Dimension parameters of the vertical axis wind turbine.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7594",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Biochemical Engineering",title:"Current Topics in Biochemical Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Genetic and cellular technologies in life science have recently achieved remarkable progress, and thus the roles of biochemical engineers have also been changed to incorporate the use of new technology. Therefore, this book deals with current topics in biochemical engineering. The chapters of this book discuss research that has introduced artificial enzymes, kinetic models in bioprocessing, a small-scale production process, and production of energy with microbial fuel. These chapters offer novel ideas for the production of effective compounds and energy. Moreover, other research has introduced the production technology of stem cells and biomedical processes using nanoshells and extracellular vesicles. These chapters will provide novel ideas to produce effective compounds and develop therapies for various diseases.",isbn:"978-1-83881-210-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-209-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-211-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77355",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"current-topics-in-biochemical-engineering",numberOfPages:138,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"391609f1f0cb3bba32befeb3aa40ccf3",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi",publishedDate:"August 7th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7594.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10813,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:34,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:59,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 12th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 6th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 5th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 24th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 25th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",middleName:null,surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/163777/images/system/163777.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Naofumi Shiomi studied recombinant yeast and its utilization as a researcher at the Laboratory of Production Technology of Kanena Corporation for 15 years until 1998 and earned his Ph.D. in Engineering from Kyoto University, Japan. He now works as a professor at the School of Human Sciences of Kobe College in Japan, where he teaches applied microbiology, biotechnology, and life science in his Applied Life Science laboratory. He has studied bioremediation for 24 years at Kobe College and has published more than 40 papers and several book chapters on recombinant microorganisms, bioremediation, and functional foods. His recent research has also focused on the prevention of obesity and aging.",institutionString:"Kobe College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1346",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"technology-biomedical-engineering-biotechnology"}],chapters:[{id:"66488",title:"Introductory Chapter: Artificial Enzyme Produced by Directed Evolution Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85738",slug:"introductory-chapter-artificial-enzyme-produced-by-directed-evolution-technology",totalDownloads:1112,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Naofumi Shiomi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66488",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66488",authors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],corrections:null},{id:"64476",title:"Fermentation: Metabolism, Kinetic Models, and Bioprocessing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82195",slug:"fermentation-metabolism-kinetic-models-and-bioprocessing",totalDownloads:2563,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biochemical and metabolic interpretation of microbial growth is an important topic in bioreactor design. We intend to address valuable information about the relation of critical operation variables and the simulation of bioprocesses with unstructured and structured kinetic models. Process parameters such as nutrient supply, pH, dissolved oxygen, and metabolic end-products directly impact the physiology and metabolism of microorganisms. Changes in the membrane as well as cell viability are of interest since protein expression and maturation in prokaryota are directly related to membrane integrity. This chapter intends to deliver an insight of different alternatives in kinetic modeling.",signatures:"Carlos González-Figueredo, René Alejandro Flores-Estrella and Oscar A. Rojas-Rejón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64476",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64476",authors:[{id:"262807",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar A.",surname:"Rojas-Rejon",slug:"oscar-a.-rojas-rejon",fullName:"Oscar A. Rojas-Rejon"},{id:"262810",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"González-Figueredo",slug:"carlos-gonzalez-figueredo",fullName:"Carlos González-Figueredo"},{id:"263482",title:"Dr.",name:"Rene Alejandro",surname:"Flores Estrella",slug:"rene-alejandro-flores-estrella",fullName:"Rene Alejandro Flores Estrella"}],corrections:null},{id:"64503",title:"Small-Scale Process for the Production of Kefiran through Culture Optimization by Use of Central Composite Design from Whey and Kefir Granules",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82257",slug:"small-scale-process-for-the-production-of-kefiran-through-culture-optimization-by-use-of-central-com",totalDownloads:1037,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cheese is one of the most demanded dairy products worldwide. However, during the conversion of milk to cheese, about 10 liters of milk are employed and about 9 liters of whey are generated for each 1 kg of cheese produced. The whey has traditionally been used for animal feed and as starting material for obtaining whey proteins. Furthermore, whey has the significant values of BOD and COD, becoming the most important contaminant in the dairy industry. For this reason, further growth of cheese sector is being limited by the surplus of whey as a by-product of the production of the cheeses. One of the many possibilities offered by the whey is its use as a starting material to produce many biotech products with a higher added value. The kefiran is a degradable biopolymer and is formed by galactose and glucose units, in almost similar proportions, which have been found with numerous benefits for human health. It is produced by a consortium of acid-lactic bacteria and yeasts, which coexist within the kefir granules, which are able to grow and multiply using the lactose present in the whey. The objective of the present study is to establish a small-scale process that allows the obtaining of kefiran.",signatures:"José Manuel Pais-Chanfrau, Lorena D. Carrera Acosta, Paola M. Alvarado Cóndor, Jimmy Núñez Pérez and Milton J. Cuaran Guerrero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64503",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64503",authors:[{id:"262859",title:"Ph.D.",name:"José Manuel",surname:"Pais-Chanfrau",slug:"jose-manuel-pais-chanfrau",fullName:"José Manuel Pais-Chanfrau"},{id:"273370",title:"BSc.",name:"Lorena Dominique",surname:"Carrera Acosta",slug:"lorena-dominique-carrera-acosta",fullName:"Lorena Dominique Carrera Acosta"},{id:"273372",title:"BSc.",name:"Paola Margarita",surname:"Alvarado Cóndor",slug:"paola-margarita-alvarado-condor",fullName:"Paola Margarita Alvarado Cóndor"},{id:"273373",title:"MSc.",name:"Jimmy",surname:"Núñez Pérez",slug:"jimmy-nunez-perez",fullName:"Jimmy Núñez Pérez"},{id:"273374",title:"MSc.",name:"Milton Jimmy",surname:"Cuaran Guerrero",slug:"milton-jimmy-cuaran-guerrero",fullName:"Milton Jimmy Cuaran Guerrero"}],corrections:null},{id:"64014",title:"Catalyst Development of Microbial Fuel Cells for Renewable-Energy Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81442",slug:"catalyst-development-of-microbial-fuel-cells-for-renewable-energy-production",totalDownloads:2009,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we focus on microbial fuel cells (MFCs) that convert the energy from organic matters into electrical energy using microorganisms. MFCs are greatly expected to be used as a relatively low-cost and safe device for generating renewable energy using waste biomass as a raw material. At present, however, it has not reached the desired practical application because of the low-power generation; hence, improvements on fuel cell efficiency, such as electrode materials, are still being examined. Here, we focus on the microorganisms that can be used as catalysts and play a central role in improving the efficiency of the fuel cells. Several kinds of microbial catalysts are used in MFCs. For example, Shewanella oneidensis has been well studied, and as known, since S. oneidensis transports the electrons generated within the cell to the surface layer, it does not require a mediator to pass the electrons from the cells to the electrode. Furthermore, Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a model organism for MFCs, are also used. The improvements of such microbial catalysts have also been proceeding actively. Here, we elaborated on the principle of MFCs as well as the current situation and latest research on the catalyst development.",signatures:"Masayuki Azuma and Yoshihiro Ojima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64014",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64014",authors:[{id:"265735",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",surname:"Azuma",slug:"masayuki-azuma",fullName:"Masayuki Azuma"},{id:"265738",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshihiro",surname:"Ojima",slug:"yoshihiro-ojima",fullName:"Yoshihiro Ojima"}],corrections:null},{id:"65234",title:"Integrated Biologics Manufacturing in Stirred-Suspension Bioreactor: A Stem Cell Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83813",slug:"integrated-biologics-manufacturing-in-stirred-suspension-bioreactor-a-stem-cell-perspective",totalDownloads:1324,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stem cell therapy is garnering attention as several clinical trials have taken place in the recent years by using human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). Hundreds of biotechnological companies are investing to find a permanent cure for difficult-to-treat diseases like age-related macular degeneration, Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, etc. by using hPSCs. Therefore, clinical-grade cell manufacturing has become an important issue to make cell therapy products safe and effective. Current manufacturing practices are adopted from conventional antibody or protein production in the pharmaceutical industry where cells are used as a vector for producing the desired products. In cell therapy applications, cells are the products that are sensitive to physicochemical parameters and storage conditions anywhere between isolation to patient administration. Moreover, cell-based product manufacturing consists of multi-step processing, including isolation from patients, genetic modification, derivation, expansion, differentiation, purification, characterization, cryopreservation, etc. This can require long processing times and pose high risk of product contamination as well as high production cost. Herein, we discuss the current methods of biologics manufacturing and its limitations. We also review current practices for integrating and automating cell manufacturing facilities. Finally, we propose how to integrate multi-step cell processing in a single bioreactor to make the cell manufacturing practices more direct.",signatures:"Suman C. Nath and Derrick E. Rancourt",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65234",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65234",authors:[{id:"62721",title:"Dr.",name:"Derrick E.",surname:"Rancourt",slug:"derrick-e.-rancourt",fullName:"Derrick E. Rancourt"},{id:"272287",title:"Dr.",name:"Suman",surname:"Nath",slug:"suman-nath",fullName:"Suman Nath"}],corrections:null},{id:"64780",title:"A Simple Way to Produce Gold Nanoshells for Cancer Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82495",slug:"a-simple-way-to-produce-gold-nanoshells-for-cancer-therapy",totalDownloads:1086,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gold nanoshells (GNSs), formed by a silica core surrounded by a gold shell, present a shift on their surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to the near-infrared (NIR) part of the electromagnetic spectrum when synthesized with specific dimensions. This chapter presents a simple method to prepare the nanoshells, a step-by-step characterization, as well as their absorbance spectrum. For the synthesis, silica spheres, with approximately 190 ± 5 nm in diameter, were prepared using the Stöber method and then functionalized with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES). The gold nanoparticles (GNPs), with a diameter of 7 ± 3 nm, were produced by the reduction of chloroauric acid. Then, the silica was seeded with the GNPs to later grow a gold shell with the help of Au(OH)4¯ ions and formaldehyde. UV-Vis spectroscopy results showed an increase of absorbance starting at 520 nm. It reached its maximum around 600 nm and kept absorbing all through 1200 nm. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) images suggest that the absorption peak movement coincided with the completion of the shell. Furthermore, when the sample was irradiated with an 820 nm wavelength/3.1 mW laser, its temperatures increased by 6.3°C in 2 min, showing its absorbance in the NIR.",signatures:"Rosa Isela Ruvalcaba Ontiveros, José Alberto Duarte Moller, Anel Rocío Carrasco Hernandez, Hilda Esperanza Esparza-Ponce, Erasmo Orrantia Borunda, Cynthia Deisy Gómez Esparza and Juan Manuel Olivares Ramírez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64780",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64780",authors:[{id:"34191",title:"Prof.",name:"Erasmo",surname:"Orrantia-Borunda",slug:"erasmo-orrantia-borunda",fullName:"Erasmo Orrantia-Borunda"},{id:"101380",title:"Dr.",name:"José Alberto",surname:"Duarte-Moller",slug:"jose-alberto-duarte-moller",fullName:"José Alberto Duarte-Moller"},{id:"283383",title:"MSc.",name:"Rosa Isela",surname:"Ruvalcaba",slug:"rosa-isela-ruvalcaba",fullName:"Rosa Isela Ruvalcaba"},{id:"283384",title:"MSc.",name:"Anel Rocio",surname:"Carrasco",slug:"anel-rocio-carrasco",fullName:"Anel Rocio Carrasco"},{id:"283385",title:"Dr.",name:"Hilda Esperanza",surname:"Esparza Ponce",slug:"hilda-esperanza-esparza-ponce",fullName:"Hilda Esperanza Esparza Ponce"}],corrections:null},{id:"65340",title:"Engineering of Surface Proteins in Extracellular Vesicles for Tissue-Specific Targeting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83537",slug:"engineering-of-surface-proteins-in-extracellular-vesicles-for-tissue-specific-targeting",totalDownloads:1684,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have in the recent decades gained an important stand as vehicles enabling cell-to-cell transport and communication. With the advanced development towards their clinical use and increasing versatility of potential applications, improving their tissue-specific targeting in order to enhance their functionality in drug delivery opened as a challenging engineering field. In the past, the question of specific intercellular contact has been addressed by decoration of the EV surface with agents able of specific target recognition. An attractive possibility here is the modification of strongly overexpressed EV surface marker proteins towards recognition of target cells. As these proteins are involved in a plethora of biological functions in EV biogenesis, cargo targeting and intercellular transfer, a minimal impact on protein architecture upon modifications is desirable, which would also increase the stability of the exosomal preparation intended for therapeutic use. This chapter focuses on the possibilities of engineering of the EV marker proteins towards antigen-recognition units broadly applicable to endow EVs with tissue-targeting functionality.",signatures:"Stefan Vogt, Gerhard Stadlmayr, Johannes Grillari, Florian Rüker and Gordana Wozniak-Knopp",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65340",authors:[{id:"273010",title:"Dr.",name:"Gordana",surname:"Wozniak-Knopp",slug:"gordana-wozniak-knopp",fullName:"Gordana Wozniak-Knopp"},{id:"273012",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Vogt",slug:"stefan-vogt",fullName:"Stefan Vogt"},{id:"273013",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerhard",surname:"Stadlmayr",slug:"gerhard-stadlmayr",fullName:"Gerhard Stadlmayr"},{id:"273014",title:"Prof.",name:"Florian",surname:"Rüker",slug:"florian-ruker",fullName:"Florian Rüker"},{id:"273015",title:"Prof.",name:"Johannes",surname:"Grillari",slug:"johannes-grillari",fullName:"Johannes Grillari"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5701",title:"Superfood and Functional Food",subtitle:"The Development of Superfoods and Their Roles as Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0c3c4e9924a0f6c2fe2df43d5dfc50fb",slug:"superfood-and-functional-food-the-development-of-superfoods-and-their-roles-as-medicine",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi and Viduranga Waisundara",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5701.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4602",title:"Advances in Bioremediation of Wastewater and Polluted Soil",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b879725924ff3e5b59fb2f8cc12c562",slug:"advances-in-bioremediation-of-wastewater-and-polluted-soil",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4602.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6062",title:"Advances in Bioremediation and Phytoremediation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7b537906414bbdbbe7a318c5702ef67e",slug:"advances-in-bioremediation-and-phytoremediation",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6062.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6538",title:"Current Topics on Superfoods",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"42525eaf5a539bc1e2318f4eb8dfea5a",slug:"current-topics-on-superfoods",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6538.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5258",title:"Molecular Mechanisms of the Aging Process and Rejuvenation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fd825c8a444ab91728c15f350df7b5ea",slug:"molecular-mechanisms-of-the-aging-process-and-rejuvenation",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5258.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5951",title:"Biomaterials in Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4ff8af6190bb48a5857450c9c2612d7",slug:"biomaterials-in-regenerative-medicine",bookSignature:"Leszek A. 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\r\n\tManifolds, a subject of interest for researchers in their own right, have many applications and interactions with many areas of mathematics and physics. These areas include partial differential equations, elliptic problems, boundary value problems, Schrodinger, and heat operators. Fundamentally, with Descartes and the introduction of coordinates, a line or a plane becomes via coordinates an algebraic object, more precisely an equation.
\r\n\r\n\tIn general, any coordinates replace geometry by algebra and we get a two-dimensional correspondence between the study of space and the study of equations. This process is a shift from geometry to numbers at a basic level. The coordinatization process has been used well before mathematicians accepted it as a method.
\r\n\r\n\tThe manifolds are precisely those spaces that can be piecewise provided with coordinates by means of a smooth correspondence on overlaps, and the book will intend to study these structures in mathematics, as well as the impact and applications to a variety of other areas of mathematics. Recently, there have been very deep insights into the subject, and it is intended this the book will provide readers with an interest in the subject a clear review of advances and consequences in this area of investigation.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-231-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-230-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-232-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"eca1aa784f719310820d6bb2cf5a7b20",bookSignature:"Prof. Paul Bracken",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11502.jpg",keywords:"Covariant Derivative, Connection, Elliptic, Boundary Value Problem, Hodge Decomposition, Differential Form, Curvature, Metric, Spin Structure, Bundle, Local Index Theorem, Clifford Algebra",numberOfDownloads:22,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 12th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 29th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Paul Bracken obtained his BSc degree from the University of Toronto and holds a Ph.D. from the University of Waterloo in Canada. His research interests include mathematical problems from the area of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, differential geometry, a study of partial differential equations as well as their overlap with other problems in physics. He has published more than 180 papers in journals and books and has given many talks at different levels over the years.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92883/images/system/92883.jpg",biography:"Professor Paul Bracken is currently a Professor in the Department of Mathematics, at the University of Texas RGV in Edinburg, TX. He obtained his BSc degree from the University of Toronto and holds a Ph.D. from the University of Waterloo in Canada. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"49133",title:"Review of Graphene Technology and Its Applications for Electronic Devices",doi:"10.5772/61316",slug:"review-of-graphene-technology-and-its-applications-for-electronic-devices",body:'Graphene is a two-dimensional (2D) analogue of graphite (carbon, or C) material that has exceptional characteristics derived from the bonding characteristics of C bonding sheets. C has four valence electrons, with three of these electrons participating in σ-bonding with its closest neighbors, creating a honeycomb structure. [1] The fourth of these valence electrons occupies an orbital perpendicular to the one-dimensional (1D) sheet creating delocalized π-bonding, as shown in Figure 1, which allows for the creation of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) with high mobility within the sheets. [1, 2]
Graphene geometry, bonding, and a related band diagram [
The delocalization of the π-bonding electrons allows for the graphene sheets to have high mobility, up to 15,000–200,000 cm2/Vs, limited by interactions with the substrate, any contaminant particles, or from itself during bilayer growth. [1, 3–7] This makes cleanliness, grain size, and substrate interference very important issues for growing and using graphene for high mobility and ultrafast applications.
In this review, we are going to focus on the important electrical properties of graphene; however, we should mention some of its other properties for completeness. Due to the 2D nature of a graphene crystal, a single flake will exhibit a large breaking strength of ≈40 N/m due to the absence of slip planes associating the fracture strength of graphene with the strong bonding of c–c in a hex ring. [8] The isolation of electrons from phonons also contributes to the high room temperature thermal conductivity of ≈5,000 W/mK. [9] Along with its high breaking strength graphene is also very pliable with a Young’s modulus ≈1.0 TPa and an elastic strain of up to 20%. [8] These values were partially expected on the basis of previous studies of carbon nanotubes and graphite; although the higher values observed in graphene can be attributed to the crystal defects in samples obtained by micromechanical cleavage.
There are even more intriguing material characteristics of graphene such as shrinkage with increasing
For electronic applications the structure of graphene creates a semi-metal with a direct Fermi-Dirac band structure, as shown in Figure 1, having charge carriers interacting as Dirac Fermions (with zero-effective mass) that allows for ballistic transport of up to a micron at room temperature. [13– 15] The Fermi-Dirac cone as shown in Figure 1c, however, is modified either by the addition of multiple layers as shown in Figure 2iii, the addition of two layers and doping from contaminant particles (metal or polymer particles lying on the surface) shown in 2iv, or contaminants doping a single layer as shown in Figure 2ii. [16] The contaminant-induced doping would move the Fermi level either up or down, the Dirac cone causing a rounding of the k states resulting in a decrease in the mobility of the current carriers (electron or holes). [16] This, along with the thickness restriction for graphene, creates large resistance and chemical inertness, unless chemically doped and functionalized, making its use for pure conductive applications less attractive. [16, 17]
(i) Diagram showing the Dirac Fermi cone; (ii) the modification of the k states by chemical or geometry restrictive doping; (iii) the modification of the k states by bilayer graphene; (iv) and finally, the modification of the k states in doped bilayer graphene. [
For applications such as the channel in a field effect transistor, graphene provides an interesting solution since it can be doped electrostatically and has extremely high mobility allowing for quick response. [18] The replacement of Si by graphene for logic gates might be considered due to the high potential switching speed; however, the absence of a band gap means that a relatively large band gap would have to be induced through a variety of doping or other symmetry breaking mechanisms. [18] The absence of a band gap in graphene limits voltage and power gains that is achieved through operation of a device in the saturation regime, along with having a low Ion/Ioff ratio. [16] To overcome this, several doping strategies as shown in Figure 3 have been proposed and tested including: electrostatic doping, chemical doping, and stress or geometry restricted doping by breaking the graphene periodicity (and band properties). [18]
Diagram showing multiple mechanisms for inducing a band gap in graphene [
The induction of a band gap has been attempted by multiple groups creating transistors with low on/off ratio and high mobility with a tradeoff between on/off ratio and mobility possible through graphene functionalization techniques.[1] This makes graphene more desirable for applications that require fast response times, but not necessarily big on/off ratios such as RF electronics and IR detectors.
Since graphene’s performance is very susceptible to contamination and structural defects (such as folds, grain boundaries, and pin holes) from processing or the transfer process, a review of graphene growth techniques should be done to determine the benefits and drawbacks of each. [1] Due to the sensitivity of graphene, the growth method must be chosen with the required quality, processing, scale, and device architecture in mind, making exfoliation good for small test structures but inadequate for a repeatable semiconductor targeted process. As shown in Figure 4 there are five major pathways for creating graphene sheets: exfoliation from bulk graphite, unzipping through etching a carbon nanotube, growth from sublimation and reconstruction of carbon from a carbide surface, epitaxial growth from a carbide forming catalyst layer by utilizing condensation during cooling, and the epitaxial growth utilizing a non-carbide forming catalyst layer.
Fabrication schemes for the large scale synthesis of graphene sheets [
As of 2014, exfoliation methods produced graphene with the lowest number of defects and the highest electron mobility by the pioneers of graphene, Novoselov and Geim, using the adhesive tape method to isolate graphene from graphite.[1, 13, 20] The most common exfoliation method utilizes an adhesive tape to pull graphene films off a graphite crystal, which are subsequently thinned down by further strips of tape and finally rubbed against the desired substrate. This rather crude method creates a random array of single and double layer graphene flakes on the desired substrate that has been a key driver for investigating the many properties of graphene. Since graphene is susceptible to creating folds during this process, it cannot be produced with high accuracy and repeatability, so other mechanical and chemical exfoliation processes have been investigated. To address the difficulties of the scotch tape method, one group tried to exfoliate graphene from highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) utilizing a sharp single-crystal diamond wedge penetrating into the graphite source to exfoliate layers. [21] This method has problems with defect initiation through shear stress and the reliable placement of the graphene flakes after exfoliation.
The other main exfoliation method is to utilize liquid-based techniques to create a dispersion of graphene or graphene oxide flakes that are drop-casted or ink-jet-printed, and in the case of graphene oxide subsequently reduced. Liquid exfoliation can be accomplished through the use of solvents or ionic liquids with similar surface tension to graphene, which when sonicated exfoliate the bulk graphite into graphene sheets that can be subsequently centrifuged to create a supernatant and dispersed. [22–25] Probably the oldest known method for producing graphene is through the production of graphite oxide using Hummers’ method, sonicating to create a dispersion and then reduction of the graphene oxide either through the introduction of hydrazine at elevated temperature or through the introduction of a quick burst of energy introduced either through a light burst as shown in Figure 5 (flash or laser) or a temperature spike. [21, 26, 27]
Reduction of graphene oxide using a LightScribe laser writing system ion, a standard DVD writer [
One of the more interesting liquid exfoliation methods utilizes sonicating graphite at the interface of two immiscible liquids, most notably heptane and water, producing macro-scale graphene films. [29] The graphene sheets are adsorbed to the high energy interface between the heptane and the water, where they are kept from restacking. [29] The graphene remains at the interface and the solvents may then be evaporated isolating the graphene flakes. [29]
Straightforward mechanical exfoliation methods have been able to produce high-quality graphene flakes that have been very beneficial for the investigation of the amazing characteristics of graphene, while liquid exfoliation (and reduction) methods have been utilized for the production of transparent conducting oxides, conductive inks, and electrodes for Li-ion batteries and super capacitors. Mechanical exfoliation, however, cannot be reliably scaled up to provide the reliable placement and large area high-quality graphene sheets desired for transistor and device applications.
As shown in Figure 6, graphene can be created by cutting open carbon nanotubes. [7] In one such method, multi-walled carbon nanotubes are cut open in a solution by action of potassium permanganate and sulfuric acid. [30] In another method, graphene nanoribbons were produced by plasma etching of nanotubes partly embedded in a polymer film. [30] This method is useful for producing nanoribbons of graphene that induces a band gap in graphene through geometry breaking, which will be discussed in Section 3. However, the placement of the nanotubes on an integratable chip has been problematic, and thus this method once again is only good for the production of test structures to probe graphene characteristics.
Image showing the unzipping of a carbon nanotube to produce graphene sheets [
Heating silicon carbide (SiC) or other carbide materials (TaC, NbCm ZrC, HfC, TiC) to high temperatures (>1,100°C) under low pressures (~10-6 torr) boils off the Si (from either the Si face or underlying Si from the C face) and reconstructs the C into a single layer graphene film, although multi-layer graphene has been produced through this approach as well. [19, 32] This process produces epitaxial graphene with dimensions dependent upon the size of the wafer.
Bonding of graphene at a SiC step edge [
The particular face of the SiC used for graphene formation, silicon- or carbon-terminated, highly influences the thickness, mobility, and carrier density of the resulting graphene, with the best results coming from a step edge in SiC that produces “floating” graphene attached to the SiC on the top and the bottom of the step edge as shown in Figure 7. [33] There has also been some work utilizing Ni and Cu bilayers to catalyze the production of graphene from SiC achieving growth at higher pressures and lower temperature. [34] The benefit of using graphene produced from SiC is that SiC is easily integratable with microelectronics processing technologies. The SiC is not desired for most electronics applications, making it desirable to transfer the graphene from its SiC substrate to a more standard substrate such as Si. The sublimation of graphene from SiC also creates a Si2O3 insulating under layer that could assist with the transfer process. Under high temperatures, a large variety of intercalant species can also be placed between the graphene and SiC layer that can potentially help with the exfoliation or the electrical modification/isolation. [19] Under normal conditions, the graphene SiC interface forms a Schottky contact; however, it has been shown that the oxide can be transformed to a nitrogen underlayer through a thermal annealing process in a nitride atmosphere modifying the electronic characteristics between the two. [35]
Graphene growth utilizing a carbonaceous source material (such as methane introduced through a CVD process) differs from material to material with the carbon solubility in the metal and the growth conditions determining the deposition mechanism as shown by the phase diagrams in Figure 8. [7] For carbide producing metallic substrates (such as Ni), graphene growth occurs through a precipitation process during cooling from the carbide. [7] The solubility of C in the metal (Ni for example) is higher at higher temperatures, and thus during the furnace cooling phase carbon diffuses out of its Ni host. [7] The process of forming graphene on Ni has the fundamental limitation that single and few layered graphene is obtained over few to tens of micron regions and not homogeneously over the entire substrate. [7] The lack of control over the number of layers is attributed to the difference in out-diffusion of C from the grains and the grain boundaries of Ni creating non-homogeneous growth conditions.
The phase diagram for a carbide creating catalyst (Fe) and a non-carbide creating catalyst (Cu) [
Epitaxy refers to the deposition of a crystalline overlayer on a crystalline substrate, where there is registry between the two. In some cases, epitaxial graphene layers are coupled to surfaces weakly enough (by Van der Waals forces) to retain the 2D electronic band structure of isolated graphene. [31, 32] It is commonly accepted that the production of graphene through the surface absorption of carbon on a non-carbide producing metal (such as Cu or Ir) is an epitaxial process due to the registry between the underlying Cu (or Ir) crystal structure and the graphene layer.
Exceptional high-quality single layer graphene growth over large areas have been recently achieved on polycrystalline copper foils.[7] The growth on Cu or Ir is simple and straightforward due to the metallic substrates not having a stable carbide material, thus the decomposition of C is only reliant upon the grain orientation. [36] For example, Cu is an FCC lattice with three dominant grain orientations Cu(100), Cu(110), and Cu(111) along with high index facets which are made up of combinations of low index facets. [36] Cu(100), Cu(110), and Cu (111) have cubic, rectangular, and hexagonal geometries making the Cu(111) grain orientation able to support epitaxial growth. [36] Thus, grain growth on Cu(111) grains tend to be monolayered graphene sheets while Cu(100) and Cu(110) geometries prevent C diffusion causing compact multilayered C islands to form with higher index facets replicating the performance of the lower index grains. [36]
Despite the ability for Cu and other metal substrates to grow high-quality graphene flakes for device applications, graphene has to first be transferred onto a semiconducting or insulating substrate when using this growth method. [37] The transference process usually involves spinning on a polymer, etching off the catalyst metal layer, then transferring the graphene onto the desired substrate by placing it on the substrate, and finally etching off the substrate. [37] Both of these processes can produce contaminants on the graphene layer, reducing the mobility by adding scattering centers in the sheet. [1] Groups have been working on ways to reliably reduce these contamination effects; one group has utilized Ti sputtering along with a Ti etch to remove any remaining Cu, while another group has shown that by first spinning on a lift off resist before a normal polymer backing layer produces a much cleaner graphene layer. [38, 39] High-quality graphene has also been shown to be grown between a GaN and Ni interface where the Ni can be peeled off and the graphene layer is left on the GaN substrate. [40]
Due to the chemical nature of the graphene with its zero band gap, mobility related to the delocalization of the π-bonding orbitals, and lattice periodicity, the doping of graphene can be achieved either through the breaking of lattice periodicity or the electrostatic confinement of the delocalized pz orbitals. [19] There have been several mechanisms proposed and tested that have been effective in shifting the Fermi energy to either p- or n-type regions of the band structure and the creation of p-n junctions at the interface. [19] It should be noted that by breaking the lattice symmetry, the electronic states and band edges are modified as shown in Figure 2, decreasing the mobility. With chemical functionalization, scattering is introduced into the graphene flakes, also decreasing the mobility.
Image showing trapped charges at graphene oxide interfaces [
Since graphene is a self-contained sheet with no real interface layer, it should be noted that process integration with oxide dielectrics as shown in Figure 9 can be difficult due to trapped impurities at the interface in terms of creating floating gates for voltage-controlled variable gate transistors. [41] This effect is relevant for device applications of graphene films. It should also be noted that the introduction of trap centers and doping sites through contamination will degrade the continuity of the 2DEG at the trap or dopant site, causing electron and hole pooling to occur. [16, 17, 42]
Electrostatic doping as shown in Figure 10 can be controlled through a variety of methods; some use floating gates with oxide buffer layers and others use direct gate contacts to locally modify the Fermi level allowing for the voltage-controlled operation of the graphene device. [43] Most electrostatic gating is accomplished through a horizontal device architecture to preserve the mobility of graphene for ultrafast devices. With both direct and indirect contact, electrostatic gating can be accomplished by utilizing metals with two different work functions; polymers with different end groups as shown in Figure 11; and finally, layered materials with different opposing band gaps with the higher band gap being the acceptor and the lower being the donor as shown in Figure 12. [19] Metals with dissimilar work functions are normally integrated into a horizontal device with many different combinations to choose from. [44, 45] The amount of gap opening is defined by the difference between the two metal work functions and the induced electric field decreasing down the length of the sheet making the contact placement critical. [44, 45]
Diagram showing charge injection and Fermi modification of a graphene Schottky contact [
Diagram showing the doping of graphene utilizing different polymer end groups [
For polymers, the use of different functional groups can electrostatically dope a horizontal graphene sheet with an isolated amine group (isolated nitrogen atom as in nitric acid) n-doping the graphene sheet while fluorine is well known as a good electron acceptor so a polymer containing an isolated fluorine end group p-dopes the polymer as shown in Figure 11. [18] For the polymer electrostatic doping technique, similar atomic dopants are utilized for the chemical doping regime with atoms lower than group V providing n-type doping and elements higher than group V creating p-type dopants (this will create environmental sensitivity within an exposed graphene sheet due to the oxygen and hydroxide adatoms p-doping the graphene). [18, 46]
Diagram showing the stacking of multiple Van der Waals materials in order to create unique and tunable electrical properties [
Finally, for electrostatic doping, the utilization of other 2D materials as shown in Figure 12 can be used by vertical device integration with either a homojunction-based device or a heterojunction-based device. For a homojunction-based device, graphene is utilized in a double layer with electrostatic doping coming from a layer above one graphene sheet with a lower band gap (such as tungsten diselenide WSe2) and one below the other graphene sheet with a higher band gap (such as molybdenum disulfide MoS2) creating an electric field between the two 2D materials with different band gaps and electrostatically doping the graphene as shown in Figure 12. [48] Since the electrostatic potential outside a sheet with a band gap will only induce a shift in the Fermi energy for graphene, a heterojunction can be formed between the junction of the 2D materials with a tuning of the upper and lower contacts required. [48] The use of 2D stacked devices is interesting but it should be remembered that many of these layers have not been shown to be readily deposited on top of the other, requiring transfer techniques that can induce defects, transfer contaminants, and have alignment issues between the lattices creating different properties across the lattice due to misalignment as shown in Figure 13. [47, 49]
Image showing that the misalignment of 2D materials can electrically isolate the two sheets by separating the Dirac cones [
It has been shown that a twist angle between two graphene sheets above 2° electrically isolates the two graphene sheets from one another except at certain twist angles as shown in Figure 13. [49] Most 2D materials have also been shown to have intrinsic doping due to vacancies and edge defects that create more problems for device integration. [49] It should be noted that the mobilities in graphene on boron nitride (BN) substrates have been measured up to 140,000 cm2/Vs, which is very close to completely suspended graphene grown from a SiC step edge, showing the validity of using 2D heterostructures for device integration and isolation. [32, 42]
As mentioned briefly in the electrostatic doping section, chemical dopants can be utilized to modify the electrical characteristics of graphene, modifying the Fermi energy to create p- or n-type doping as shown in Figure 14. [19, 46] The chemical doping mechanism of graphene works by having the dopant bond either ionically or covalently to the delocalized pz orbital. [46] The covalent bonding of a dopant with graphene occurs through modification of the delocalized pz orbitals to electrostatically hold an adatom onto the surface, which modifies the band structure by binding the electrons in the pz orbitals, thus creating a required energy (a band gap) for conduction. [46] The chemical dopant can be ionically bonded to a single carbon atom by breaking a c–c bond and attaching to that bonding spot, which breaks the graphene symmetry introducing a scattering defect and a band gap opening. [46, 51] The amount of surface adatoms is reliant upon the dopant and the type of bonding with ionic bonding and larger electronegativity being able to obtain a stronger bond, higher dopant concentration, and higher band gap shifting. [46] However, it should be noted that the higher the doping, the more scattering and the lower the mobility, leading chemical doping to be typically done on vertical devices with a small cross section and thus small diffusion length. [19, 46]
The functionalization scheme of graphene utilizing a H2 plasma [
The final way to dope graphene is by breaking the lattice periodicity of graphene as shown in Figure 15. [19, 53] This can be done by reducing the size of a graphene sheet in one direction so that the Fermi levels from the periodic boundary conditions are refined, providing doping through a quantum confinement effect. [53] Quantum confinement occurs when the material dimensions are below the Bohr radius, which for graphene is at 10 nm. [13, 53] This has been shown to be accomplished through the patterning of graphene into ribbons with one dimension restricted to under 10 nm, thus opening a gap of 2.5–3.0 eV in theory and 0.5 eV experimentally. [19, 53] Graphene with a size in either x or y under 10 nm is known as a graphene nanoribbon and it suffers, like many other graphene synthesis techniques, from a lack of a reliable production technique. [53] Traditional semiconductor line definition techniques cannot reliably get a line definition below 20 nm, with large problems creating lines with acceptable line edge roughness. For graphene nanoribbons, the resistance induced through scattering from the line edge roughness is coupled with a lack of graphene conformality, not knowing whether the line definition will create “zig-zag” or “arm-chair” end terminations that provide different conductivity values. [19, 53] The difference between “zig-zag” and “arm-chair” end terminations is shown in Figure 16 and the difference in conductivities between the two create a discrepancy when designing a device utilizing multiple nanoribbons or multiple devices utilizing a graphene nanoribbon. [54]
Different defined graphene sheet edge states and the associated band diagrams showing opening according to edge definitions [
A picture showing the difference between zig-zag and armchair graphene end terminations [
The induced line edge roughness produces many scattering defect reducing the lattice periodicity, obliterating the induced band gap, and decreasing the mobility ultimately limiting the usefulness of graphene nanoribbon formation. [16, 19] Thus, to achieve useful devices from geometry restricted graphene, a reliable method of patterning graphene with low line edge roughness and uniform width must be developed.
There has been an interest in looking at graphene for nanoelectronics applications due to its high intrinsic mobility allowing for greater switching speed. [18] The main problem with the integration of graphene into three-terminal devices is the lack of a high Ion/Ioff current, which for regular metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) is on the order of 104–107, while for most graphene devices is on the order of 10. [16, 55] This makes graphene-based devices more attractive for the replacement of RF-based devices that are currently dominated by high electron mobility transistors (HEMT) that require a Ion/Ioff ratio of around 30. [16, 55] In addition to this, RF electronics require current saturation to obtain voltage and power gains of around 30, which for graphene means the creation of a band gap through one of the doping mechanisms described above. [16] Saturation current is normally attained through the saturation of charge carrier velocity; however, due to the high mobility of the graphene layer the velocity saturation is unattainable without going to extremely high source drain voltage. [16] Therefore, saturation must be obtained through current pinchoff effects and voltage gain as shown in Figure 17, which can be created in graphene through band gap formation. [16] Even with the formation of a band gap, graphene does not exhibit a saturation current at zero doping due to the Fermi-Dirac cone shape, but the band gap does allow the creation of current pinchoff due to electrical band gap modulation via the source and drain contacts. With this background, we are going to address in the subsequent section several issues that hinder the integration of graphene into FETs that can be utilized for RF applications and review the state-of-the-art technology in terms of GFETs for RF electronics.
Diagram showing current pinchoff in a Si MOSFET.
Graphene normally has a grain size of several to tens of microns with the desire to use a single grain as the channel material to avoid scattering at grain edges (also a factor in current MOSFET structures that is why single crystalline Si is used as a substrate). [16] This creates many of the short channel effects commonly seen in MOSFETS such as drain induced barrier lowering, surface scattering, velocity saturation, impact ionization, and hot-electron effects. [16] Specifically for graphene, drain-induced barrier lowering, surface scattering, and hot electron effects are all in play. Surface scattering is due to the intrinsic susceptibility of graphene to surface contamination and scattering sites, while the hot electron and barrier lowering effects affect graphene due to the pinchoff formation needed to have the large Ion/Ioff ratio required for typical electronics applications and to create large enough voltage and power gains for RF applications.
Graphene is a self-contained electronic sheet showing no classical band bending interactions when coupled to a metallic contact as shown in Figure 18. This creates an abrupt transition in the vacuum level, creating a barrier that any carrier would have to tunnel through, creating charge buildup at the band edges and large contact resistances. [56]
Classical band diagrams for a metal-silicon interface, a metal-metal interface, and a metal graphene interface.
In conjunction to this challenge is the relative inertness of a graphene sheet, making good electrical contacts difficult to realize and mainly occurring at grain edges. [56] This creates a situation where the bulk of the contact sits over the graphene electrostatically doping it, while also trying to realize good adhesion creating a search for a metals with good adhesion to graphene along with the correct Fermi level. [56] To achieve this goal, a double or triple metal stack is commonly used with an oxygen scavenger interfacing the graphene (normally Ti), followed by one or a couple of Fermi level contacts (Au, Pd, Ni). [56] The metallic doping effect, however, can be utilized for some interesting devices such as one using asymmetric contacts to create an internal electric field making an IR detector through the photothermoelectric effect, or using large gap superconducting contacts to confine electrons and holes in a graphene sheet to enhance bolometric response. [45, 57]
As stated in Section 1 and Section 3, graphene is a self-contained layer without any dangling bonds, thus adhesion and interfaces with graphene are a challenge. Multiple groups have been experimenting with different types of oxides with either an aluminum deposition and oxidation or a nitrogen dioxide surface pretreatment prior to a hafnium oxide, silicon dioxide, or aluminum oxide deposition. [58] The dielectric which seems to work the best (but has not yet been implemented in a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) fabrication process) is another 2D self-contained dielectric BN with which graphene has shown mobilities of 140,000 cm2/Vs, which is very close to completely suspended graphene grown from a SiC step edge, demonstrating low interaction and good isolation between the two substrates. [42]
To overcome some of the short channel issues and problems with graphene integration into common process flows, a wafer bonding type of integration has been suggested as shown in Figure 19. [59] This allows for the separation of the drain and gate contacts, which reduces coupling and alleviates some of the issues with drain induced barrier lowering. [60]
Wafer bonding with subsequent source drain contact deposition [
Gate coupling is a significant issue with graphene FETs due to the large gate voltages needed to create sufficient barriers for high Ion/Ioff ratios, the metallic characteristic of the graphene layer, the thin gate oxide needed to ensure good gate control and reduced gate potential for smaller electrical field propagation, and finally the dielectric breakdown strength. [60] All of these needs show that a thin high-k gate with opposing gate and source drain contact geometry is desired as shown in Figure 19.
Graphene devices have a very thin cross section where the active electric field can affect one another. It has been shown that by using tapered contacts as shown in Figure 20, the amount of source drain coupling is reduced due to electric field reduction. [60] This is especially effective if utilizing a back gate design as shown later in Figure 21, or a large gate that could overlap the source and drain contacts on the opposing side of the devices channel. [55, 60]
Tapered contacts used on opposing sides of the gate to reduce [
In order to create a device that allows for the opening of a band gap required for current saturation and appropriate voltage and current gains, several device geometries have been proposed. [16, 55] The main mechanisms for increasing graphene performance in FETs is to increase gate coupling with graphene layer and to optimize the graphene dielectric interface to reduce scattering and make the conduction and valence states continuous. [16]
One possible device geometry shown in Figure 21 utilizes a bilayer graphene channel with a large backgate voltage to induce an electric field of 1.7 V/nm that opens a band gap in bilayer graphene of 80 meV with the Mexican hat shape shown in Figure 2iv. [16, 55] The band gap creates a saturation current due to pinchoff at the drain contact resulting in a voltage gain of 35, which is relevant for RF electronics.
Diagram of a B-bilayer graphene FET with back contact to create a pinchoff region and voltage gain [
This mechanism works much better for bilayer graphene than monolayer graphene as bilayer graphene more easily forms a pinchoff region. To demonstrate this, the amount of voltage gain in such a graphene FET is graphed as contour plots with voltage gain axis on the right hand side of the graph as shown in Figure 22. [55]
Contour maps of voltage gain in a single layer and bilayer graphene channel with modification of back gate voltage [
Current designs for graphene FETs are shown in Figure 23, with the back gated design commonly used to overcome any doping in the graphene channel due to substrate, atmospheric, or dielectric effects. [16] The back gate and top gate design are the most common since these allow for the shifting of the Dirac point to zero through an induced electric field and proper gate modulation. [16]
Image showing the most common designs for GFETs [
Utilizing a three-terminal top gate design of CVD graphene grown on a SiC substrate, one group was able to achieve a 350 GHz cutoff frequency, utilizing a channel length of 40 nm as shown in Figure 24. [61]
Image showing the threshold frequency versus gate length for the device architectures shown on the left, the epitaxial graphene is on the SiC substrate, and the frequency shows a 1/L dependence [
This group showed that the threshold frequency has a 1/L dependence, where L is the channel length of the graphene FET. This has been modeled and pushed to the limit with an understanding that graphene might be able to break the 1THz limit that InGaAs and SiGe HEMTs can’t break. [62] One group theoretically tuned all of the parasitic capacitances that would limit the graphene channel mobility; this includes removing Schottky interactions at the source and drain contacts, removal of any trapped states in the oxide, ignoring any electron/hole pooling effects, and having the gate voltage perfectly coupled to channel potential, allowing for a GFET that operates at 1.5 THz. [62] This GFET is optimized to have zero gain due to the current saturation in the 50 nm channel. [62] By allowing for current saturation in the GFET, a voltage gain can be engineered in the graphene channel; however, this would deteriorate the operating frequency of the GFET as shown in Figure 25. [62]
An image showing the threshold frequency for each possible gain in a GFET for systems with different amounts of tuning of parasitic resistance; the blue line has no parasitic resistance [
One of the interesting applications for graphene is its use in EO devices and lasers. Graphene can absorb wavelengths from the visible to the mid-IR with wavelength modulation enabled through electrostatic gating. [63–67] The electrostatic gating interacts with light either by modulating the band gap width up to a certain wavelength working as an absorption modulating element, or it modifies the graphene surface plasmon modes that interact with light. [63–67] The last example is how graphene was utilized for mode locking a laser. [63–67] The problem with utilizing graphene for pure optical devices is due to its inherent thinness only absorbing 2.3% of the incident light per monolayer. [63–67] This makes it more desirable to integrate graphene with other electro-optical components such as photonic cavities or plasmonic waveguides with an example shown in Figure 26. [63–67]
Integration of a tunable graphene capacitor with an EO modulator [
The EO modulator pictured in Figure 26 was created through the coupling of Si plasmonic nanocavities to a tunable graphene capacitor made from stacked layers of graphene and BN dielectric film. [63] The top and bottom graphene layers are electrostatically doped differently from one another with varying voltages for optical modulation of absorbed light. [63] The modulator worked up to 1.2 GHz frequency, which was limited by the RC time constant of the capacitor. [63]
Although on its own graphene is not practical for use as a waveguide or modulator, it can be combined with already active materials to increase the performance of such devices.
IR detectors can be separated into two separate categories: thermal-based IR detection and photon-based detection. [68] In thermal-based detectors, the incident IR radiation is absorbed, raising the temperature of the material. [68] The raised temperature affects some temperature-dependent property of the material; for pyrometers this is a change in electrical polarization, while for bolometers, this is a change in materials resistance. [68] Another more recent study utilized the photothermoelectric effect in graphene to create a net electric field due to electron diffusion into dissimilar metal contacts. [45] Photon-based detectors utilize band gap-based detection with the arriving photon being absorbed and utilized to promote electron hole pairs to create a photocurrent. [68] The photon-based detectors can be tuned to certain wavelengths by creating a quantum well structure. [68] Photon-based IR absorbers are characterized by having fast absorption response, but usually require cooling due to thermal effects, while thermal-based IR detectors have high responsivity over a large wavelength and can be utilized at room temperature but normally have slow absorption response. [68] This is where utilizing a graphene-based sensing element is attractive due to the high mobility with little temperature sensitivity making it ideal for IR detectors. [2]
Several groups have attempted to integrate graphene into IR detectors. The groups have tried both photon- and the thermal-based absorption methods. [45, 69–74] For photon-based absorption methods, the main focus has been the opening of a band gap through geometric modification. [45, 69] One group utilized bilayer graphene to open a small band gap that is sensitive to thermalization requiring cooling to 5 K for operation. [69]
The utilization of graphene nanoribbons to open a small band gap that is enhanced through the use of p- and n-type graphene contacts [
Another group utilized an array of aligned graphene nanoribbons as shown in Figure 27 to open up a small band gap that has significant difficulties in fabrication and noise properties from the nanoribbon edges. [45] Groups that have tried thermal-based IR detectors seem to have created more novelty, with one group utilizing multiple vertically aligned graphene flakes, while another group utilized a resonant structure of two graphene sheets separated by a dielectric to tune the photon wavelength of absorption as shown in Figure 28. Finally, another group utilized the photothermoelectric effect as shown in Figure 29 to induce an electric current in graphene due to electric gating or dissimilar metal contacts. [45, 70, 71] The bolometer utilizing vertically aligned graphene sheets used distance-based tunneling between sheets for the bolometric effect, which is sensitive to contamination between sheets and alignment of the graphene flakes making reproduction difficult. [71]
Phonon resonance-based IR detector [
The resonance-based IR detector shown in Figure 28 utilizes the phonon resonance of two separate graphene sheets separated by a dielectric allowing for the tuning of wavelength detection based upon separation distance, but the fabrication is difficult requiring pristine graphene and no trapped states in the oxide that would both modify the resonant frequency and could possibly contaminate the detector out of detection range. [70]
Image of a detector based upon the photothermoelectric effect [
The photothermoelectric effect detector shown in Figure 29 is relatively straight forward with contamination only affecting the speed of the detector and the noise only susceptible to trap states of the insulating oxide that the graphene is transferred onto. [45]
We have shown graphene to have many amazing properties due to its unique bonding and subsequently band gap characteristics, having electronic carriers act as “massless” Dirac-Fermions. The material characteristics of graphene are anisotropic, having phenomenal characteristic within a single sheet and diminished material characteristics between sheet with increasing sheet number and grain boundaries. This restricts the applications of graphene to technology that is consistent with miniaturization such as microelectronics. Therefore the integration of graphene into several electronic device applications was reviewed.
Graphene has the highest mobilities values measured in a material at room temperature making integration into fast response time devices such as a HEMT for RF applications. It has been shown that although the integration of graphene is challenging due to mobility degradation due to surface contamination in the graphene and trapped states in the oxide dielectric, a graphene RF detector with an overall response frequency of 300 Ghz was achieved utilizing a three-terminal design on a SiC substrate with a channel length of 40 nm.
Graphene use in optical devices is limited due to the absorption of 2.3% of incident light per layer making graphene’s use for optical devices a tradeoff between getting enough layer for good optical absorption and modulation versus restricting number of layers for fast carrier propagation. On its own, graphene is not practical for use as a waveguide or modulator but when it is combined with already active materials, it increases the performance of such devices thus an EO modulator utilizing a stacked graphene-BN capacitor along with a Si microcavity array displays the ability to modulate light at a rate of 1.2 GHz.
Graphene for IR detectors has shown some promising results utilizing graphene in thermal-based detection regimes since photon-based absorption regimes all require inducing a band gap, adding complexity and reliability issues. The unique thermal-based properties of graphene either in a traditional bolometric type of device or one based upon current produced from the photoelectric effect allowed for the creation of a graphene IR detector with sensitivity to a 2.5 THz (119µm) laser.
In addition to achieving the energy conversion, wind energy heating system can also get the thermal energy needed by users through the “wind energy-mechanical energy-thermal energy” route [1]. The kinetic energy of the natural wind is captured and converted to mechanical energy by the wind turbine firstly, and then the heater converts the mechanical energy to the desired thermal energy. Compared with the first type of energy conversion, the second form is called the wind energy direct heating system and it saves the power generation equipment (as shown in Figure 1) and reduces the number of energy conversion time. The system will further reduce the initial investment cost and significantly improve the energy utilization coefficient.
Schematic diagram of the “wind energy-mechanical energy-thermal energy” conversion pathway.
The vertical axis wind turbine has attracted more and more attention due to its simple structure, low cost, and no yaw system required. The vertical axis wind turbine is divided into lift-type and drag-type vertical axis wind turbines, between which the lift-type one has a higher wind energy utilization coefficient under the high blade tip speed ratio, and thus the wind turbine has higher power. Lift-type vertical axis wind turbines are usually designed with two-or three-bladed wind turbines, and the three-bladed turbine has a lower shaft torque ripple and better self-starting characteristics compared to the two-bladed turbine [2].
The basic principle of the permanent magnet eddy current heater (Figure 2) is that when the rotor of the eddy current heater starts to rotate, the stator heating element is in the changing magnetic field. Since the stator heating element is generally a solid metal structure, many free loops can be formed inside it. Under the action of changing magnetic field, the magnetic flux of each circuit will change, which will produce an induced current. The impedance value formed in the stator heating body is small, so the circuit current will be large, so as to achieve the effect of heating.
Model of the permanent magnet eddy current heater.
For the study of wind energy heating, the authors in reference [3] set up an outdoor mixing heating experimental platform powered by natural wind and calculated the heating efficiency by the recorded wind speed, rotational speed, and temperature of working fluid. The authors in reference [4] compared the heating effects of the flat blade and the cylindrical blade and found that the heating effect of the flat blade is much better. The authors in reference [5] established a mathematical model to match the torque and the power, which provides a theoretical basis for the design of the stirred wind heating device. The authors in reference [6] optimized the structure of the wind turbine by using the Fluent software according to the relevant theory of wind turbine. The authors in reference [7] used Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method to analyze the thermal efficiency of wind energy heating, and verified the feasibility of using CFD to analyze the mixing heating device.
The basic principle of the liquid stirring heater (Figure 3) is that the wind turbine directly drives the agitator to rotate the liquid at high speed and make the liquid heat.
Model of liquid stirring heater.
The authors in reference [8] studied the relationship between the torque required in the starting stage of the liquid stirring heater and the stirring impeller radius, angular acceleration. The liquid stirring heater is accompanied by a higher torque when starting.
The authors in reference [9] studied the permanent magnet eddy current heater directly driven by the vertical axis resistance differential wind turbine and analyzed the work of the permanent magnet eddy current heater under a certain wind speed. The authors in reference [10] simulated the permanent magnet eddy current heater model using the finite element method, determined the relevant geometric parameters and material properties of the model and obtained the heater power. The authors in reference [11] set up a permanent magnet eddy current heater experiment device, through which the relevant data were obtained. By using the test device, the temperature changes under different rotating speeds, working times, and different import and export water temperatures were measured, and then the corresponding conversion efficiency was obtained. The authors in reference [12] show that the increase of the thermal energy of the permanent magnet eddy current heater is roughly proportional to the square of the rotational speed increase. The authors in reference [13] pointed out that for the instability and intermittent nature of wind energy, connecting the thermal energy storage device after the permanent magnet eddy current heater can ensure the stable output of thermal energy.
In this study, the operation characteristics of the heater directly driven by a vertical axis wind turbine (Figure 4) under different working conditions are studied. The heating efficiencies of the two types of heaters are analyzed, and the matching relationship between the wind turbine and heater is optimized (see Figures 2–4).
Model of vertical axis wind turbine in wind tunnel test.
The wind turbine model is a three-blade vertical axis wind turbine adopting the NACA0018 symmetrical airfoil. The string length (
Geometric model of vertical axis wind turbine.
The parameter name | Value | Unit |
---|---|---|
Blade height/ | 1 | m |
Airfoil | NACA0018 | — |
Chord length/ | 0.25 | m |
Blade number | 3 | — |
Rotor rotating diameter/ | 1.1 | m |
Dimension parameters of the vertical axis wind turbine.
Schematic diagram of the 3D Computational domain.
The aerodynamic characteristics of the vertical axis wind turbine can be expressed as follows:
The following speed relation is satisfied when the wind turbine blades are in each position as Eq. (1):
where,
The force analysis of a certain determined blade is shown in Figure 7. The central point of the vertical axis wind turbine is the
Force analysis of the element on the blade.
The other component can be expressed as Eq. (3):
So, the force on the blade is expressed as Eq. (4):
Based on the above velocity decomposition relationship, the attack angle of blade is as Eq. (5):
The aerodynamic pressure acting on the blade can be expressed as Eq. (6):
The Lilienthal aerodynamic coefficient at this blade element is expressed as Eq. (7):
where
Component forces of normal direction and wing string direction of the blade are given as Eq. (8):
Decompose the above component forces to the flow wind speed direction, the resultant force received by the rotor in that direction is as Eq. (9):
where
The torque formula provided by the force acting on the blade for the rotor rotation axis is expressed as Eq. (10):
Integrating the above formulas, the torque of the whole rotor is expressed as Eq. (11):
Therefore, the power is expressed as Eq. (12):
The wind energy utilization coefficient
Grid division is a very important part in numerical simulation. Good grid division can improve the accuracy of the wind turbine performance prediction. In order to ensure the accuracy of the simulation, this study adopts the 3D structured grid for the wind turbine as shown in Figure 8.
Mesh of vertical axis wind turbine: (a) top view of mesh in rotating domain; (b) mesh around blade; (c) the entire mesh in the computational domain.
For the three-blade wind turbine model studied in this paper, the pressure-velocity coupling method and SIMPLE algorithm are used to solve the transient URANS Equation, and the pressure order, momentum term, and turbulence dissipation term are all solved by the second-order windward space dissipation algorithm, and the judgment criterion of convergence is set to 10−5. The turbulence model used in the simulation is the transition
Comparison of 3D numerical simulation results to experimental data and 2D numerical simulation results.
It is known from experiments that when the working fluid temperature of the bulk heat exchange surface increases by 60°C under different speed conditions, the faster the speed of the permanent magnet eddy current heater, the faster the working fluid temperature of the heat exchanger surface increases. However, if the speed is too fast, it will lead to an increase in heat production absorbed by the bulk metal during the heater operation, the uniform heating of circulating working fluid, and a high energy loss. Overall, the running speed of the heater is relatively suitable at 20 rad/s. The starting torque of the permanent magnet eddy current heater is about 6.89N·m, while after the magnetic eddy current heater is used as the wind turbine load, the wind turbine tip speed is relatively low, which will deviate from the optimal tip speed ratio interval, and thus leads to a low wind energy utilization coefficient during operation.
For the permanent magnet eddy current heater, when the wind speed varies from 13 m/s to 17 m/s, the output parameters of the wind turbine are shown in Table 2.
Wind speed/(m/s) | Rotating speed/(rad/s) | Tip speed ratio | CP | Torque/(N m) | Power of wind turbine/(W) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
13.0 | 5.76 | 0.24 | 0.027 | 7.01 | 40.39 |
13.5 | 6.80 | 0.27 | 0.033 | 8.09 | 55.09 |
14.0 | 8.37 | 0.33 | 0.044 | 9.61 | 80.54 |
14.5 | 9.94 | 0.38 | 0.045 | 11.33 | 112.78 |
15.0 | 11.51 | 0.42 | 0.067 | 13.23 | 152.45 |
15.5 | 13.08 | 0.46 | 0.080 | 15.24 | 199.60 |
16.0 | 15.70 | 0.59 | 0.127 | 16.70 | 350.34 |
16.5 | 17.79 | 0.60 | 0.128 | 21.54 | 383.52 |
17.0 | 19.89 | 0.64 | 0.150 | 24.89 | 495.21 |
Output parameters of wind turbine at 13–17 m/s wind speeds.
The rotating speed and torque curve of wind turbine under different wind speed conditions are shown in Figures 10 and 11. Clearly, the rotating speed and torque of the wind turbine both increase linearly with the wind speed increased.
Curve of the rotating speed change at 13–17 m/s wind speeds.
Curve of the torque change at 13–17 m/s wind speeds.
According to the experimental data, the relationship between the heat absorption power
The relationship between the power of heat absorption
Therefore, the efficiency of the heater can be expressed as Eq. (16):
where
The system efficiency is the ratio of the heat obtained by the circulating working fluid to the wind energy swept by the wind turbine. It can directly reflect how much energy the heating system captures from the natural wind. The expression is Eq. (17):
According to the above formulas, the heating efficiency and system efficiency of the permanent magnet eddy current heater can be obtained (Table 3) by using the output power of the wind turbine.
Wind speed/(m/s) | Power of wind turbine/(W) | Thermal energy exchange power/(W) | Heating efficiency/(%) | System efficiency/(%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
13.0 | 40.39 | 17.11 | 42.36 | 1.14 |
13.5 | 55.09 | 22.94 | 41.64 | 1.37 |
14.0 | 80.54 | 33.85 | 42.02 | 1.85 |
14.5 | 112.78 | 49.15 | 43.58 | 1.96 |
15.0 | 152.45 | 70.27 | 46.09 | 3.09 |
15.5 | 199.60 | 98.64 | 49.42 | 3.95 |
16.0 | 350.34 | 213.21 | 60.68 | 7.73 |
16.5 | 383.52 | 243.31 | 63.44 | 8.12 |
17.0 | 495.21 | 357.58 | 72.21 | 10.83 |
The heating efficiency and system efficiency of the permanent magnet eddy current heater.
As seen from Figures 12 and 13, with the increase of the test wind speed, the heating efficiency increases at the same time. The heating efficiency and system efficiency are significantly increased when the wind speed is higher than 15.5 m/s. When the wind speed is 17 m/s, the heating efficiency and system efficiency reach the maximum values of 72.21% and 10.83%, respectively. Hence, the permanent magnet eddy current heater has higher efficiency under the condition of higher wind speed and rotating speed.
Curve of the heating efficiency change at 13–17 m/s wind speeds.
Curve of the system efficiency change at 13–17 m/s wind speeds.
According to the experiment results, the temperature rise rate fluctuates in a certain range when the liquid stirring heater rotates at different speeds, but it does not attenuate with the increase of the working fluid temperature. Hence, with the rise of work fluid temperature, the increase of environmental thermal dissipation will not significantly affect the working fluid temperature rise rate. The changes in working fluid temperature at different heater speeds are in linear function, and the effect of heater speed on heating is significant. The strength and stiffness of mixing blade and the plate under high speed are also need to be considered.
The wind turbine can complete the start-up operation at a low wind speed, and the starting torque is much lower than the permanent magnet eddy current heater at the same power level. Therefore, compared with the permanent magnet eddy current heater, the mixing heater can use the wind energy at a lower speed and improve the wind energy utilization. Due to the small drive torque of the stirring heater, the wind turbine speed is increased, the tip speed ratio is close to the optimal tip speed ratio with a higher wind energy utilization coefficient.
When the wind speed varies from 7 m/s to 13 m/s, the output parameters are given in Table 4.
Wind speed/(m/s) | Rotating speed/(rad/s) | Tip speed ratio | CP | Torque/(N m) | Power of wind turbine/(W) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
7.0 | 13.61 | 1.07 | 0.202 | 3.62 | 49.30 |
8.0 | 18.84 | 1.29 | 0.264 | 5.10 | 96.17 |
9.0 | 21.98 | 1.34 | 0.281 | 6.63 | 145.75 |
10.0 | 26.17 | 1.43 | 0.292 | 7.94 | 207.76 |
11.0 | 29.30 | 1.46 | 0.295 | 9.53 | 279.37 |
12.0 | 32.44 | 1.49 | 0.297 | 11.26 | 365.15 |
13.0 | 35.59 | 1.51 | 0.295 | 12.96 | 461.13 |
Output parameters of wind turbine at 7–13 m/s wind speeds.
The rotating speed and torque curve of the wind turbine in the test wind speed interval are shown in Figures 14 and 15. It can be seen that the rotating speed and torque both change linearly in the test wind speed range. Therefore, when the rotating speed of the heater increases, the mixing resistance is borne by the blade and the flow resistance plate will also increase simultaneously. When the heater power is necessary to be further improved, the design of the mixing blade and the damping plate structure should be optimized to increase the mixing resistance and reduce the maximum rotating speed.
Curve of the rotating speed change at 7–13 m/s wind speeds.
Curve of the torque change at 7–13 m/s wind speeds.
Based on Eqs. (15)–(17), the heating efficiency and system efficiency (Table 5) of the liquid stirring heater can be obtained according to the output power of the wind turbine.
Wind speed/(m/s) | Power of wind turbine/(W) | Thermal energy exchange power/(W) | Heating efficiency/(%) | System efficiency/(%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
7.0 | 49.30 | 8.71 | 16.67 | 3.57 |
8.0 | 96.17 | 27.91 | 29.02 | 7.66 |
9.0 | 145.75 | 49.66 | 34.07 | 9.57 |
10.0 | 207.76 | 78.93 | 37.99 | 11.09 |
11.0 | 279.37 | 115.60 | 41.38 | 12.21 |
12.0 | 365.15 | 163.58 | 40.80 | 13.31 |
13.0 | 461.13 | 222.50 | 48.25 | 14.23 |
The heating efficiency and system efficiency of the liquid stirring heater.
According to Table 5, Figures 16 and 17, the heating efficiency increases with the wind speed increased in the test wind speed range, and the maximum efficiency is 48% when the wind speed is 13 m/s. The corresponding wind energy utilization coefficient is 0.295 with the highest system efficiency. Though the permanent magnet eddy current heater efficiency is high, while the matching characteristics with the wind turbine are poor, leading to low system efficiency. Thus, the good matching of heater and wind turbine will effectively improve the efficiency of the wind energy heating system.
Curve of the heating efficiency change at 7–13 m/s wind speeds.
Curve of the system efficiency change at 7–13 m/s wind speeds.
According to the existing experimental results, the numerical simulation method is applied to study the vertical axis wind turbine under different working conditions, the conclusion are as follows:
The input torque of the liquid stirring heater has a linear relationship with the rotating speed when its geometric structure and working fluid are determined. Therefore, replacing the working quality with high viscosity can effectively reduce the volume of the heating device. On the basis of guaranteeing the quantity of heat, optimizing the type of the stirring blade and flow resistance plate can reduce the working speed of the device, achieve a good match with the wind machine, improve the utilization coefficient of the wind turbine, and improve the heating efficiency of the system. According to the numerical simulation results, the maximum heating efficiency is up to 48.25%.
Compared with the liquid stirring heater in the same power level, the starting torque of the permanent magnet eddy current heater is higher, and due to the poor self-starting characteristics of the vertical axis wind turbine, the permanent magnet eddy current heater driven by the wind turbine can be put into operation at high wind speed, which cannot effectively use the wind energy at low wind speed. The wind energy utilization coefficient of the system can be improved by the cooperative operation with the liquid stirring heater. According to the numerical simulation results, the maximum heating efficiency is up to 72.21%.
The heater directly driven by a vertical axis wind turbine system has a certain referred significance for other permanent magnet eddy current heater and liquid stirring heater with vertical axis wind turbine.
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In all cases, cyclical ups and downs depend not only on internal system cyclical processes and their factors in countries but also on the consequences of intercountry interaction. The ability to measure and predict business cycles, taking into account their mutual influence, is a prerequisite for the development of an adequate business policy of countries and their associations.",book:{id:"6703",slug:"statistics-growing-data-sets-and-growing-demand-for-statistics",title:"Statistics",fullTitle:"Statistics - Growing Data Sets and Growing Demand for Statistics"},signatures:"Elena Zarova",authors:null},{id:"54366",title:"Solution of Differential Equations with Applications to Engineering Problems",slug:"solution-of-differential-equations-with-applications-to-engineering-problems",totalDownloads:6866,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Over the last hundred years, many techniques have been developed for the solution of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. While quite a major portion of the techniques is only useful for academic purposes, there are some which are important in the solution of real problems arising from science and engineering. In this chapter, only very limited techniques for solving ordinary differential and partial differential equations are discussed, as it is impossible to cover all the available techniques even in a book form. The readers are then suggested to pursue further studies on this issue if necessary. After that, the readers are introduced to two major numerical methods commonly used by the engineers for the solution of real engineering problems.",book:{id:"5513",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",title:"Dynamical Systems",fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems - Analytical and Computational Techniques"},signatures:"Cheng Yung Ming",authors:[{id:"191017",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Y.M.",slug:"cheng-y.m.",fullName:"Cheng Y.M."}]},{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1718,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"15",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83034",title:"Optimal N-of-1 Clinical Trials for Individualized Patient Care and Aggregated N-of-1 Designs",slug:"optimal-n-of-1-clinical-trials-for-individualized-patient-care-and-aggregated-n-of-1-designs",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106352",abstract:"Precision medicine typically refers to the use of genomic signatures of patients to assign more effective therapies to treat patients, or, for improved diagnosis of the early onset of a disease so that interventions can be delivered to prevent or delay the disease progression. 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Then, it is investigated that quasi conformally flat quasi Einstein-Weyl manifolds are of quasi constant curvature, recurrent and semi-symmetric under which conditions after obtaining the expression of the curvature tensor of the quasi conformally flat quasi Einstein-Weyl manifold. 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In this sense, the chapter shows a methodology to estimate the probability to be involved in a road accident, considering the road education and the socioeconomic characteristics of the population of a specific region, taking the Santiago de Querétaro city (in México) as a study case. Through a logit model estimation and a survey applied to pedestrian, cyclist, motorcyclist, car driver, and freight driver allow us to determine which socioeconomic variables and road education are significant to determine the probability of being involved in a road accident.",book:{id:"12021",title:"Applied Probability Theory - New Perspectives, Recent Advances and Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12021.jpg"},signatures:"Saúl Antonio, Obregón Biosca, José Luis Reyes Araiza and Miguel Angel Pérez Lara y Hernández"},{id:"82947",title:"Some Tauberian Theorems under Triple Statistically Nörlund-Cesáro Summability Method",slug:"some-tauberian-theorems-under-triple-statistically-n-rlund-ces-ro-summability-method",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106141",abstract:"In this paper, we extend the notion presented by Braha (2020) in a higher dimension, we introduce the notion of Np,qn,m,gCn,m,g1,1,1-statistically convergence and show necessity and sufficiency conditions under which the existence of the limit st-limn,m,g→∞xn,m,g=L follows from that st-limn,m,g→∞Np,qn,m,gCn,m,g1,1,1=L. These conditions are one-sided or two-sided if xn,m,g is a sequence of real or complex numbers, respectively.",book:{id:"11503",title:"Functional Calculus - Recent Advances and Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11503.jpg"},signatures:"Carlos Granados"},{id:"82847",title:"A Chaos Auto-Associative Model with Chebyshev Activation Function",slug:"a-chaos-auto-associative-model-with-chebyshev-activation-function",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106147",abstract:"In this work, we shall put forward a novel chaos memory retrieval model with a Chebyshev-type activation function as an artificial chaos neuron. According to certain numerical analyses of the present association model with autocorrelation connection matrix between neurons, the dependence of memory retrieval properties on the initial Hamming distance between the input pattern and a target pattern to be retrieved among the embedded patterns will be presented to examine the retrieval abilities, i.e. the memory capacity of the associative memory.",book:{id:"12019",title:"Chaos Theory - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12019.jpg"},signatures:"Masahiro Nakagawa"},{id:"82826",title:"A Brief Look at the Calderón and Hilbert Operators",slug:"a-brief-look-at-the-calder-n-and-hilbert-operators",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106027",abstract:"The Calderón operator is the sum of the Hardy averaging operator and its adjoint, and plays an important role in the theory of real interpolation. On the other hand, the Hilbert operator arises from the continuous version of Hilbert’s inequality. Both operators appear in different contexts and have numerous applications within harmonic analysis. In this chapter we will briefly review the Calderón and Hilbert operators, showing some of the most relevant results within functional analysis and finally we will present recent results on these operators within Fourier analysis.",book:{id:"11503",title:"Functional Calculus - Recent Advances and Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11503.jpg"},signatures:"Guillermo J. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/25703",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"25703"},fullPath:"/profiles/25703",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()