Water use ratio of
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Avila Bernal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7253.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193020",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Perez Taborda",slug:"jaime-andres-perez-taborda",fullName:"Jaime Andres Perez Taborda"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10672",leadTitle:null,title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tNonlinear optics is a separate field of physics in general and optics in particular which studies the nonlinear phenomena that occur during the light and matter interaction. The typical nonlinear optical effects are the light self-focusing and self-trapping, second harmonic generation (SHG), third-harmonic generation (THG), four-wave mixing (FWM), parametric processes including the sum and difference frequency harmonic generation, different types of stimulated light scattering (SLS), soliton generation, and propagation. The observation of nonlinear optical effects started with the creation of lasers as the sources of the high intensity coherent light radiation. The nonlinear optical phenomena are widely used in modern communication systems for different applications such as the generation of ultra-short pulses, all-optical signal processing, wavelength conversion, and ultrafast switching. Novel fields of nonlinear optics such as strong-field
\r\n\tnano-optics, nonlinear plasmonics, and nonlinear metamaterials emerged in the last decades due to the progress in nanotechnology.
\r\n\tThe essential subject of this book is the publication of novel theoretical and experimental results concerning the nonlinear optical phenomena in photonic and plasmonic nanostructures, nonlinear metamaterials including liquid crystals, and devices based on nonlinear optical waveguides. In particular, the following topics will be considered: the interaction of solid-state nanostructures with the intense electromagnetic fields, the surface plasmon polariton propagation and interaction near the metal-dielectric interface, active nano-photonic devices for lasing and optical sources, nonlinear metamaterials, the nonlinear optics of liquid crystals and the possible combination of liquid crystals with plasmonic and metamaterials. We do not limit the book to these topics.
\r\n\r\n\tThe novel results in other fields of nonlinear optics would be also welcome. We hope that the proposed book will be interesting for researchers and engineers occupied in optical fiber telecommunications, optical signal processing, novel active materials, and devices.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-836-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-835-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-890-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cfe87b713a8bee22c19361b86b03d506",bookSignature:"Dr. Boris I. Lembrikov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10672.jpg",keywords:"Nonlinear Optics, Nano-Photonics, Surface Plasmon Polariton (SPP), Plasmonics, Plasmonic Nanostructure, Plasmonic Waveguide, Metamaterial, Nonlinearity, Nematic Liquid Crystals (NLC), TE Mode, TM Mode, Cholesteric Liquid Crystals (CLC)",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 29th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 26th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 27th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 16th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr.Lembrikov actively participated in numerous international scientific conferences, he is an author of a book, a large number of papers, and chapters in scientific books. He was an invited researcher at the Max Planck Institute High Magnetic Field Laboratory at Grenoble, France.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/2359/images/system/2359.jpg",biography:"Boris I. Lembrikov is a senior lecturer at the Faculty of Electronics, Electrical and Communication Engineering of the Holon Institute of Technology (HIT), Holon, Israel. B. I. Lembrikov received his Ph.D. in Nonlinear Optics at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology in 1996. Since then he was an invited researcher at the Haifa University, at the Max Planck Institute High Magnetic Field Laboratory at Grenoble, France, at the Technion, Haifa, Israel. Dr. B. I. Lembrikov is an author of the book \\Electrodynamics of Magnetoactive Media\\, a number of chapters in scientific books, a large number of papers in international peer reviewed journals and reports delivered at the international scientific conferences. He actively participated in a number of research projects concerning optics of nanoparticles, optical communications, UWB communications. The main research fields of interest of Dr. B. I. Lembrikov are nonlinear optics, optical and UWB communications, nanostructures, quantum dot lasers.",institutionString:"Holon Institute of Technology (HIT)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"11",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Holon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"345821",firstName:"Darko",lastName:"Hrvojic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/345821/images/16410_n.",email:"darko@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3674",title:"Ultra Wideband",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"ultra-wideband",bookSignature:"Boris Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3674.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"189",title:"Novel Applications of the UWB Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed2f8e92a107244ca4c22888843e374f",slug:"novel-applications-of-the-uwb-technologies",bookSignature:"Boris Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/189.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7582",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"Novel Results in Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3ad4a3553a3ec59f7992d4f6495ac07",slug:"nonlinear-optics-novel-results-in-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Boris I. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50617",title:"Water Use Strategy of Four Desert Shrubs in Gonghe Basin, Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau",doi:"10.5772/63195",slug:"water-use-strategy-of-four-desert-shrubs-in-gonghe-basin-qinghai-tibetan-plateau",body:'\nIn desert ecosystems, water is a restrictive factor for plant survival and growth because of low and unpredictable precipitation and high evaporation [1, 2]. The ability to use rainwater in spring and summer is important for plant phenology and growth [3]. Additionally, the sustainable water source is necessary for plant growth especially in the drought period, such as deep soil water or ground water [4]. A stable isotope technology is often used to study the water use strategy of desert plants. Generally, there is no stable isotope fractionation during water uptake by root system or water transportation in the xylem of most plant species. Thus, the main water source can be distinguished by comparing the δD or δ18O value of xylem water with that of the potential water source, for example, rain, snow, river, lake, soil water or ground water [1]. Further, leaf δ13C value of C3 plants is positively related to their long-term water-use efficiency (WUE). The δ13C value decreased from spring to autumn in the growing season and increased in the drought period [4].
\nPrevious studies with the stable isotope of hydrogen or oxygen indicated that woody plant species used different water sources in desert or other arid and semi-arid ecosystems. Firstly, many trees and shrubs mainly used shallow soil water recharged by rain, for example,
Gonghe Basin is located in the northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, which is the ecotone from semi-arid to arid region, with the altitude varying from 2600 to 3400 m. It contains part of Gonghe County, Guinan County and Xinghai County of Qinghai Province. The dominant vegetation is steppe and desert steppe. The basin is as long as 210 km in East and West, and as wide as 60 km in South and North, with a total area of 13,800 km2. It is one of the most vulnerable land desertification area in Qinghai Province. The area of desertified land is 3530 km2, which accounts for 25.58% of the total area. The ecological security in the upper reaches of Yellow River has been affected significantly by land desertification in Gonghe Basin, especially Longyangxia Reservoir [17]. In order to control and prevent land desertification, large areas were planted with trees and shrubs to form the shelterbelt system in the ecotone between oasis and desert to protect farms, villages and roads in Gonghe Basin. Some trees in
In this chapter, the main water source of four dominant desert shrubs is compared by stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in the growing season (May, July and September). The water use ratio of different sources was analysed by Iso-source 1.3.1 software [18]. Two shrubs in
This study was conducted at Gonghe Desert Ecosystem Research Station, which is located in the mid-west Gonghe Basin and belongs to Shazhuyu Town, Gonghe County (36°16\'N, 100°16\'E, altitude 2874 m). The mean annual air temperature is only 2.4 °C, and the mean annual forest free day is only 91 days. The mean annual precipitation is 246.3 mm, which is concentrated from July to September. Two shrubs in
The total precipitation at the study site was 137.5 mm from May 1 to September 13, 2014. The monthly precipitation was 8.8, 61.6, 37.8 and 28.7 mm in May, June, July and August, respectively (Figure 1). The maximal daily precipitation (18.9 mm) occurred on June 12. Before field sampling in July, 6.4 mm rain occurred on July 8, and in September, the precipitation was only 0.4 mm.
\nPrecipitation at Gonghe Station from May to August, 2014.
Soil water content in
Soil water content in
Soil water content in
Soil water content in
Soil water content in different depths in four desert shrub plantations.
The δ18O ratio of xylem water of
The value of δD and δ18O in xylem and soil water of four desert shrubs, ground water, rainwater and global meteoric water line (GMWL) [4].
On May 27, the value of δD and δ18O in xylem water of
The value of δD and δ18O in xylem water of
On May 27, the ratio of δD and δ18O in xylem water of
The value of δD and δ18O in xylem water of
Iso-Source analysis showed that
Water source | \nMay 27 | \nJuly 20 | \nSeptember 11 | \n
---|---|---|---|
Soil water 10 cm | \n22.8 ± 12.2 | \n65.7 ± 4.5 | \n6.1 ± 5.3 | \n
25 cm | \n22.0 ± 15.3 | \n8.8 ± 7.9 | \n7.4 ± 6.5 | \n
50 cm | \n15.9 ± 13.8 | \n7.6 ± 6.9 | \n10.5 ± 9.1 | \n
75 cm | \n10.9 ± 9.3 | \n5.8 ± 5.3 | \n11.6 ± 1.0 | \n
100 cm | \n10.4 ± 8.9 | \n4.5 ± 4.2 | \n16.7 ± 14.5 | \n
150 cm | \n8.9 ± 7.5 | \n3.7 ± 3.6 | \n22.2 ± 16.8 | \n
Ground water | \n9.1 ± 7.8 | \n3.8 ± 3.6 | \n25.5 ± 12.9 | \n
Water use ratio of
Iso-Source analysis showed that
Water source | \nMay 27 | \nJuly 23 | \nSeptember 11 | \n
---|---|---|---|
Soil water 10 cm | \n16.8 ± 9.3 | \n9.7 ± 7.3 | \n18.2 ± 10.6 | \n
25 cm | \n18.3 ± 12.2 | \n12.0 ± 8.1 | \n20.9 ± 14.5 | \n
50 cm | \n15.5 ± 13.4 | \n17.9 ± 13.9 | \n20.0 ± 16.6 | \n
75 cm | \n13.1 ± 11.1 | \n13.9 ± 10.8 | \n11.1 ± 8.2 | \n
100 cm | \n12.3 ± 10.4 | \n10.4 ± 7.6 | \n12.8 ± 9.2 | \n
150 cm | \n11.2 ± 9.4 | \n28.6 ± 6.1 | \n11.6 ± 7.8 | \n
Ground water | \n12.9 ± 11.0 | \n7.5 ± 5.8 | \n5.4 ± 3.7 | \n
Water use ratio of
On sand dunes of Gonghe Basin,
The resource-dependent water use strategy of two
The temporal difference in the main water source for a typical desert shrub is associated with precipitation change in different years. In this study, the ground water table is less than 3 m on interdune.
On May 26 and July 17, the value of δD and δ18O in xylem water of
The value of δD and δ18O in xylem water of
On May 26, the value of δD and δ18O in xylem water of
The value of δD and δ18O in xylem water of
Iso-Source analysis showed that
Iso-Source analysis showed that
Water source | \nMay 26 | \nJuly 17 | \nSeptember 11 | \n
---|---|---|---|
Soil water 10 cm | \n13.0 ± 8.0 | \n26.2 ± 12.0 | \n9.0 ± 6.3 | \n
25 cm | \n16.0 ± 12.0 | \n23.0 ± 16.9 | \n11.3 ± 8.4 | \n
50 cm | \n14.3 ± 11.9 | \n9.9 ± 8.6 | \n16.8 ± 14.6 | \n
75 cm | \n12.8 ± 10.4 | \n8.9 ± 7.7 | \n16.1 ± 13.1 | \n
100 cm | \n12.6 ± 10.2 | \n8.9 ± 7.7 | \n16.2 ± 13.2 | \n
150 cm | \n14.3 ± 11.9 | \n9.3 ± 8.0 | \n14.4 ± 10.9 | \n
Ground water | \n17.0 ± 14.1 | \n13.8 ± 12.0 | \n16.1 ± 13.7 | \n
Water use ratio of
Water source | \nMay 26 | \nJuly 17 | \nSeptember 11 | \n
---|---|---|---|
Soil water 10 cm | \n16.7 ± 7.1 | \n17.0 ± 8.8 | \n2.2 ± 2.1 | \n
25 cm | \n31.4 ± 20.2 | \n18.8 ± 13.2 | \n2.2 ± 2.1 | \n
50 cm | \n9.2 ± 7.7 | \n13.1 ± 11.2 | \n7.6 ± 6.8 | \n
100 cm | \n7.7 ± 6.4 | \n11.5 ± 9.7 | \n27.9 ± 19.9 | \n
150 cm | \n6.2 ± 5.2 | \n11.7 ± 9.9 | \n28.0 ± 19.9 | \n
200 cm | \n6.2 ± 5.2 | \n12.3 ± 10.5 | \n25.9 ± 19.9 | \n
Ground water | \n22.6 ± 12.2 | \n15.6 ± 13.6 | \n5.5 ± 5.0 | \n
Water use ratio of
On interdune of Gonghe Basin,
The resource-dependent water use strategy of two
Leaf carbon discrimination (Δ, ‰) was converted from its δ13C value using an atmospheric carbon dioxide ratio of −8‰ [32]. The leaf Δ value was significantly different (
Leaf carbon discrimination of four desert shrubs. Different lower case letters indicate significant difference in different months, according to Duncan’s test (
The long-term WUE is negatively related to the leaf Δ value of C3 plants. There were seasonal dynamics of WUE in two
There were seasonal dynamics of long-term WUE indicated by the leaf Δ value in two
The water use strategy of four dominant desert shrubs was adapted to the semi-arid climate in Gonghe Basin. They used different water sources depending on their availability in different seasons, including shallow soil water recharged by rain, deep soil water recharged by ground water or ground water. They could use shallow soil water after rain in spring and summer. When shallow soil water was depleted, they turned to use deep soil water or ground water. The reliance of ground water was different for four shrubs in two habitats. Two shrubs in
This study was supported by Chinese National Natural Science Foundation (41301095) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Non-profit Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Forestry (CAFYBB2014QB023).
\nDespite significant effect of current ten points mastitis control measures when fully adopted, especially on contagious mastitis pathogens, these measures are not equally adopted by all farmers, and mastitis continues to be the most common and costly disease of dairy cattle throughout the world.
\nDespite decades of research to develop effective vaccines against major bacterial mastitis pathogens such as
Current mastitis control programs devised in the 1960s based on teat disinfection, antibiotic therapy, and culling of chronically infected cows have led to considerable progress in controlling contagious mastitis pathogens such as
Antibiotics are used extensively in food-producing animals to combat disease and to improve animal productivity. On dairy farms, antibiotics are used for treatment and prevention of diseases affecting dairy cows, particularly mastitis, and are often administered routinely to entire herds to prevent mastitis during the dry or non-lactating period. Use of antibiotics in food-producing animals has resulted in healthier, more productive animals; lower disease incidence and prevalence rates, reduced morbidity and mortality; and production of abundant quantities of nutritious, high-quality, and low-cost food for human consumption. In spite of these benefits, there is considerable concern from public health, food safety, and regulatory perspectives about use of antibiotics in food-producing animals [9]. There has been a growing concern with the extensive use of antimicrobials in production animals, especially non-therapeutic usage such as dry cow therapy in the case of dairy production, because of potential emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistant bacteria. There has been an increased incidence of antimicrobial resistant bacteria both in human and animal medical services.
\nIn almost all dairy farms in the US and many other countries, intramammary infusion of long-acting antimicrobials to dairy cows at dry-off is a routine practice to prevent bacterial IMI during the dry period. Over 90% of dairy farms in the US infuse all udder quarters of all cows with antimicrobial (blanket dry cow therapy) regardless of their health status [8, 10, 11]. Antibiotics are also heavily used in dairy farms for the treatment of cases of mastitis and other diseases of dairy cows such as metritis, endometritis, retained placenta, lameness, and pneumonia. Similarly, antibiotics are also used for the treatment of neonatal calf diarrhea and pneumonia in dairy calves. This practice exposes a large number of animals to antimicrobials and increases the use of antimicrobials in dairy farms. Antimicrobials for the treatment of mastitis are given through intramammary infusion as well as administered parenterally to dairy herd for the treatment of clinical (acute or peracute) mastitis and other periparturient diseases of dairy cows such as metritis, endometritis, retained placenta, and others like lameness and pneumonia. Antimicrobial treatment for neonatal diarrhea and pneumonia are also given through parenteral routes. Some farms also feed waste milk (discarded milk during antibiotic treatment, milk after parturition before allowed into the bulk tank) to heifer calves, which puts their gastrointestinal tract (GIT) microbiota under antibiotics pressure. Antibiotics infused into the mammary glands can be excreted to the environment through leakage of milk from the antibiotic-treated udder or absorbed into the body and enter the blood circulation and biotransformed (pharmacokinetics) in the liver or kidney and excreted from the body through urine or feces into the environments. Therefore, both parenteral and intramammary administration of antibiotics has a significant impact on other commensals or opportunistic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract of dairy cows. This practice exposes large numbers of healthy cows to antimicrobials and also increases the use of antimicrobials in dairy farms, which in turn creates intense pressure on microbes in animals’ body and farm environments.
\nIntramammary infection may progress to clinical or subclinical mastitis [12]. Clinically infected udder is usually treated with antimicrobial, whereas subclinically infected udder may not be diagnosed immediately and treated but remained infected and shedding bacteria through milk throughout lactation. The proportion of cure following treatment of mastitis varies and the variation in cure rate is multi-factorial including cow factors (age or parity number, stage of lactation, and duration of infection, etc.), management factors (detection and diagnosis of infection and time from detection to treatment, availability of balanced nutrition, sanitation, etc.), factors related to antimicrobial use patterns (type, dose, route, frequency, and duration), and pathogen factors (type, species, number, pathogenicity or virulence, resistance to antimicrobial, etc.) [13, 14].
\nThe most common antibiotics used to treat mastitis include cephalosporins (53.2%), followed by lincosamide (19.4%) and non-cephalosporin β-lactam antibiotics (19.1%) [8]. The problem with the use of non-selective blanket antimicrobials administration to dairy cows as a prophylactic control of mastitis is that they put selective pressure on both mastitis-causing bacteria as well as commensal bacteria in the animals’ body [15, 16]. The ultimate result may not be different but the exposure level to antibiotics and its biotransformed products are different for the bacteria in the gut, in the mammary glands, and dairy farm environments during use of antimicrobials for prevention and treatment of mastitis and other diseases of dairy cattle. This selective pressure can result in antimicrobial resistant bacteria that become difficult to clear and persistent on farms and spread among animals [17]. The antimicrobial resistant bacteria or their genes may spread from these sources to human or animals or to other bacteria. McAllister et al. [18] found that CNS could potentially transfer penicillin, cephalosporins, and fluoroquinolones resistant genes to
Antimicrobial resistance is a growing problem in
Waller et al. [33] evaluated the antimicrobial susceptibility of CNS and found a difference across the species on β-lactamase production. Similarly, Sawant et al. [34] found that 18% and 46 of the
From antimicrobial resistance perspective, environmental mastitis pathogens are very important for two reasons: (1) some members of environmental mastitis pathogens are either normal microflora or opportunistic pathogens in the gastrointestinal tract of dairy cows and frequently exposed to antimicrobials directly through oral or indirectly through parenteral routes; (2) despite strain variation, some of them are highly pathogenic for human (for example,
In general, the antimicrobial resistance of mastitis pathogens varies with dairy farms and bacterial species within and among dairy farms [11, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42]. However, the antimicrobial-resistance status of human pathogenic environmental mastitis pathogens, especially the resistance status of Gram-negative environmental mastitis pathogens in the family of
Several vaccine studies were conducted over the years as controlled experimental and field trials. Some of the most common mastitis pathogens that have been targeted for vaccine development are
All coliform mastitis vaccine formulations use Gram-negative core antigens to produce non-specific immunity directed against endotoxin (LPS) [44]. The principle of these bacterins is based upon their ability to stimulate production of antibodies directed against common core antigens that Gram-negative bacteria share. These vaccines do not prevent new intramammary infection but significantly reduced the clinical severity of the infection [46, 47, 48]. Experimental challenge studies have demonstrated that J5 vaccines are able to reduce bacterial counts in milk and resulted in fewer and less severe clinical symptoms [47]. Vaccinated cows may become infected with Gram-negative mastitis pathogens at the same rate as control animals but have a lower rate of development of clinical mastitis [48], reduced duration of infection [46], less loss of milk production, culling, and death losses [49, 50]. The Eviracor®J5
Despite several mastitis vaccine trials conducted against
Current mastitis control programs are based on teat disinfection, antibiotic therapy, and culling of chronically infected cows. There is no single effective vaccine against any mastitis pathogen. The physiological nature of mammary glands where induced systemic immune responses need to cross from the body into the mammary glands, the dilution of effector immune responses by large volume of milk coupled with the ability of mastitis causing bacteria to develop immune evasion mechanisms and resistance to antimicrobials makes control of mastitis very difficult. However, developing improved and effective vaccines that overcomes these constraints using these quickly advancing molecular, genomic and immunological tools is a sustainable intervention approach.
\nUse of antibiotics in food-producing animals does contribute to increased antimicrobial resistance in dairy cattle and farm environments. Antimicrobial resistance among dairy pathogens, particularly those bacterial strains that cause mastitis in dairy cattle, is not increasing at alarming rate. However, antimicrobial resistance among Gram-negative bacteria particularly those strains that mainly cause disease in humans are extremely high in dairy cattle and dairy farm environments. Transmission of an antimicrobial resistant mastitis pathogen and/or foodborne pathogen to humans could occur through direct contact with animal or indirectly through the food chain, if contaminated unpasteurized milk or dairy products made from contaminated raw milk is consumed, which is another very important reason why people should not consume raw milk. Likewise, resistant bacteria contaminating meat from culled dairy cows can easily transmit to humans through consumption of undercooked meat.
\nWe emphasize and recommend the prudent use of antibiotics in dairy farms. Strategies involving prudent use of antibiotics for treatment encompass identification of the pathogen causing the infection, determining the susceptibility/resistance pattern of the pathogen to assess the most appropriate antibiotic to use for treatment, and a long enough treatment duration to ensure effective concentrations of the antibiotic to eliminate the pathogen. Alternatives to use of antibiotics for maintaining animal health and productivity based on preventative measures, such as vaccination, improved nutrition, environmental sanitation, use of teat sealants, and selection for disease resistance genetic traits together with advances in more rapid pathogen detection and characterization systems will undoubtedly play an integral role in strategies aimed at improving dairy productivity with improved safety of dairy products for human consumption.
\nGeneral requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
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