\r\n\tHydrogen gas is the key energy source for hydrogen-based society. Ozone dissolved water is expected as the sterilization and cleaning agent that can comply with the new law enacted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The law “FDA Food Safety Modernization Act” requires sterilization and washing of foods to prevent food poisoning and has a strict provision that vegetables, meat, and fish must be washed with non-chlorine cleaning agents to make E. coli adhering to food down to “zero”. If ozone dissolved water could be successively applied in this field, electrochemistry would make a significant contribution to society.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tOxygen-enriched water is said to promote the growth of farmed fish. Hydrogen dissolved water is said to be able to efficiently remove minute dust on the silicon wafer when used in combination with ultrasonic irradiation.
\r\n\tAt present researches on direct water electrolysis have shown significant progress. For example, boron-doped diamonds and complex metal oxides are widely used as an electrode, and the interposing polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) between electrodes has become one of the major processes of water electrolysis.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to show the latest water electrolysis technology and the future of society applying it.
In the last decade, preventive medicine has made significant progress, demonstrating the crucial role of nutrition in preventing diseases, especially those related to diet. The concept that foods have health promotion effects beyond their nutritional value has been increasingly accepted in recent years, and the specific effects of nutrition prevention on disease have led to the discovery of functional foods.
Functional foods are those foods that can be eaten in the normal diet and contain biologically active compounds with potential for improving health or reducing the risk of diseases. Examples of functional foods include foods that contain minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, food fibers, and food with the addition of biologically active substances such as the antioxidants and probiotics.
The concept of functional foods emerged in the 1980s in Japan when the medical authorities in the country recognized that an increase in life expectancy and in the number of elderly people should be accompanied by an improvement in the quality of life. The main aspect that enhances the quality of life is food. Thus, the concept of foods developed especially for the purpose of promoting health and reducing the risk of disease occurrence.
Currently, many healthy products are known, defined as functional foods or nutraceuticals. Functional foods are foods that, by way of the nutrient intake, contribute to maintaining and improving the health of consumers. These foods offer the opportunity to reduce, directly or indirectly, the medical costs associated with various cortical conditions such as diabetes, coronary heart disease, cancer, etc. [1, 2].
The products in this category experienced a real expansion, now at the beginning of the twenty-first century worldwide, whereas, at the end of the last millennium, only a few countries such as USA, Canada, Japan, and some European countries developed such products. Generally, within the existing regulations in different countries, it is accepted that the term functional food can be used for products similar to conventional foods, while the term nutraceutical is intended for the concentrated form. Both forms should be considered as natural products with obvious health benefits.
There are currently no separate regulations for functional foods in the United States and other countries except for Japan. The academic scientific community in Japan used to define the food that performs three functions as a functional food in the early 1980s. The first function is nutrition. The second function is the sensory function or sensorial satisfaction. The third is a tertiary psychological function. In short, Japan back in 1984, defined ad hoc the term functional food as a food with physiological functions, including regulation of biorhythm, nervous system, immune system, and self-defense of the body beyond nutritional functions.
In 1991, the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW) established the “Foods for Specified Health Uses” regulatory system (FOSHU) to approve the statements on food labels as regards the effects of food on the human body. Foods that are subject to FOSHU approval are scientifically analyzed to determine their effectiveness and safety by the Council of Pharmaceutical Affairs and Food Hygiene under MHLW leadership [3].
In 1998, in the U.S.A., there were 11 Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved correlations among foods or their components and diseases. These include:
correlations between foods with high calcium content and decreased risk of osteoporosis,
correlations between foods with low fat content, saturated fat, low cholesterol, and reduced risk of coronary heart disease, and
correlations between products containing sugar alcohols and the risk of tooth decay reduction.
These are claims for the relationship between high calcium content foods and a reduced risk for osteoporosis; claims for low fat saturated foods, cholesterol lowering and fat lowering and the risk of coronary artery disease reduction; and a demand for sugar alcohols in relation to the reduced risk of dental cavities. The mention for diets containing soluble fiber with a potential to reduce the risk of coronary artery disease has been altered twice in order to allow recognition of the beneficial effects of soluble fiber provided by oats and psyllium bran [4].
In Europe, the interest in functional foods emerged in the second half of the 1990s. The European Commission has generated an activity entitled Functional Food Science in Europe (FuFoSE) to explore the functional concept of food based on a scientific approach. Thus, the European Commission has determined that “a food can be considered functional if, together with the basic nutritional impact, there are also beneficial effects for one or more functions of the human body either by improving the general and physical conditions or by reducing the risk of disease progression” [5, 6].
Examples of functional foods include foods containing specific minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, or dietary fibers; foods containing added biologically active substances such as phytochemicals or other antioxidants; and probiotics containing live beneficial cultures. Therefore, a functional food can be as follows:
an unprocessed natural food product;
a food product in which a component has been improved by special breeding, reproduction, or biotechnological means;
a food product to which a component has been added to provide benefits;
a food product from which a component has been removed by technological or biotechnological means;
a food in which a component has been replaced by an alternative component with favorable properties;
a food in which a component has been modified by enzymatic, chemical, or technological means to provide a benefit;
a food in which the bioavailability of a component has been altered; or
a combination of any of the above [7].
The scientific community continues to increase its understanding of the functional foods potential and their role in maintaining and optimizing health. As regards the benefits to be validated and the requirements to be met, approval from a strong and trustworthy scientific research entity is required to confirm the benefits of each food product or component. For functional foods to provide potential public health benefits, consumers should be able to rely on the scientific criteria that are used to document such health statements and claims.
Many plants or their compounds with physiologically active role have been investigated for their role in disease prevention and health assurance. The components of food products of plant origin that have been scientifically proven to bring benefits to human health are numerous. Naturally, fruits and vegetables are rich in carbohydrates, dietary fiber, mineral vitamins, polyphenols, and phytochemicals; they are designated as healthy foods as many researchers have reported the beneficial effects of juices on health [8].
Tomatoes and processed tomatoes, by their high content of lycopene and β-carotene—powerful antioxidants—can help reduce prostate cancer. According to the clinical studies conducted on patients in the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (HPFS) during 1986–1992, it was found that administering over 10 servings/week processed tomatoes or tomatoes reduces the risk of prostate cancer by 35%, and in the case of serious forms of prostate cancer, a reduction of 53% was found [9]. The most important aspect is that out of 46 evaluated fruits and vegetables, only tomatoes have been associated with reducing the risk of prostate cancer [9]. A balanced diet containing broccoli, carrots, spinach can help reduce the risk of macular degeneration with age or cataracts [10].
Cherries, red grapes, forest fruits, and other red- and violet-colored fruits and vegetables are rich in flavonoids (anthocyanins—cyanidin, pelargonidin, and malvidin), bioactive compounds with an important role in preventing and reducing the risk of various cancers and cardiovascular diseases, considering that their consumption supports antioxidant cellular defense.
Apples and pears are an important source of phenolic compounds to support heart health. However, the pears have a smaller amount of phenolic compounds, around 30 mg/100 g, as compared to fresh apples that may contain 357 mg/100 g [11]. By their high content of insoluble fiber, especially the skin and shell, fruits and vegetables, contribute to maintaining the health of the gastrointestinal tract, while soluble fiber in beans, apples, and citrus can reduce the risk of coronary affections [12].
Forest fruits are rich in anthocyanins and broad-spectrum antioxidants on biomedical functions. These include cardiovascular disease, oxidative stress induced by aging, inflammatory response, etc. [1].
Potassium content in bananas and beans helps lowering blood pressure when their consumption is associated with a low-fat diet. Also, in beans, salads, and spinach, there are folates—that is folic acid—which play an important role in preventing the birth of children with different spinal and cerebral disorders.
Most fruits are rich in vitamin C, predominantly the citruses, kiwi, and berries. The role of vitamin C is well known for its antioxidant action and the prevention of free radical formation in the body that can promote the emergence of different cancers. Vitamin C also helps the immune system fight different pathogenic agents.
Fenech et al. [13] have demonstrated the positive effect of eating nine micronutrients easily found in fruits, namely, calcium, retinol, vitamin E, folic acid, nicotinic acid, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, β-carotene, and biotin on the damage and the repair of the genome.
The above listed are just a few functional features of some vegetables and fruits: scientific studies in this field being very diverse and elaborate.
The gastrointestinal microflora is made up of a complex of microorganisms that form a particularly important part of the organism. These microorganisms interfere with each other and with the host organism in the intestinal tract where they exist. The normal intestinal microflora may undergo changes by way of diet, medication and/or environmental factors. These imbalances can be remedied by two methods:
Oral administration of live microorganisms (probiotics)
Oral administration of some bacterial stimulants for certain indigenous (prebiotic) microflora components
According to FAO/WHO (2001), probiotics are living microorganisms (mainly bacteria and certain yeast strains) that influence the host organism by improving microbial intestinal balance. Probiotics have numerous beneficial effects on the body of which we can mention:
increased lactose tolerance and digestion,
positive influence on intestinal microflora,
reduction of intestinal pH,
improvement of intestinal functions,
reduction of cholesterol,
reducing the level of ammonia and other toxic compounds,
production of folic acid,
restoring normal intestinal microflora after antibiotic treatments,
treatment and prevention of diarrheal seizures due to rotaviruses, and
stimulating the immune system response.
Fruit, cereals, vegetables, and soy beverages have been reported as a suitable medium for probiotic cultures due to the essential nutrient content [14]. Fruit, grain, vegetable, and soy beverages have been proposed as novel products containing probiotic strains; essentially, fruit and vegetable juices have been reported as a new suitable support for probiotics. Nevertheless, maintaining viability (the recent trend is to have 1 billion viable cells/100 g of product) and maintaining the activity of probiotics in these products by the end of the product shelf-life are two important criteria to be met in juices where low pH is a disadvantage [15].
At present, there are numerous studies on the production of functional beverages, with researchers in the field tackling many variants to obtain them. Different approaches could be grouped as follows:
Exploiting the functionality of microorganisms
Optimizing the production and formation of new functional beverages
The use of prebiotics and symbiotics
The use and processing of natural ingredients
The use of the by-products from the fruits and food industry as functional ingredients
In addition to that, some works focus and propose the application of new technologies to improve the production of functional beverages without compromising their sensory and functional properties [5].
Many researchers have investigated the possibility of using various fruit and vegetable juices such as tomatoes, mangoes, oranges, apples, grapes, peaches, pomegranates, watermelons, carrots, beetroot, and cabbage as raw materials for the production of probiotic juices or drinks. The most commonly used probiotics include different strains of Lactobacillus spp. (Lb. acidophilus, Lb. helveticus, Lb. casei, Lb. paracasei, Lb. johnsonii, Lb. plantarum, Lb. gasseri, Lb. reuteri, Lb. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, Lb. crispatus, Lb. fermentum, Lb. rhamnosus); Bifidobacterium spp. (B. bifidum, B. longum, B. adolescentis, B. infantis, B. breve, B. lactis, B. laterosporus); and other species such as Escherichia coli Nissle, Streptococcus thermophilus, Weissella spp., Propionibacterium spp., Pediococcus spp., Enterococcus faecium, Leuconostoc spp. și Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. Boulardii [14, 16, 17]. Most probiotic microorganisms are lactic bacteria belonging to Lactobacillus spp. and bifidobacteria. Nevertheless, other types of microorganisms are used as probiotics: Enterococcus faecalis, Lactococcus lactis, and Saccharomyces boulardii [18].
The probiotics market is currently dominated by fermented dairy products. These are the best environment for developing and maintaining the viability of probiotic microorganisms. However, there is a trend of increasing demand for probiotic vegetable products due to negative aspects of dairy consumption. Lactose intolerance, proteins with allergenic potential, and cholesterol content may adversely affect human health [19].
Vegetables are a suitable substrate for the development of probiotic microorganisms because they contain vitamins, minerals, and fibers, but the development of a probiotic drink having a vegetal substrate involves many stages. The factors that may have a negative influence on the viability of microorganisms in vegetable products are as follows: organic acids, pH, compounds with antimicrobial activity, temperature, and the storage time of the fermented food product. The optimal storage temperature of fermented products is 4–5°C [20].
Also, another important challenge is to obtain a product with sensory properties acceptable to the consumer. The combination of substrate with probiotic microorganisms can lead to undesirable volatile compounds.
Since ancient times, fermentation has been used to preserve vegetables as well as to improve their nutritional and sensorial qualities. Most products are fermented at ambient temperature with the existing microflora, with no strict control of fermentation and microorganism development (Table 1).
Beverage name | Origin | Substrate | Microorganisms isolated |
---|---|---|---|
Boza | Bulgaria, Albania, Turkey and Romania | Wheat, rye, millet, maize, and other cereals mixed with sugar or saccharine | Lactobacillus plantarum, L. acidophilus, L. fermentum, L. coprophilus, L. brevis, Leuconostoc reffinolactis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Saccharomyces cerevisiae |
Bushera | Uganda | Sorghum | Lactobacillus spp., Lactococcus spp., Leuconostoc spp., Enterococcus spp., Streptococcus spp. |
Mahewu | Africa and some Arabian Gulf countries | Maize | Lactococcus lactis |
Togwa | Africa | Maize, millet | Lactobacillus spp., Streptococcus spp. |
Hardaliye | Turkey | Red grapes | Lactobacillus paracasei, L. casei, L. brevis, L. pontis, L. acetotolerans, L. sanfrancisco. L. vaccinostercus |
Kombucha | China | Tea | Gluconacetobacter spp. (G. xylinus), Acetobacter spp., Lactobacillus spp., Zygosaccharomyces spp., Hanseniaspora spp., Torulaspora spp., Pichia spp., Dekkera spp., Saccharomyces spp. |
Water Kefir | Mexico | Water, sucrose | Lactobacillus spp. (L. lactis), Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Zymomonas spp., Dekkera spp., Hanseniaspora spp., Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Lachancea fermentati, Zygosaccharomyces spp. |
These are mainly consumed due to sensory characteristics. There are few researches on the composition and safety of these beverages. Starting from traditional beverages, many researches focused on the development of vegetarian probiotic beverages (Table 2). In order to improve the stability of the products obtained and their nutritional value, prebiotics are added in their composition. The applicability of laboratory studies led to the development of commercial products (Table 3). Although their cost is high, companies selling such products are on the rise.
Substrate | Probiotic microorganisms | References |
---|---|---|
Tomato juice | Lactobacillus acidophilus LA39, Lactobacillus casei A4, Lactobacillus delbrueckii D7, Lactobacillus plantarum C3 | [22] |
Beet juice | Lactobacillus acidophilus LA39, Lactobacillus casei A4, Lactobacillus delbrueckii D7, Lactobacillus plantarum C3 | [23] |
Cabbage juice | Lactobacillus casei A4, Lactobacillus delbrueckii D7, Lactobacillus plantarum C3 | [24] |
Carrot, celery, and apple cocktail | L. acidophilus LA-5 | [25] |
Olives | L. paracasei IMPC2.1 | [26] |
Honeydew melon juice | L. casei NCIMB 4114 | [27] |
Cereals and grape juice | L. plantarum 6E și M6 | [28] |
Malț | L. plantarum NCIMB 8826, L. acidophilus NCIMB 8821 | [29] |
Herbal mate | L. acidophilus ATCC 4356 | [30] |
Sapodilla, grapes, orange, and watermelon juice | L. acidophilus | [31] |
Pineapple juice | Lactobacillus casei NRRL B442 | [32] |
Peach juice | Lactobacillus plantarum DSMZ 20179, L. delbrueckii DSMZ 15996, L. casei DSMZ 20011 | [33] |
Germinated seeds and sprouts of lentil and cowpea, | Lactobacillus plantarum VISBYVAC | [34] |
Cereals, vegetables, and soymilk | Lactobacillus acidophilus NCDC14 | [35] |
Cereals | Lactobacillus acidophilus NCIMB 8821, Lactobacillus plantarum NCIMB 8826, Lactobacillus reuteri NCIMB 11951 | [36] |
Soymilk, almonds, and peanuts | Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1 | [37] |
Rice | Lactobacillus fermentum KKL1 | [38] |
Studies regarding the production of probiotic beverages.
Beverage name | Origin | Substrate | Probiotic microorganisms |
---|---|---|---|
Proviva | Sweden | Orange, strawberry, or blackcurrant juice | Lactobacillus plantarum 299v |
GoodBelly | U.S.A. | Mango, blueberry acai, pomegranate, blackberry, tropical green, cranberry, watermelon, tropical orange, and coconut water juices | Lactobacillus plantarum 299v |
Biola | Norway | Orange-mango and apple-pear flavors | Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG |
Biola | Finland | Seven varieties of juices | Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG |
Gefilus | Finland | Fruit juice | Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, Propionibacterium freudenreichii ssp. shermanii JS |
Good Belly | U.S.A. | Fruit juice | Lactobacillus plantarum 299v |
Kevika | U.S.A. | Sparkling lemon ginger probiotic drink | Bacillus coagulans, L. rhamnosus, L. plantarum, L. paracasei |
Rela | Sweden | Fruit juice | Lactobacillus reuteri MM53 |
Healthy life probiotic | Australia | Apple and mango juice | Lactobacillus paracasei and Lb. plantarum |
Malee probiotic juices | Thailand | White grape and orange juice | Lactobacillus paracasei |
In order to maintain the innocuity and the functional value of vegetal probiotic products, special packaging was created to meet the challenges posed during storage in the shelves of the shops. Most manufacturers recommend storing at 4°C, with the indication that packaging deformities may occur due to the high CO2 content resulting from the fermentation process. After unpacking, the product should be stored, refrigerated, and consumed in the shortest possible time.
The industry of probiotic vegetable products is in its early stages, as the first commercial product appeared on the market in 1994. Increasing the availability of these products on the market, improving the existing technologies, and increasing the consumer’s interest make this segment a promising one [21].
Probiotics can be inoculated directly into fruit or vegetables juices due to existing aseptic dosing technologies. In order to maintain the viability of probiotics throughout the life of products, microencapsulation, vacuum impregnation, and prebiotics are used [19]. Of a high importance is the relationship between different probiotic cultures, especially yeasts and bacteria.
A possible solution to the increase in probiotic resistance in new food matrices is their genetic modification, although in many countries, there is a low acceptability of these microorganisms [39]. Lactic fermentation is often used for preserving vegetables, so the best approach at this time is to develop probiotic products using known strains [40].
An important aspect in the development of new products is the acceptability from the sensorial point of view. Consumers want nutritious and tasty products for an affordable price. Traditional fermented products are a basis for developing new probiotic products in a manner that ensures their innocuity and stability. For the future, new research is needed in order to understand the microbiological and nutritional potential of traditional products [41].
Due to the high costs involved in the development of probiotic products, a collaboration between academia and the industry partners could lead to a much faster development of new products [42]. The use of vegetable residues and by-products resulting from different technological processes (e.g., vegetable pulp) would have beneficial effects on the environment and add value to finished products. Although they have shown good viability in new food matrices, clinical studies are required to demonstrate adherence to the intestine and viability of probiotics following the consumption of probiotic-based vegetable products.
Beverages are the most active category of functional foods because of the convenience and the ability to meet consumers’ demands in terms of content, size, shape, and appearance of the packaging, as well as, the ease in distribution and better storage for the refrigerated products. Beverages represent also an excellent medium to incorporate necessary nutrients and bioactive compounds [43, 44, 45]. Therefore, beverages based on fruits and vegetables have been proposed as a novel suitable carrier for probiotics delivery. Since fruits and vegetables are naturally rich in essential macro- and micronutrients (carbohydrates, dietary fibers, vitamins, minerals, polyphenols, and phytochemicals), the incorporation of probiotics into juices makes them healthier [8]. Juices fortification with probiotic is a challenge and a frontier objective, because juices can combine nutritional effects with health benefits by way of adding probiotic strains.
Fruits and vegetables are the key component of a healthy diet, and if consumed in sufficient quantities every day, it could help prevent major diseases [46]. Instead, low fruit and vegetable consumption is a risk factor for chronic diseases such as cancer, coronary artery disease, stroke, and cataract formation [47]. Fruits and vegetables are important sources of vitamin C, thiamine, niacin, pyridoxine, folic acid, magnesium, iron, riboflavin, zinc, calcium, potassium, and phosphorus [48]. Some components of fruits and vegetables (polyphenols and phytochemicals) are strong antioxidants. The antioxidants act as radical scavengers and help turn the radicals into a less reactive species. Antioxidants represent the first line of defense against damage caused by free radicals and are essential for maintaining an optimal health and well-being. Antioxidants modify the metabolic activation and detoxification/disposition of carcinogens and may even influence processes that may change the course of the tumor cells [48]. Regular consumption of fruits and vegetables has been recognized as reducing the risk of chronic diseases [49]. Ranadheera et al. [50] reported on the beneficial health effects of fruit juices. According to experimental data obtained, the berries, such as blueberry, blackberry, and raspberry, have shown negative effects on some pathogenic microorganisms, improving, instead, the growth of beneficial bacteria.
Fruit and vegetable intake has been shown to have positive effects in terms of weight management and obesity prevention [51, 52]. Several studies reported a reverse relationship between the intake of fibers from fruits and vegetables and the risk of developing coronary heart disease [52, 53]. Also, diets rich in fruits and vegetables, which improved blood glucose control and lowered the risk of developing type-2 diabetes [54], have a strong protective effect against several types of cancer (oropharynx, esophagus, stomach, colon, and rectum) [55, 56] and promote detoxification of the human body [57].
Our digestive system is made up of beneficial bacteria that are responsible for assisting our digestive system to digest food, absorb nutrients, fight against harmful bacteria, and eliminate toxins. When these bacteria are killed, intestinal health is impaired. Consumption of fermented food and avoiding unhealthy food that feeds bad bacteria can help nourish healthy intestinal bacteria and balance the relationship between beneficial and bad bacteria, which will be reflected ultimately in our health and wellness.
The health benefits of probiotic bacteria depend on their viability. According to International Federation for Dairy (IDF), at least 107 probiotic bacterial cells should be alive at the time of consumption per gram or milliliter of product [58]. Beneficial effects attributed to probiotics are the enhancement and maintenance of well-balanced intestinal microbiota. The probiotics can be used in prevention and treating diseases and health disorders such as lactose intolerance, serum cholesterol, high blood pressure [59], irritable bowel syndrome, Crohn’s disease, peptic ulcers, antibiotic-associated diarrhea [60, 61, 62, 63], and cancer [64, 65]. Also, probiotics offer higher immune protection [66, 67].
As consumer awareness grows, fermented foods are becoming more and more popular and tend to be one of the largest functional food markets. The most important reason for the development and acceptance of fermented foods as probiotic fruit and vegetable beverages are related to preservation, improved nutritional properties (vitamins, minerals, fibers, and antioxidants), better taste, flavor and aroma, food products with high biological value, and improved health benefits. Also, probiotic fruit and vegetable beverages do not have allergens as lactose or casein and are cholesterol free. However, the development of probiotic fruit and vegetable beverages is still in the early stages nowadays.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of varying nature and small fractions of nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and metal compounds. At room temperature, petroleum can be gas, liquid, and/or solid, being considered as gases and solids dispersing in a liquid phase [1]. Under high temperature and pressure, as encountered at reservoirs (e.g., 8000–15,000 psi and 70–150°C), Newtonian rheological behavior prevails, whereas at low temperatures the pseudoplastic behavior is commonly found [2].
A large portion of the Brazilian oil production comes from offshore fields, from the pre-salt layer. These oils have high levels of waxes, which are alkanes (linear or branched) encompassing carbonic chains of 15–75 carbons [3, 4]. This class of compounds has a high precipitation potential, due to the low sea temperatures (about 4–5°C) [5, 6, 7]. In temperatures below the wax appearance temperature (WAT), the wax crystallization takes place with subsequent deposition [2]. The wax deposition is dominated by the molecular diffusion mechanism [8] in which the waxes initially precipitate at the cold pipeline walls and subsequently generate a radial gradient of precipitation causing deposit [9, 10]. This can lead to a strong waxy crystal interlocking network, which causes pipeline clogs and dramatically affects the rheological fluid behavior [9, 11, 12, 13].
Gelation and deposition problems, leading to increases in yield stress and losses in production, are probably connected to wax morphology. This chapter aims to show some techniques to characterize the structure and morphology of wax crystals based on four pre-salt Brazilian crude oils, all provided by Petrobras, under different shear conditions, aging times, and temperatures. In addition, some physicochemical characterization techniques are discussed as density, viscosity, and SAP (saturated, aromatic, and polar). The wax quantification is the harder part of the study of crude oils, due to the petroleum complex matrix, which can cause complications related to the wax crude oil separation; however, through differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) measurements, it is possible to obtain a precipitated wax content as well as through some American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Universal Oil Products Collection (UOP), gas chromatography (GC), and others.
Due to the petroleum multicomponent nature, the wax precipitation occurs heterogeneously, and resins and asphaltene molecules, inorganic solids, and corrosion products, among others, can behave as nuclei for the phenomenon, enhancing the flow assurance issue [14].
Waxes crystallize into basically orthorhombic and hexagonal shapes. The orthorhombic form is needle-shaped, and it is found in crudes with high waxy content [15, 16]. Crystallization kinetics and crystal morphology can be highly affected by some recognized factors, such as cooling rate [13, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23], carbonic chain nature (branched or linear and average length) [21], resins and asphaltene content [2, 7, 24, 25], and shear rate [16, 26, 27, 28].
The polarized light (PL) optical microscopy is the fundamental technique for wax crystal examination [24]. According to [29] it allows verifying the anisotropic optical behavior of crystalline materials, named birefringence. This technique uses two cross polarizers. When the light beam passes through crystalline structures, as wax crystals, the polarized light plane is altered generating a visible image pattern. On the other hand, isotropic structures, which do not exhibit the same level of organization, are not able to modify the light plane. Apart from PL microscopy, the bright-field (BF) microscopy regards another important technique for wax crystal visualization. The procedure is very simple, and no artifacts are employed in the optical path.
Figure 1 shows BF and PL micrographs of P1 Brazilian crude oil, for the same point of the coverslip, at 25°C, as received, i.e., without any thermal treatment. All the aliquots of crude oil in this chapter were observed on optical microscope Axio Vert 40 MAT (Carl Zeiss).
(A) BF and (B) PL micrograph of P1, for the same point of cover slip at 25°C, as received.
The BF technique (Figure 1a) provides lower contrast than PL technique (Figure 1b); however, it can be seen that in BF micrographs the wax crystal is continuous, i.e., the structure appears and integrates, without rupture. On the other hand, PL micrographs show “dark cracks,” i.e., the wax crystals do not appear entirely. These “dark cracks” can be attributed to two factors: first, amorphous or low crystallinity regions due to the presence of impurities and second, due to light extinction positions, related to the parallel orientation of polarizers and the crystal organization, i.e., no light is deflected by the sample [30]. Therefore, much attention should be taken to make length measurements in crystals observed by PL technique. According to these results, to determine the size and crystal shape (as verified by BF) can be critical to avoid erroneous measurements. In this work, the length measurements were performed on images obtained by BF, but the PL images are shown due to easy observation.
Another characteristic of wax crystals that can be seen in Figure 1a is a roughened surface. The roughness, as well as the tortuosity of wax crystals, can be attributed to a heterogeneous nucleation and growth, by the presence of asphaltenes, resins, and different wax chain lengths or the presence of isocycle [24, 31].
In order to characterize the wax morphology and crystals length in dependence of temperature and shear, a continuous cooling protocol was performed (Figure 2). Initially, the thermal history removal of 100 mL of each oil was carried out by heating the samples for 2 h at 80°C in a circulating oven model 400-3ND (Ethik Technology). This condition is sufficient to dissolve all wax present in the crude oil and prevent that the wax crystal formation was not influenced by pre-existing nuclei [32, 33]. Secondly, the samples were transferred to a jacketed Becker coupled to a circulation bath (Haake Phoenix II-C25P - Thermo Scientific). Then, the cooling step was carried out quiescently or in presence of shear (mechanical agitation 250 rpm on RW20 Digital IKA) for 80–5°C. The cooling rate was 0.5°C/min. Figure 2 shows the influence of shear on waxy crystal growth of P1–P4 paraffinic oil comparing the PL micrographs of tests carried out at 5°C, on quiescent and shear cooling conditions.
PL micrographs of test performed at 5°C on quiescent (A–D) and shear (E–H) conditions of waxy crude oils P1–P4.
It was verified that experiments performed with quiescent condition (Figure 2A–D) were characterized by large crystals and cluster of crystals when compared with experiments carried out with shear condition (Figure 2E–H). The researchers carried out by [2, 16, 34] show that under quiescent conditions, the waxy crystals were characterized by extended and continuous particles. The formation of extended and continuous particles allowed a colloidal network that embodies the oil itself. Probably, the gel would have a high shear modulus, in order to the side-by-side interactions between particles. Under the shear condition, the lateral growth of the individual crystals is constricted. However, extended particles are not observed, and consequently, these particles lost their interconnectivity.
The wax crystals presented in waxy crude oils (Figure 2) are elongated. According to [16], waxes precipitated in crude oil tend to crystallize in an orthorhombic structure, which is characterized by an elongated structure. Evidently, the crystals of Figure 2 (and in detail in Figure 1) are not linear (needle-like). The sinuosity and tortuosity are probably due to the presence of impurities during nucleation and crystal growth processes [2, 21]. [2] analyzed the aspect ratio, which is the ratio between the length and the width of a crystal. Based on aspect ratio value, it is possible to verify how the structure is elongated. The values of average aspect ratio, at 5°C, of samples P1, P2, and P3, are 5.5, 6.2, and 5.0, respectively, legitimizing the elongated characteristic. P4 sample has a 4.0 aspect ratio value, which indicates that the crystals are less elongated than other samples.
Table 1 shows the average length and width of crystals to waxy crude oils P1–P4 in function of temperature for 30, 10, and 5°C, for quiescent and shear conditions, and shows the average percentage of crystal growth between both cooling conditions.
Length and width of crystal’s average and growth percentage.
For quiescent conditions, it is possible to note the crystal length increases between 10 and 5°C; however, for shear conditions, the length becomes basically stationary at these temperatures. This behavior could be attributed to a possible crystal breakage by the shear, which prevents the crystals from becoming large. The average percentage of growth between quiescent and shear conditions increases with the temperature decrease. For 30°C the crystals obtained in quiescent cooling are about 12.4% higher than that obtained by shear conditions. At 5°C this difference reaches 25.1%. On the other hand, the crystal width underwent an effective action of the shear, being about 22.3% less wide than those obtained in quiescent conditions.
To illustrate the Table 1, Figure 3 shows PL micrographs of P3 obtained at 30, 10, and 5°C during quiescent cooling. This condition resembles the operational shutdowns when crude oil is cooled. As expected and discussed above, the concentration and size of wax crystals increase with the decrease in temperature. Since the solubility of high molecular weight waxes decreases sharply with the decrease in temperature, they precipitate out and crystallize. This result indicates that in low temperatures, it is more probably to have problems of flow assurance due to pipeline blockage occasioned by wax crystal depositions and to the formation of a high-strength gel, characterized by yield stress [35, 36, 37].
PL micrographs of P3 obtained at (A) 30°C, (B) 10°C, (C) 5°C and during quiescent cooling.
Another common factor studied on precipitation and morphology of waxy crystals is the aging time, which represents the influence of the time at a certainly constant temperature on the crystal wax. PL micrographs in Figure 4 show the influence of 1 h aging time at temperatures 40, 20, and 5°C, for P4. To study the aging time influence, first, the thermal history was removed. The samples were transferred to the jacketed Becker coupled to a circulation bath at 80°C and then started the cooling steps (80–40°C; 80–20°C or 80–5°C). When the temperature arrives 40, 20, or 5°C, the samples were kept cool for 1 h at this temperature. The cooling rate was 0.5°C/min.
PL micrographs of tests carried out with P4, at t = 0 h for 40°C (A), 20°C (B) and 5°C (C); and after 1 h at 40°C (D), 20°C (E) and 5°C (F).
It was verified that the aging time favored the increase of crystal length and appearance of large clusters. This result can be attributed to the Ostwald ripening of wax crystals, a mechanism by which the large crystals grew at the expenses of smaller crystals of higher energy. Furthermore, oil uptake can also change the wax crystal distribution, leading to larger and softer wax crystals that can interpenetrate increasing intermolecular interactions between crystals [11, 37, 38].
Table 2 shows the wax crystal’s average length at t = 0 h and after 1 h (t = 1 h) at temperatures 40, 20, and 5°C, as well as the crystal growth percentage in function of aging time.
Average wax crystal length at t = 0 h and t = 1 h at 40, 20, and 5°C and crystal’s growth percentage.
Analyzing Table 2, at 40°C the oils P1 and P3 show an increase of about 26.3% in the length of the crystal after 1 h in an isothermal condition. Under these same conditions, P2 shows a growth of almost 80.0%. P2 has the WAT at 42.1°C (see 4. Wax quantification), and consequently, there is no visible crystal on microscope when the temperature just arrives at 40°C. For this reason, the crystal size, in this case, was considered 1.0 μm, the microscope detection limit. However, after 1 h at 40°C, this sample presents small crystals of about 4.8 μm. Evaluating a percentage of growth at 20 and 5°C, a reduction is noticed. The wax crystals seem to grow more significantly at elevated temperatures. In t = 0 at 5°C, the wax crystal has a large size due to the temperature decrease, and after 1 h in an isothermal condition, the wax crystal grows little, i.e., its sizes do not “double” as at 40°C. A smaller variation was noted between the sample growth percentages at 5°C. This temperature is close to that observed in the production fields. After 1 h at 5°C, the wax crystals are 10.3 ± 2.8% higher than when the temperature just arrives 5°C. Generalizing this information and transferring it to offshore production fields, after a 1-h stop with the oil at 5°C, the crystals can grow about 10%. Of course, this is a hypothetical condition because it is impossible to happen, since the cooling rate in the fields is smaller than that used in this study, which can result in greater wax crystals.
Due to the complex matrix that is the petroleum itself, the physicochemical characterization is very relevant in order to address a proper comparison between the microscopic images, which is a very useful tool in the wax crystal morphology study. The most common physicochemical characterization techniques are:
Density: measured mainly by ASTM-D7042. By density (at 60°F = 15.6°C) it is possible to obtain the °API following Eq. (1). °API is the most general classification at petroleum industry:
Viscosity: can be also determined by ASTM-D7042 on a viscometer or by rheological tests.
Saturated, aromatic, resin, and asphaltene (SARA): can be determined mainly by Clay-Gel, according to ASTM D2007, thin layer chromatography with flame ionization detection (TLC-FID) according to IP-469, or by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) according to IP-368. In this work, SARA content was obtained by TLC-FID using the IATROSCAN MK-6 (NTS International), for all paraffinic crude oils.
SAP: this characterization is less specific than SARA because resins and asphaltenes are considered together as polars. The SAP contents were determined by a liquid chromatography separation composed by silica gel column 60 (2.5 g silica, 0.063–0.200 mm) from Merck, which was used to determine the SAP content. The column was heated for 10 hrs at 120°C for activation. Fractions were eluted with 10 mL n-hexane for saturated, 10 mL of n-hexane/dichloromethane (8:2) for aromatic, and dichloromethane/methanol (9:1) for polar fractions. Residual solvents were submitted to a rotary evaporation. This technique was employed only for non-paraffinic (NP).
WAT: this is one of the main characterizations when working with waxy crudes, because it gives an idea of the precipitation potential of the oil and ideas about the wax type. A wide range of techniques can be used to determine WAT, as microscopy, rheology, and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR), but the most used is DSC. In this work, measurements were performed using Nano DSC differential scanning calorimeter (TA Instruments). The samples were heated from room temperature to 80°C, at 2°C/min. Then they were held for 15 min at 80°C, following by a cooling step from 80–4°C, at 0.5°C/min. Kerosene was used as the reference. Before measurements, samples were homogenized and kept under vacuum for degasification for at least 30 min. A volume of 300.0 μL of crude was used.
Gas chromatography: this technique is employed to characterize the carbon number distribution of petroleum waxes and the normal and non-normal hydrocarbons. It is oriented by ASTM D5442-17. In this work the GC evaluated the carbon distribution up to C36.
Table 3 presents some physicochemical characterization of the four paraffinic P1–P4 and NP oils used as reference of wax absence, also provided by Petrobras. All crude oils have relatively similar values of density. The paraffinic samples are considered medium oils, while NP is classified as heavy oil according to the °API scale. The viscosity varies greatly between samples, with P1 and P3 being the less viscous. P4 exhibits the highest viscosity at 20°C, being 100 times greater than the lower one (P3). Non-paraffinic petroleum classified as heavy oil also has high viscosity (896.8 mPa.s).
Physicochemical characterizations.
WAT is defined as the onset temperature, that is, the intersection point of the baseline and the tangent line of the inflection point of the exothermic peak [4, 39, 40]. In crude oils, it is common to observe two exothermic events (peaks). WAT depends on the concentration and molecular weight of waxes and the chemical characterization of hydrocarbon matrix [41]. Due to the oil complexity, the values of the peaks are around 50°C for the first exothermic event and 25°C for the second; [16, 42] assign the first peak to a liquid-liquid transition and the second to liquid-solid transition. However, in this paper, the authors believe that each exothermic event refers to a different group of waxes according to the chain length. [43, 44] declare that n-alkanes with similar carbon numbers can co-crystallize with the longer n-alkane chains.
Figure 5 shows the thermal curves for all samples obtained by Nano DSC. All oils have at least two well-defined exothermic peaks. It is possible to note a great similarity between the WAT values and the intensity of the exothermic peaks in the curves of the oils P1 and P3. However, the saturated values are quite different (Table 3). P1 has the 54.0 wt% and P3 has the 63.1 wt%, the highest values between the samples. Nevertheless, we must keep in mind that not all saturated content refers to wax; thus, these differences between saturated content among the oils do not represent the real wax content.
P1-P4 and NP thermal curves behavior.
Continuing the analysis of Figure 5, it is noted that P2 was characterized by the lower WAT values and P4 shows the higher (Table 3), which may be an evidence that the P2 is composed by short waxy chains and P4 has the longest. According to [36] the larger the carbon chain size, the higher the crystallization temperature. Moreover, the first peak of P2 is barely evident which can be a sign of less wax content. P4 has a second peak very evident, that is, this oil may contain the higher wax content. However, P4 has the smallest crystals, as discussed before, being on average 35% smaller than the others are. According to the P4 higher WAT value, large crystals were expected. Senra et al. [45] suggest a co-crystallization between chains with different carbon numbers and with other compounds, affecting the crystal morphology. According to [46] the co-crystallization weakens the crystal structure and disfavors large crystal formation. This is a plausible hypothesis, since according to SARA, P4 has 42.7 wt% of resins and the higher content of asphaltenes (0.65 wt%).
Another curious fact is a possible third peak at temperatures just below the second, especially for P2 and P4. This peak may represent a third population of waxes, and as far as we know, it was never reported in conventional DSC analyses. Possibly this third peak is related to a group of very-short-chain waxes. Based on this observation, it is verified that the Nano DSC technique presents greater sensitivity to enthalpy variations. In the conventional DSC technique, this third peak may be masked with the second. According to [19] the conventional DSC is not sufficiently sensitive to identify WAT for samples with low wax contents; however, the Nano DSC shows two slight baseline variations for NP sample, even in a low cooling rate (0.5°C/min). These peaks are very low if compared to other oils due to the non-paraffinic characteristic of NP, but their presence confirms the sensitivity of the equipment.
Figure 6 shows the GC graphs of the crude oils P1–P4 and their respective extracted waxes through the UOP46–85 method (see Section 4). It is possible to note that the values obtained for the GC of the crude oil (white bars) are dispersed and have a tendency of decrease after around C30. This behavior can be attributed to the complex matrix of the oil itself. However, the carbon distribution number obtained from the extracted wax fraction from each oil (dark bars) has a more plausible chain distribution. For all oils, there is a chain predominance around C30.
Carbon number distribution for P1-P4 crude oil.
Figure 7 shows the crystal length versus temperature for P1–P4. The first experimental point of the curves is the respective WAT values. This graph is presented in order to analyze the growth tendency of the wax crystals as a function of the temperature reduction, as a way to summarize the information previously discussed.
P1-P4 crystal length versus temperature.
The wax quantification is more difficult to develop than the other characterizations. However, some techniques are available:
GC: as mentioned on 3. Physicochemical characterization, this technique is employed to characterize the carbon number distribution. In this work the GC evaluated the carbon distribution up to C36.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) correlation: presented by [47], estimates the wax content of crude oil and their fractions by H NMR spectroscopy. The method shows good fit for oils with boiling range from 340 to 550°C.
UOP 46–85 method: estimates the wax content of the crude oil and is defined as the mass percentage of precipitated material when an asphaltene-free sample solution is cooled to −30°C.
DSC integration baseline: is possible to obtain the total thermal effect of the wax precipitation (
By means of simple math, it is possible to calculate the mass content of precipitated waxes (
The percentages by mass of precipitated wax obtained by the DSC integration baseline show 3.1 and 2.9 wt% for P1 and P3, respectively. As cited before these oils have many similarities. P2 has the lowest value (2.2 wt%) and P4 has 4.7 wt% of precipitated waxes. However, by the UOP 46–85 method, the wax contents in mass percentage obtained were 3.7 ± 0.3 for P1, 5.7 ± 0.4 for P2, 5.0 ± 0.1 for P3, and 3.6 ± 0.2 for P4. In general, these values are at the same range of the values obtained by DSC integration baseline, but they are not in agreement with the values obtained by this same technique. The UOP 46‒85 method is a traditional way of wax estimation by very steps extractions, as well as time-consuming, lots of chemicals and solvents. These many delicate steps have great chances to produce erroneous results if not done properly [47].
Figure 8 shows the carbon number distribution, obtained through GC, only for the extracted waxes by means of UOP method. As determined by DSC integration baseline, P2 has the lowest percentage of waxes, and P4 has the highest. This can be observed again on the GC graph. According to [50] the GC and DSC analyses can be used to quantify wax content of crude oils showing reasonable agreement, but wax precipitation technique, as UOP method, must be corrected due to the presence of trapped crude oil in the precipitated solid wax crystal.
Carbon number distribution for P1-P4 crude oil.
The polarized light microscope is the most used technique to visualize wax crystals; however, bright-field microscopy shows crystal details that are not seen on the polarized light. The wax crystals observed have elongated structure, but they are not linear, i.e., not needle-shaped. They have superficial roughness attributed to the presence of crystallization interferers such as asphaltenes, resins, organic solids, and different carbon chain sizes. The gradual temperature decrease favors the length crystal increases, as well as the increase in the quantity and size of the agglomerates. Under shear conditions, crystals were observed around 25% smaller and in less quantity than under quiescent conditions. In addition, shearing promotes crystal breakage at very low temperatures. The aging time of the oil favors the crystal growth more drastically at higher temperatures (around 45% after 1 h at 40°C) than in low temperatures (around 10% after 1 h at 5°C), as well as the formation of agglomerates. P4 shows the higher content of precipitated waxes by means of DSC integration baseline and GC analysis, but their crystals were smaller, possibly due to the higher polar content. The DSC integration baseline is in accordance to the GC result to wax content determination; however, the UOP method is in disagreement. Another characteristic observed about Nano DSC was the great sensitivity to obtain WAT values. This technique can identify a possibly third peak precipitation and two peaks for the NP sample.
This chapter looks at some techniques of wax characterization and quantification; however, there are many other techniques that can be used and that present satisfactory results. The use of combined techniques may assist in the more accurate analysis of sample characteristics.
The authors thank Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento (CNPq), Fundação Carlos Chagas de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ), and Petrobras for supporting this work.
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
API | American Petroleum Institute |
ASTM | American Society for Testing and Materials |
BF | brightfield |
DSC | differential scanning calorimeter |
GC | gas chromatography |
HPLC | high performance liquid chromatography |
NIR | near-infrared spectroscopy |
NMR | nuclear magnetic resonance |
NP | non-paraffinic |
P1–4 | paraffinic petroleum |
PL | polarized light |
SAP | saturated, aromatic and polar |
SARA | saturated, aromatic, resins and asphaltenes |
TLC-FID | thin layer chromatography with flame ionization detection |
UOP | universal oil products collection |
WAT | wax appearance temperature |
Q | total thermal effect of wax precipitation |
cw | wax precipitated concentration |
Q¯ | constant thermal value of wax precipitation |
Tf | final DSC temperature |
w | mass content of precipitated waxes |
ρ | specific mass |
Ve | experimental volume used to the DSC measurement |
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
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\n\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\n\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
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\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
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USA, CRC Press Taylor & Francis, Asia Pacific, Trans Tech Publications Ltd., Switzerland, and Materials Science Forum, USA. He is a member of various editorial boards serving as associate editor for journals such as Environmental Chemistry Letter, Applied Water Science, Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, Springer-Nature, Scientific Reports-Nature, and the editor of Eurasian Journal of Analytical Chemistry.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"99002",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Koontongkaew",slug:"koontongkaew",fullName:"Koontongkaew",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Thammasat University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"156647",title:"Dr.",name:"A K M Mamunur",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"a-k-m-mamunur-rashid",fullName:"A K M Mamunur Rashid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"MBBS, DCH, MD(Paed.), Grad. Cert. P. Rheum.(UWA, Australia), FRCP(Edin.)",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Khulna Medical College",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"234696",title:"Prof.",name:"A K M Mominul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a-k-m-mominul-islam",fullName:"A K M Mominul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/a043Y00000cA8dpQAC/Co2_Profile_Picture-1588761796759",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Mominul Islam received both of his bachelor's and Master’s degree from Bangladesh Agricultural University. After that, he joined as Lecturer of Agronomy at Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, Bangladesh, and became Professor in the same department of the university. Dr. Islam did his second Master’s in Physical Land Resources from Ghent University, Belgium. He is currently serving as a postdoctoral researcher at the Department of Horticulture & Landscape Architecture at Purdue University, USA. Dr. Islam has obtained his Ph.D. degree in Plant Allelopathy from The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Japan. The dissertation title of Dr. Islam was “Allelopathy of five Lamiaceae medicinal plant species”. Dr. Islam is the author of 38 articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, 1 book chapter, and 3 books. He is a member of the editorial board and referee of several national and international journals. He is supervising the research of MS and Ph.D. students in areas of Agronomy. 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Omar obtained\nhis Bachelor degree in electrical and\nelectronics engineering from Universiti\nSains Malaysia in 2002, Master of Science in electronics\nengineering from Open University\nMalaysia in 2008 and PhD in optical physics from Universiti\nSains Malaysia in 2012. His research mainly\nfocuses on the development of optical\nand electronics systems for spectroscopy\napplication in environmental monitoring,\nagriculture and dermatology. He has\nmore than 10 years of teaching\nexperience in subjects related to\nelectronics, mathematics and applied optics for\nuniversity students and industrial engineers.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"191072",title:"Prof.",name:"A. K. M. Aminul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a.-k.-m.-aminul-islam",fullName:"A. K. M. Aminul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191072/images/system/191072.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Aminul Islam received both of his bachelor and Master’s degree from Bangladesh Agricultural University. After that he joined as Lecturer of Genetics and Plant Breeding at Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh and became Professor in the same department of the university. He is currently serving as Director (Research) of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh. Dr. Islam has obtained his Ph D degree in Chemical and Process Engineering from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. The dissertation title of Dr. Islam was “Improvement of Biodiesel Production through Genetic Studies of Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.)”. Dr. Islam is the author of 98 articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, 11 book chapters and 3 books. He is a member of editorial board and referee of several national and international journals. He is also serving as the General Secretary of Plant Breeding and Genetics Society of Bangladesh, Seminar and research Secretary of JICA Alumni Association of Bangladesh and member of several professional societies. Prof. Islam acted as Principal Breeder in the releasing system of BU Hybrid Lau 1, BU Lau 1, BU Capsicum 1, BU Lalshak 1, BU Baromashi Seem 1, BU Sheem 1, BU Sheem 2, BU Sheem 3 and BU Sheem 4. He supervised 50 MS and 3 Ph D students. Prof. Islam currently supervising research of 5 MS and 3 Ph D students in areas Plant Breeding & Seed Technologies. Conducting research on development of hybrid vegetables, hybrid Brassica napus using CMS system, renewable energy research with Jatropha curcas.",institutionString:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"322225",title:"Dr.",name:"A. K. M. 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