because unknown person is like infant, if the infant raise a fire to his mother the mother took the fire from the infant but not reply to him in the same way, like that our neighbor community members treat us badly because of the fail to know our ideas and beliefs one they could understand us and treat us in a good way, now we are looking our patients fruit it enable us to live in a peaceful way.”
The community members work 6 days a week and the remaining 1 day, which is Sunday, is used to do their individual work at home.
The community members have a good handicraft skill and applied it all of their home by working environmentally friendly cooking hearth, which uses small amount of fire wood, and surprisingly most of the materials such as: shelf, table, chair, and even bed made from some amount of wood and mostly through clay soil (Figure 5).
The community made and shelf with some amount of wood and mostly through clay soil (photo of the author).
The community also made different materials from clay soil but because these materials are produced by the neighboring community, to avoid tender, the community stopped its production for business purposes.
The celebration of the formation of the community and New Year ceremony is the most and well-celebrated ceremony in the community. This is celebrated once a year, at every “Paugume 5 or 6” linking it with Ethiopian New Year. This can strengthen the social network of the community.
As Participant: 4 said, “we celebrate once a year two consecutive days which are the last day of the year and the first day of the new year, we celebrate the last day of the year because of it was the day that our leader Zumra finished founding the community with our fathers, and we also add one day on it as the first day of the new year, so we at those days we stop working, and take a rest but we did not prepare special food for the ceremony we eat what are prepared in our home and gather around a tree which are located at center of the village, the community orchestra come and we pass those time on playing and relaxing.”
The other important issue that uses as a means of strengthening the social network of the community is their wedding value.
In the community, members believe that, when human being is living, he is better to marry whom he/she wants and replace himself. In the community, wedding has the following steps. Firstly, by the time the boy and girl become emotional attached and become eager to get married, he/she tells the elder near him/her.
Secondly, the elder checks their age whether the boy’s age is 20 and above and the girl’s age is 19 and above, and their need to be marry each other.
Finally, the elder takes the responsibility and the bride and the groom sign for each other. The amazing thing is that there is no wedding ceremony, after signing for the marriage, the bride and the groom immediately go to their work. Their family gives the ceremony expenditures for the married couples instead of making wedding ceremony.
As Participant:3 explained that, “the marriage should be one to one, before marriage sex is prohibited, after marriage sex is also prohibited out of marriage, if not we are not different from animals, so we should apply the law that we are agreed upon that is the norm of marriage.”
There are three reasons that the community put might enable someone to make divorce, it is not compulsory but it might make the person to divorce and the community may accept it if the reason is real.
If one of them is sterile and if it is checked by diagnosis, the one that has no problem can divorce and remarry.
Between the couple if there is sexual problem that cannot be recovered by treatment, if the problem can be fixed by treatment, and if the couples do not have enough money, the community supports them, but if the problem cannot be treated, they can divorce, because the problem may be a burden to both of them.
If there is Barney that cannot be fixed by advising, if the problem cannot be avoided, the community interference helping them in advice, for the reason that the Barney should not be transferred to the children the couples can divorce.
But other than the above reasons such as because of gossip or attraction of another person cannot be allowed to divorce.
Mourning value of the community is different from other community members who live in neighborhoods and with other Ethiopian community. The community believes that the mourning should be in lifetime, through sympathy people should help each other, but after death happens, God takes his thing, so only the assigned members of the community go to the mourning place but other community members stay supporting the mourners, only the assigned persons attend the funeral, after the burial, as Participant:1 said, “we bring the mourners with us to work place not assuming that the mourners will do work, but to keep their mental from the side effects of exaggerating mourning. We do this because of three reasons, the first one is, we already lost our person so why we lost our time for the second time, the second one is not to harm our and the mourners mental, the third one is to prevent the mourners from financial crises because of mourning ceremony. Therefore, what we do is helping and supporting the mourner family by any means, if they are elders, we support what they need, if they are children, we give them any care what they need and support to achieve their goal. In general, the community believes in helping and supporting when the individual is alive.”
All of the community members are believers in one god. Even though they believe in one god, they do not have a single mosque or church. Participant:4 said “we believe in one god, and our God is with us and get everywhere so we do not need to build mosque or church.”
Participant:3, said “The community members believes that human belief can be explained by the work of people do on people. We should help people in need, human can be explained by his good did, we all the community members believe in this, we believe in one God, members of the community came from the religions of Islam and Christianity, we believe that we should not dived by race, clan even in religion, as we are human being, we all are brothers and sisters.”
The community is distinct from the rest of Ethiopian community related to gender role, the first question that made the leader of the community to establish the community is gender equality. In the community, there is no differentiated role for male and female. All males work what females work including work in the kitchen and females also work all the works that males work including farming outside of the home. So, in the community, male and female participate equally in all things.
In the community, honesty is one of their assets, if anyone gets any material or money, it is returned to the owner, if the person who gets the material did not meet the owner, he should give to the committee that is already established to do this responsibility.
There are three types of scheduled meetings in the community: the first one is family meeting in every 15 days during the night time, they used it to monitor children ethics and to make solutions if they face, in this meeting all the family members including children participate. The second type of meeting is every once in a month at each working institution to plan and put solutions for problems if they faced related their work. The last kind of meeting is once in every 6 months, this meeting is a general meeting, in which all the community members participate.
In the first place to handle conflict, there are the community members who put the coping mechanism at the time of the community establishment in 1964. As Participant:2 said that “The community believe that the great asset is human being, so there should no need to create conflict with this great asset, if we consider this idea, we should do good thing for this our great asset and if we want to create earthly paradise and want to live in harmony, we should avoid bad doing and bad speech.”
If the conflict occurs, the community considers it as ideas conflict rather than taking it as individual conflict, both the individuals discuss on the issue and try to understand each other, most of the time the conflict of the ideas solves at this stage. But if they cannot solve the problem, they take the issue to the grievance listener committee, if the problem is serious and the committee cannot solve it, the issue is taken to the “woreda” court. Participant:1, who works as the promoter of the community, said that, “the entire problem solved at individual level so that even the grievance committee cannot get any case of the conflict.”
As the researcher got information from the community members, there is no a single police station or court in the village.
The community-built school starting from Kindergarten up to grade 8, health center, cafeteria, and public library were built and still managed by persons selected from the community. These indicate that how the community is motivated to solve their problems.
As a participant said that “we help the elders without any external support for only our conscience satisfaction and because of the community believes that the great asset in our community is human being.” The community supports the elders in two ways: one is in their home, and the second way by preparing dormitory they bring them to elder care center. And the community uses two sources of income to support the elder, the first one is the income collected from the tourists as entrance fee, and the second one is by organizing the community as voluntaries one day a week every Tuesday working for the elder’s care (Figure 6).
The community elder care house external picture (photo of the author).
The elders who supported in the elder care house come voluntarily, they can walk and sit out of the house, and their relatives and family members come and pass time with them (Figure 7).
The community elder care house internal picture (photo of the author).
As the researcher got the information from the interview, the community-based organization, which is the so called “aregawuyan maqoya,” in which members and voluntary supporters are only members of the community.
The researcher observed the kindergarten or the preschool, which was built by the community before the government built the schools. In the preschool, as Participant:1 said “the children differentiate the Amharic and English alphabet and learn numbers in the pre-school. In addition to this they learn moral education, like avoiding lying, being captious, making conflict between individuals and so on. At the end of every daily lesson the children say the slogan ‘
In the community taking people’s money is a crime; the children also are learning it. The children learn not only in word but also in practice, because the community believe that speech and work should go in the same way, if the adults teach the children and fail to apply, the children give more attention to what is seen than what they listen to. So, the community teaches the children not only in word but also in practice, when the children’s age becomes 7, they are sent to formal school (Figure 8).
The community preschool, built by the community (photo of the author).
There are kindergarten, primary and senior secondary and preparatory schools in the village. The kindergarten and the senior secondary (grade 9 to grade 10) schools were built by the community themselves and the primary school (grade 1 to grade 8) and preparatory school (grade 11 to grade 12) were built by the government, and the community also built public library (Figures 9 and 10).
The community preparatory school (photo of the author).
The community public library (photo of the author).
There is one health center in the community and still managed by the board selected from the community.
The interviewee from the community told us there is no as such challenging problem in these aspects. Water, electricity, and telephone services are available in the residence.
Members of the community graduated students now become 70, some of them are working in the community who got related fields, some of them want working on unrelated fields in the community by saying that “we should serve the community who teach us without learning for themselves” and still others are who did not get their fields are working in governmental and nongovernmental organizations, which are out of the community.
As the community promoter officer Participant:1, said “at the time when the united Nations team visitors come to us and they said ‘we tried to settle peace around the world and different beliefs agreed on ‘do to others what you want for yourself’, but the community members are doing in practice and living on it” and they bestow our community two gold medals and one trophy, and they also bestow our leader Zumra a medal by saying “you are peace ambassador. Then they asked us if we are voluntary, they want to be members of the community from the place they were living and working. We replied them, the community is the house for anyone wants to make peace, making black or white is our God’s work so you can be the member of the community, so they are members of the community.”
The general objective of this study was to capture an understanding of sense of community in the “Awramba” context. To achieve this objective, realist ethnography method was applied. From the study result, 13 major themes were found.
The first theme (theme-1) was the causes for the community founder Zumra to establish the community, which were four questions; gender role equality, children right, about helping elders, and fairness. Till the age of 13, Zumra raised and stayed with his parent house, he moved around different places of “Gondor” and “Gojam” to spread his ideas for 5 years. He also raised the fifth question about human brotherhood. At the time of traveling, he got some peasants who understood and accepted his ideas. He brought his family to the current place in 1971 and started establishing the community. People who ignored his ideas started working to avoid him. After that he and peoples who accepted his idea migrated through “Jimma” to the then SNPPR specifically “Bonga.” They stayed there for 5 years. When they returned in 1992/93 to then place of “Awramba,” their land was gone, and got a small plot of land. The community decided to create additional income generating activities rather than depending on the farm. After they promoted themselves in 2000/2001 on different media, Ethiopians and tourists around the world came and appreciated their ideas and way of life.
Regarding (theme-2), which is about membership criteria, the major criteria to be members of the community are respecting human being and adhering to the community norm. Adhering to these criteria, there were members who share geographical location and who do not share geographical location with the community. Members who do not share geographical location with the community (theme-13) were individuals who are members of the community but working in different places of the country and the accepted members from the United Nation, this result is in agreement with the study of [8], which showed that a community can exist beyond geographical borders as long as people share something in common.
Related to means of income in the community (theme-3), the community members cooperated and created different sources of income, such as: businesses, for example, shops, café, mill, traditional cloths store, guest house for tourists, and weaving workshops, which produces different traditional raiments.
Handicraft skill and environmental protection (theme-4), using their handicraft skill, they work environmentally friendly cooking hearth, which uses small amount of fire wood. Most of the materials such as: shelf, table, chair, and even bed made from some amount of wood and mostly through clay soil.
Once a year, the community celebrates the formation of the community on the last day of the year and first day of the Ethiopian New Year (theme-5). They celebrate gathering around a tree that is located at center of the village and pass those time on playing and relaxing.
In the marriage value of the community (theme-6a), there is no wedding ceremony, after signing for the marriage, the bride and the groom immediately go to their work. Their family gives the money for the married couples instead of expending it on wedding ceremony. This result is the same with Tilahun [4] findings about marriage value of the community, which indicated that, “Another distinctive feature in the community is that members do not celebrate any wedding ceremony. They believe that marriage ceremony is an extravagance which demolishes all the accumulated money of parents and couples within a few days. As a result, an informant of the member stated that they do not even make tea for any marriage celebration. The only required thing is that couples should confirm their agreement by putting their signature in front of a witness (the witness might be a female or male). The bride and the bridegroom are never given even a day to enjoy their marriage; they are expected to join the field work very soon.”
Related to divorce, there are reasons that the community agreed upon for making divorce (theme-6b), If one of them is sterile, or if there is sexual problem that cannot be recovered by treatment, and/or if there is barney that cannot be fixed by advising, the community may accept the divorce.
The community mourning value (theme-7), the community believes that mourning should be in lifetime, through sympathy people should help each other. If it happened, only the assigned persons go to the mourning place to attend the funeral. After the burial, the community members bring the mourners to work place, not assuming that the mourners will do work, but to keep their mental health from the side effects of exaggerating mourning.
The community religious view (theme-8), the community members believe that they are believers in one god. There is no a single mosque or church in the community. Because they believe God is with them and they can get everywhere. This result is closer to the finding of Solomon [4], which indicated that the community does not have religion, but faith or belief. They believe in the existence of supernatural force or creator of earth and heaven. They do not give a name for this supernatural force … but, they accept prayer for the creator individually. The result also agreed with the study of Tilahun [5], which indicated that, “They believe that religion means being obeyed to the single super natural force. So, if there is a full consent for the presence of one creator, dividing him and the doctrine by giving different names is wrong of human beings.”
Gender equality (theme-9), in the community there is no differentiated role for male and female. All males work what females work including work in the kitchen, and females also work what all the males work including working outside the home. This result agreed with the finding of Solomon [4], which said “in ‘Awramba’ community the role of men and women is identical.”
In the community, honesty is one asset. In the commitment to be honest (theme-10a), if a person finds anyone’s lost property, he/she should return to the owner. If he/she did not get the owner, he/she should give to the committee that is already established to do this responsibility. In the community, taking people’s money is a crime.
Commitment for the scheduled meetings (theme-10b), the community has family meeting in every 15 days during the night time, meeting once a month at each working institution to plan and put solutions for problems if they faced related to their work. And once in every 6 months, this meeting is the general meeting, in which all the community members participate. The family meeting result was confirmed by the finding of Tilahun [5], which says, “There is a regular discussion program in which groups of two or more families meet together at every 15 days to evaluate their plan and control the behavior of members. It usually takes place at night when all members come back from their field work and after daily activities are nearly over.”
Ways of handling conflict (theme-11), there is an established committee to solve, if any conflict happens among the community members. If the conflict happens, they consider it as ideas conflict rather as individual, solve on the following way: first, the individuals discuss on the issue, to understand each other and in order to solve the problem. Second, if they cannot, they take the issue to the grievance listener committee and try to solve it. Third, if the problem is serious and the committee cannot solve it, the issue is taken to the “woreda” court. Almost all the problem solved at individual level.
The community elder care (theme-12a), the community supports the elders in two ways: one is in their home, and in the elder’s care center. They use two sources of income to support elders: one is income collected from the tourists as an entrance fee, and the second way is through the community members’ work 1 day a week for this purpose.
Preschool and moral education in the community (theme-12b), in the preschool, children learn moral education, such as avoiding lying, being captious, making conflict between individuals, and so on. At the end of every daily lesson, children say the slogan, which strengthens their moral behavior. This result is closer to the findings of Tilahun [5], which indicated that, “the preprimary school has a potential impact in reshaping students’ attitude. It makes them more ethical and freer to express their ideas according to the established local traditions.”
The data indicated that the following are the objectives of the “Awramba” community.
To support each other
To solve their problem
To share their joy
Indicators of the above objectives are the following:
The indicator of the first objective is the different kinds of supports (financial, emotional, and the like) given to the community during grief time when there exist problems.
For example, in “Awramba” community, there are different community-based organizations such as income generating activity association and elder care house, which serve as means of sources of income and support during the time of old age.
An indicator for the second objective can be an effort done to solve problems of school where children acquire knowledge and health center the place where people need to get medical care. Examples of the second objective in the community are the existence of public library, kindergarten, senior secondary (grade 9 to grade 10) school, and one health center built by the community.
The celebration of anniversary “Pagume 5 or 6” and New Year ceremony in the community can also be an indicator for the third objective.
The community mourning values (theme-7), religious view (theme-8), and gender equality (theme-9) results are agreed with the study by [4].
As the McMillan and Chavis sense of community theory is a major theory in community psychology, it is cited in more than 2500 different, scholarly publications, the researcher used it for the interpretation purpose.
McMillan and Chavis define sense of community as “a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members’ needs will be met through their commitment to be together.”
In this key definition, they identify four major elements required for a sense of community: membership, influence, integration and fulfillment of needs, and a shared emotional connection. By their definition, all four elements must be present to define a sense of community.
As the theory said there needs to be a defined territory or boundary, physical or not, something that shows who is a member and who is not. This can be a geographic marker, or it may involve similar interests, etc. These say who is in and who is out, who belongs here, and who does not. This is related with the “Awramba” community members living in the community village. And in addition to members of the community who share physical boundary, there are also members of the community who do not share geographical location, which is (theme-13).
In a community with clear boundaries, members experience emotional safety. This means a physical sense of safety from crime, etc. Relationally, it means a secure place to make friends, a safe space to speak truthfully. As the researcher got information from the community members, there is no a single police station or court in the village. And it also explained by the “Awramba” community’s value of being honest (theme-10a) and ways of handling conflict (theme-11).
A member who feels safe is more likely to make personal investment in the community. Personal investment is made in order to show commitment, and it’s made because one feels wanted by the community and entitled to be there. This idea of the theory also related with the “Awramba” community members’ commitments for scheduled meetings (theme-10b).
Related to influence, which refers to how the individual influences the community, and that community influences the views and actions of the person. Participant:2 said “If we miss to adhere to the norm of the community, there is advise in the first place provided by other community member for that.” This can show how the group influences individual members of that community. It also related to the community members adhering to the norms of the community.
McMillan and Chavis considered this the “definitive element for true community.” It involves a spiritual bond, not necessarily religious, and not easily defined, yet recognizable to those who share it. It’s the soul of the people. It’s hard to define or describe to outsiders. Members of the community know what this deep bond is for them. This last element is sometimes just thought of as love. It’s based on a shared story, a community narrative, the story of my people, and it will have some rituals around that, which remind them why they are together.
These concepts reflected on celebration of the formation of the “Awramba” community and New Year (theme-5), marriage and divorce (theme-6), mourning value (theme-7), and religious views of the community (theme-8) (Figure 11).
The relationship between all themes and the four elements with sense of community.
Based on the information got from interview and observation, the researcher comes up with the following conclusions:
Membership criteria of the community are based on adhering to the community norm.
The community has a strong sense of community based on shared story, cooperative work, marriage and mourning values, religious view, gender equality, their commitment to be honest, and solving their problem by themselves.
The emotional connection of the community is strengthened by their common celebration of the yearly anniversary and New Year and scheduled meeting.
The moral education is also given in the school and at home meetings and in practice.
The services of education, health, water, electricity, and telephone are available in the community.
First of all, my special appreciation goes to the “Awramba” community and all participants who kindly volunteered to be part of the study. I would like to thank my qualitative research methods course instructor Prof. Solomon Melese for the research topic approval and his valuable comments. I also want to appreciate my brother Yusuf Tsegaye who helped me in traveling to the community and during data collection.
The purpose of this interview is to obtain data for a study of the “Awramba” community lifestyle and culture. You are selected for this study by assuming that you could give enough information on the issue. Therefore, your unreserved cooperation in providing the most genuine information will have a great significance to the study.
Any information that you give is confidential.
You are not required to mention your name during the interview.
The information you give will be used for this research purpose only.
It is up on your willingness to the interview; you have the right to participate or not to participate on the study and to interrupt the study.
Thank you in advance for your cooperation.
Gender _________
Age _______
Marital status _____________________________
Educational status _________________________
Occupation _______________________________
What is the name of this place?
What is the name that the community members call themselves?
What is the name of the community?
By who and when the community was established?
How many members the community had during the establishment?
Male _____________ Female ____________ Total ___________.
What were the reasons that you think to increase members of the community?
Are you member of the community?
How many times have you lived in the community?
What is your role in the community?
What is your plan for future about living in the community?
What do you think about being member of the community?
How do you see the importance of the community to you and your importance for the community?
What are the sources of income of the community members?
What it seems culture of the community related to work?
Is there work classification in the community? And what is it?
Is there work motivation in the community members?
What are the reasons for it?
Is there a chance to get a person who does not have motivation for work in the community?
What will be done for that?
How many members of the community do you know?
Are there criteria to be member of the community? 15a. What are they?
Does the individual influence the community? And does the community also influence the views and actions of members of the community?
What is it? And how?
Based on the norms of the community, are there things that are allowed and forbidden for members of the community? 17a. What are they?
Who manages or controls norms of the community?
In what way?
What is the measure during violation of the norm?
What is the meaning of cooperation in this community?
Is there cooperation between members of the community?
If there is cooperation, what strengthens it in the community?
What is the meaning of honesty in the community?
What it looks like in the community the experience of honesty?
Is there the experience of teaching related to honesty?
If there is experience, where does the teaching is delivered?
Is there moral education for children in the community? And how is it delivered?
Is there a custom that allows participation of all members of the community including children, youth, male, female, and elders?
If it is there, what is it and in what way is it held?
Are there things or experiences shared by all of the community members?
What are they?
What do you think about the safety of the neighborhoods in the community?
What is it about the leader follow-ups for the issues of the community?
In what way the community prevents crime and deviance?
Are there police station and court in the community?
What is the relationship between government and the community?
Are there problems that affect the community directly or indirectly?
What are they?
Do the community members cooperate to reduce the problems? And how?
What are the marriage customs in the community?
What are the customs of mourning in the community?
Are there celebrations in the community?
What are the times for the celebrations?
In what way are they celebrated?
Are there customs or traditions at family or community level held in a fixed way at weekly, monthly, or yearly?
What are they?
Is there a tradition of sharing money or things between the community members?
How?
Are there chances of conflicts that occur between community members?
What are the conflict resolution methods applied in the community?
Does globalization have an effect on the community members?
What are the effects?
Do the community members try to cope the effects?
What are they?
What is the meaning of race in the community?
What is the religious view of the community?
Name of the community __________________________________.
Place _______________________ Date _______________ Hour ___________.
Observer ________________________________.
General environmental condition of the community ____________________.
Services available in the community __________________________________.
Others ___________________________________________________________
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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:755,paginationItems:[{id:"310674",title:"Dr.",name:"Pravin",middleName:null,surname:"Kendrekar",slug:"pravin-kendrekar",fullName:"Pravin Kendrekar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310674/images/system/310674.jpg",biography:"Dr. Pravin Kendrekar, MSc, MBA, Ph.D., is currently a visiting scientist at the Lipid Nanostructure Laboratory, University of Central Lancashire, England. He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. 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