Observations and physical properties of Martian blueberries and their comparison with a meteorite model.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6422",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production",title:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Tomato cultivation is a major economic activity in many countries of the world. Thus, strategic efforts should be directed towards mitigating production constraints that limit overall yields and quality. In addressing some of these constraints, researchers are developing and using varieties of modern and innovative techniques to improve local tomato germplasm, make rapid genetic gains, and breed for varieties with resistance to biotic and abiotic stress. This book focuses on recent advances in genomics and genetic improvement of the tomato crop, and production systems, and center around the following themes: (i) disease and pest management in tomato production, and (ii) breeding tools and improvement of the tomato.",isbn:"978-1-78985-034-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-033-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-466-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70226",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"recent-advances-in-tomato-breeding-and-production",numberOfPages:126,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"450cb677ac2da7c8d5a582417ada3745",bookSignature:"Seloame Tatu Nyaku and Agyemang Danquah",publishedDate:"January 23rd 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6422.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11417,numberOfWosCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:26,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:54,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 30th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 21st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 23rd 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 23rd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 23rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"182528",title:"Dr.",name:"Seloame Tatu",middleName:null,surname:"Nyaku",slug:"seloame-tatu-nyaku",fullName:"Seloame Tatu Nyaku",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182528/images/5763_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Seloame Tatu Nyaku is a Lecturer with the Crop Science Department, University of Ghana and his research interests are in host-plant interactions, and application of integrated control measures for management of nematode and fungal pathogens on plants, including indigenous crop species. Other areas of expertise include: designing Real-Time PCR assays, and analyzing data from multiple sources including complex whole genome, transcriptome, and population genomics through the usage of bioinformatics tools available from numerous public and private sources. His current research focuses on the application of grafting techniques on tomato, utilizing nematode-resistant root-stocks, together with imploring useful rhizosphere microorganisms for nematode and fungal control.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Ghana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ghana"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"204223",title:"Dr.",name:"Agyemang",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"agyemang-danquah",fullName:"Agyemang Danquah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204223/images/5765_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Agyemang Danquah is the Head of Tomato Research at the West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement (WACCI), University of Ghana, and Coordinator of Teaching Programmes and Postgraduate Curriculum Development. His research focus is primarily on using Demand-Led Plant Breeding approaches to develop and deliver improved varieties of tomatoes to Farmers in Ghana. His current works include developing resistance to tomato yellow leave curl virus, fusarium wilt, extended shelf-life and processing type tomatoes for the local industry.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Ghana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ghana"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"311",title:"Plant Genetics",slug:"agronomy-plant-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"64965",title:"Grafting: An Effective Strategy for Nematode Management in Tomato Genotypes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82774",slug:"grafting-an-effective-strategy-for-nematode-management-in-tomato-genotypes",totalDownloads:1361,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Research focus currently relies on combinations of environmentally friendly approaches among which is grafting for pathogen management. Grafting has potential to provide resistance to multiple soilborne pathogens, for example, nematodes, after a susceptible plant (scion) is united with resistant rootstocks. Sources of resistant rootstocks include species from the same family or closely related species, hybrids, and weeds. This chapter focuses on the following themes: (1) grafting and cost implications, (2) rootstock selection and tomato grafting against root-knot nematodes, (3) grafting techniques and requirements and graft union formation, (4) fruit quality of grafted plants, and (5) screening of rootstocks against root-knot nematode and identification of markers linked to Mi gene in rootstocks. Tomato rootstock breeding efforts, if coordinated properly, can lead to production of rootstocks, which can be adapted to specific environments and abiotic stresses.",signatures:"Seloame Tatu Nyaku and Naalamle Amissah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64965",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64965",authors:[{id:"182528",title:"Dr.",name:"Seloame Tatu",surname:"Nyaku",slug:"seloame-tatu-nyaku",fullName:"Seloame Tatu Nyaku"},{id:"271999",title:"Dr.",name:"Naalamle",surname:"Amissah",slug:"naalamle-amissah",fullName:"Naalamle Amissah"}],corrections:null},{id:"62135",title:"PGPR (Plant Growth Promoting Rizobacteria) Benefits in Spurring Germination, Growth and Increase the Yield of Tomato Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78776",slug:"pgpr-plant-growth-promoting-rizobacteria-benefits-in-spurring-germination-growth-and-increase-the-yi",totalDownloads:1247,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There are microbes that are beneficial to plants. Among these, rhizobacteria, which functions as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) such as Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus sp., can serve as fertilizer. These organisms have proven to accelerate germination and improve the yield of tomato plants. Colonization of rhizosphere by PGPR results in acceleration of plant growth and protection against plant pathogens. Soaking tomato seeds with Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus sp. suspension accelerated germination by 2–3 days than the control without immersion with both bacteria. Soaking tomato seeds for 10–30 min in the suspension of Pseudomonas spp. yielded the same effect in tomato germination. Soaking in Bacillus sp. tends to cause faster growth as compared to immersion in Pseudomonas spp. suspension. Mixing these two bacterial suspensions had no significant effect in accelerating the germination of tomato seeds. Soaking tomato seeds for 20 min with a suspension of Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus sp. at densities of 4 × 105 CFU and 8 × 105 CFU showed significant differences (p < 0.05) in plant height, leaf number, root length, number, and weight of tomato fruits. The highest fruit weight using Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus sp. at 8 × 105 CFU was 491.7 g tomato plant−1 while the control average fruits weight was 100.0 g tomato plant−1.",signatures:"I Ketut Widnyana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62135",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62135",authors:[{id:"218145",title:"Dr.",name:"I Ketut",surname:"Widnyana",slug:"i-ketut-widnyana",fullName:"I Ketut Widnyana"}],corrections:null},{id:"60478",title:"Tomato Breeding for Insect-Pest Resistance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75978",slug:"tomato-breeding-for-insect-pest-resistance",totalDownloads:1542,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The tomato is susceptible to pest attacks that can lead to damages throughout the crop cycle. Pest control is carried out, mainly, by insecticide and chemical acaricide spraying. However, the use of chemical pest control can cause severe damage to the environment, biological imbalances and deleterious effects on farmers and consumer health, as well as increased production costs. An interesting alternative to minimizing the problems arising from the agrochemical application and maintaining pest populations below the economic damage level is the development of tomato plants displaying resistance to insect and arachnid pests. In this context, the main purpose of this chapter is to provide a review of the techniques applied in this regard, major progresses to date and future prospects for tomato pest-resistance breeding. This chapter is divided into five sections: (1) wild pest-resistant tomato species, (2) allelochemicals that confer pest resistance, (3) techniques used for the introgression of pest resistance genes (4) overview, challenges and prospects for pest-resistant tomato breeding and (5) final considerations.",signatures:"André Ricardo Zeist, Alex Antônio da Silva, Juliano Tadeu Vilela de\nResende, Wilson Roberto Maluf, André Gabriel, Daniel Suek Zanin\nand Edson Perez Guerra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60478",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60478",authors:[{id:"217011",title:"Dr.",name:"André",surname:"Zeist",slug:"andre-zeist",fullName:"André Zeist"},{id:"218061",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Silva",slug:"alex-silva",fullName:"Alex Silva"},{id:"218062",title:"MSc.",name:"André",surname:"Gabriel",slug:"andre-gabriel",fullName:"André Gabriel"},{id:"218063",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliano",surname:"Resende",slug:"juliano-resende",fullName:"Juliano Resende"},{id:"218064",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilson",surname:"Maluf",slug:"wilson-maluf",fullName:"Wilson Maluf"},{id:"236477",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Zanin",slug:"daniel-zanin",fullName:"Daniel Zanin"},{id:"236478",title:"Dr.",name:"Edson",surname:"Guerra",slug:"edson-guerra",fullName:"Edson Guerra"}],corrections:null},{id:"60526",title:"Review on Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum, L.) Improvement Programmes in Ghana",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75843",slug:"review-on-tomato-solanum-lycopersicum-l-improvement-programmes-in-ghana",totalDownloads:2472,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Tomato is an important component of every Ghanaian meal, and its cultivation contributes significantly to livelihood improvement. The demand for tomato in Ghana outstrips supply, and therefore local production is augmented by imports from neighbouring countries. Despite the importance of tomato in Ghana, past tomato-breeding programmes have been unsystematic and had not led to the development of new varieties that meet the needs of consumers as well as environmental stresses. This review outlined tomato production trends, constraints and past tomato improvement programmes in Ghana, which mainly focused on germplasm collection, morphological and agronomic characterization, molecular evaluation, diversity study, as well as screening germplasm against biotic and abiotic stresses. The established variability and the outcomes of the evaluations against the various biotic and abiotic stresses have not been utilized in the development of new varieties. This work will serve as a reference for developing future tomato-breeding programmes.",signatures:"Leander D. Melomey, Agyemang Danquah, Samuel K. Offei,\nKwadwo Ofori, Eric Danquah and Michael Osei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60526",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60526",authors:[{id:"217823",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Leander Dede",surname:"Melomey",slug:"leander-dede-melomey",fullName:"Leander Dede Melomey"},{id:"217851",title:"Dr.",name:"Agyemang",surname:"Danquah",slug:"agyemang-danquah",fullName:"Agyemang Danquah"},{id:"217853",title:"Prof.",name:"Kwadwo",surname:"Ofori",slug:"kwadwo-ofori",fullName:"Kwadwo Ofori"},{id:"217854",title:"Prof.",name:"Samuel Kwame",surname:"Offei",slug:"samuel-kwame-offei",fullName:"Samuel Kwame Offei"},{id:"247378",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric Y.",surname:"Danquah",slug:"eric-y.-danquah",fullName:"Eric Y. Danquah"},{id:"247379",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael Kwabena",surname:"Osei",slug:"michael-kwabena-osei",fullName:"Michael Kwabena Osei"}],corrections:null},{id:"62376",title:"Genotype × Environment Interaction: A Prerequisite for Tomato Variety Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76011",slug:"genotype-environment-interaction-a-prerequisite-for-tomato-variety-development",totalDownloads:2347,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is the second most important vegetable crop in the world due to its high level of nutrition particularly in vitamins and antioxidants. It is grown in several ecologies of the world due to its adaptability and ease of cultivation. Besides field conditions, tomatoes are grown in controlled environments which range from hydroponics and simple high tunnel structures to highly automated screen houses in advanced countries. However, the yield and quality of the fruits are highly influenced by the environment. This results in unpredictable performances in different growing environments in terms of quality, a phenomenon known as genotype by environment (G × E) interaction which confounds selection efficiency. Various approaches are employed by plant breeders to evaluate and address the challenges posed by genotype by environment interaction. This chapter discusses various field and controlled environments for growing tomatoes and the effect of these environments on the performance of the crop. The various types of genotype × environment interactions and their effect of the tomato plant are discussed. Finally, efforts are made to suggest ways and methods of mitigating the confounding effects of genotype × environment interaction including statistical approaches.",signatures:"Michael Kwabena Osei, Benjamin Annor, Joseph Adjebeng-\nDanquah, Agyemang Danquah, Eric Danquah, Essie Blay and Hans\nAdu-Dapaah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62376",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62376",authors:[{id:"204223",title:"Dr.",name:"Agyemang",surname:"Danquah",slug:"agyemang-danquah",fullName:"Agyemang Danquah"},{id:"247378",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric Y.",surname:"Danquah",slug:"eric-y.-danquah",fullName:"Eric Y. Danquah"},{id:"217531",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Michael Kwabena",surname:"Osei",slug:"michael-kwabena-osei",fullName:"Michael Kwabena Osei"},{id:"217760",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Adjebeng-Danquah",slug:"joseph-adjebeng-danquah",fullName:"Joseph Adjebeng-Danquah"},{id:"217768",title:"MSc.",name:"Benjamin",surname:"Annor",slug:"benjamin-annor",fullName:"Benjamin Annor"},{id:"248095",title:"Prof.",name:"Essie",surname:"Blay",slug:"essie-blay",fullName:"Essie Blay"},{id:"248096",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",surname:"Adu-Dapaah",slug:"hans-adu-dapaah",fullName:"Hans Adu-Dapaah"}],corrections:null},{id:"62375",title:"Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS): A Fast-Track Tool in Tomato Breeding",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76007",slug:"marker-assisted-selection-mas-a-fast-track-tool-in-tomato-breeding",totalDownloads:2450,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Marker-assisted selection (MAS) is a complementary tool for conventional breeding where a molecular marker linked to a trait is indirectly selected. Many studies conducted have been able to identify and develop markers for traits such as disease and pest resistance and other abiotic stresses. Despite the availability of these markers, the technology has been extensively used in tomato breeding for the identification of some economic traits in particular disease resistance. In developed countries, MAS is utilized routinely in breeding programs, but this cannot be said for developing countries such as Africa. It is high time Africa as a continent looks at the importance of the technology and invests in it. In addition to MAS, other strategies such as marker-assisted backcrossing and recurrent selection have also been employed for breeding in tomato. The use of MAS in crop improvement will not only reduce the cost of developing new tomato varieties but will also increase the precision and efficiency of selection in the breeding program as well as lessen the number of years required to come up with a new crop variety.",signatures:"Michael K. Osei, Ruth Prempeh, Joseph Adjebeng-Danquah, Jacinta\nA. Opoku, Agyemang Danquah, Eric Danquah, Essie Blay and Hans\nAdu-Dapaah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62375",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62375",authors:[{id:"204223",title:"Dr.",name:"Agyemang",surname:"Danquah",slug:"agyemang-danquah",fullName:"Agyemang Danquah"},{id:"247378",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric Y.",surname:"Danquah",slug:"eric-y.-danquah",fullName:"Eric Y. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"64824",title:"Hematite Spherules on Mars",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82583",slug:"hematite-spherules-on-mars",body:'\nIn 1996, NASA launched the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) spacecraft to perform global mapping of Mars. One of the instruments on the MGS is the thermal emission spectrometer (TES), which would map the mineralogy of the Martian surface using infrared spectroscopy. TES imaging revealed the presence of crystalline gray hematite on Mars in Sinus Meridiani. Figure 1 shows the global distribution of minerals on Mars [1, 2]. The distribution of hematite is shown in pink and labeled as H in the areas of Aram Chaos and Sinus Meridiani. The bottom image shows the distribution of hematite in Sinus Meridiani. According to [1] and [3], the hematite covers an area of over 175,000 km2. The hematite boundary is abrupt and immobile and all the hematite is very possibly confined to a thin layer. According to [3], this layer could be only 100 microns, because TES gives surface measurements. The age of hematite is estimated over 3.5 Ga. The unnamed crater shown in the bottom image (Figure 1) shows no hematite, indicating that it was formed after the hematite deposit. Similarly, the inflow from top may be newer than hematite. The authors suggested that these hematite deposits were formed by chemical precipitation from aqueous fluids, and TES data provide evidence that liquid water has been stable for millions of years on early Mars.
\nGlobal distribution of hematite on Mars using the thermal emission spectrometer on the Mars Global Surveyor Spacecraft (top image). Bottom image is a close-up view of hematite abundance in Sinus Meridiani. (Image courtesy of USGS, NASA/JPL).
The Mars Exploration Rover “Opportunity” landed in Eagle crater on Meridiani Planum in the western part of the Sinus Meridiani region on January 24, 2004. Within a few days of landing on Mars, the Opportunity rover sent pictures of large numbers of spherules, as shown in false-colored images in Figures 2 and 3 [4]. The spherules were studied using instruments on board the Opportunity rover. The Mössbauer spectrometer was used to confirm the mineralogy of the spherules as hematite. A rock abrasion tool (RAT) was used to cut some of the spherules and concluded that spherules are also very hard. The rover instruments provided ground validation data confirming the presence of hematite on Mars as predicted by the orbital TES data obtained by the MGS spacecraft. The gray hematite spherules appeared blue in the false-colored data from Mars and were therefore nicknamed “blueberries.” The discovery of Martian blueberries quickly became an exciting scientific discovery as leading scientists concluded that hematite spherules were concretions and that their discovery proved the presence of water in Mars history.
\nObservations of hematite spherules at Meridiani, Mars, by the Opportunity rover. (Image courtesy of NASA/JPL).
Observations of hematite spherules at Meridiani, Mars, by the Opportunity rover. (Image courtesy of NASA/JPL).
The idea that the Martian hematite spherules are concretions has been largely accepted by most planetary scientists for the past several years [3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Several scientists also found concretion terrestrial analogues in southern Utah, in the Jurassic Navajo Sandstone [16], and in Lake Brown, Australia [17]. In the next section, we will discuss the observed properties of the Martian hematite spherules, which will lead us to the controversy of the origin of these spherules.
\nWithin a few days of operations, the Opportunity rover surprised the science community by sending pictures of a large number of spherules on Mars, now commonly known as blueberries [18]. The follow-up investigation [11, 13] by the NASA science team found several interesting observations of blueberries. Some of these observations are as follows: (i) the primary carriers of hematite at the landing site are blueberries and their fragments; (ii) the hematite was located mostly on the surface of the landscape; (iii) the deeper soil is mostly basaltic sand and is free of hematite; (iv) the blueberries are mostly perfect spheres; (v) the typical diameters of the blueberries are 4–6 mm; (vi) the blueberries are hard; (vii) the blueberries are made of very fine grain material; and (vii) the blueberries have no internal structure. In addition, all the hematite spherules appear to be located within the upper 10 mm thickness of the surface soil.
\n\nFigure 4 shows the result of the RAT used on the Martian surface to cut open some of the soil-embedded spherules. The spherules were found to be hard and difficult to cut. The spherules showed no internal structure with grain size below the detection limit (31 μm) of the Microscopic Imager (MI). Further investigation of the spherules found that there are two types of blueberries: larger blueberries with average size of 4 mm in diameter and microberries with average size of 0.79 mm in diameter. All blueberries were smaller than 6.2 mm in diameter with a median size of 4.2 mm.
\nRock abrasion tool (RAT) was used to cut some of the spherules embedded in the soil. The hematite spherules show no internal structure. (Image courtesy of NASA/JPL).
On sol 833, Opportunity got stuck in a fine-grained soil (named Jammerbugt) and it took 8 days for the operation team to free the rover. During this process, the rover’s wheel dug deep trenches on Martian soil. Figure 5 shows images of Jammerbugt taken by the rover on sol 842 (June 7, 2006) using the panoramic camera. Figure 5 shows that all the hematite (blueberries, microberries, and fine dust) is limited to the top surface and trenches dug by the rover showed no sign of blueberries in deeper soil.
\nJammerbugt (sol 842) showing the trenches dug by the Opportunity rover. All hematite is located on the Martian surface and no blueberry was found in the deeper soil. (Image courtesy of NASA/JPL).
In summary, a very large amount of Martian hematite spherules was found to be mostly perfect hard spheres less than 6 mm in diameter with fine grain, no internal structure, and located within 10 mm of the Martian surface.
\nIt has been suggested by various scientists that the Martian hematite spherules are concretions. Because concretions are formed by water on Earth, this carries the significant scientific implication of proof of water in Martian history. We will first examine the properties of Earth’s concretions to see if they are suitable for classifying them as terrestrial analogues of Martian spherules. A concretion is a compacted mineral body that is embedded in a host rock, which has a different chemical composition. Terrestrial concretions are formed from liquid phase by precipitation, nucleation, and growth processes.
\nThe concretions can grow in size and are found in various sizes and shapes. They are rarely perfect spheres and have no size limitation. Examples of terrestrial concretions (Jurassic Navajo Sandstone, southern Utah), which have been cut to show their internal structure, are displayed in Figure 6. The concretions are usually round objects with heterogeneous internal structure and are rarely perfect spheres. They are not limited in size and can grow to a diameter of several centimeters and even meters. Figure 6 also shows a steel ball with a diameter of 6.4 mm. The blueberries on Mars are all less than 6.4 mm in diameter and have similar physical properties to the steel ball.
\nEarth’s concretion analogue samples from the Jurassic Navajo Sandstone, southern Utah (courtesy William Mahaney). A 6.4 mm diameter steel ball is also shown for size reference.
Next, we look at the chemical composition of the concretions found on Earth. Raman spectroscopy is considered as a fingerprint technology for chemical identification. Raman spectra represent the vibrational modes of a molecule and all different chemicals have unique Raman spectra; for example, no two chemicals have the same Raman spectrum. Hence, Raman spectra can identify a chemical with 100% confidence level. Presently available commercial micro-Raman systems are capable of identifying small mineral grains in the nanogram range. Micro-Raman spectroscopy with 785 nm laser excitation has been used to identify the chemical compositions of Earth’s concretions. Raman spectra were measured at multiple locations on all the samples. Figure 7 shows representative Raman spectra of hematite, rose quartz, and goethite with both brown and black grains of Earth’s concretions. The Raman spectra of the brown grains of concretions, which are located inside of concretions, are same as the Raman spectrum of quartz. This confirms that the interior composition of Earth’s concretions is quartz with grain size of the order of 150 microns. The outer darker layers of the concretions also show the quartz Raman band along with Raman peaks of goethite. This suggests that the dark layers are made of quartz coated with a thin layer of goethite. This chemical analysis of Earth’s concretions suggests that they are not hematite, which is consistent with reference [19].
\nThe Raman spectra of concretions shown in
In the formation of concretions, water containing dissolved minerals cement around the grains of the host matrix, which is why grains of host matrix are always included in the Earth’s concretions [17]. In fact, none of the concretions on Earth are made of pure hematite; they can be hematite-coated quartz or calcite. The concretion mechanism cannot remove the grains of the host matrix (quartz, calcite, etc.) and replace them with pure hematite mineral. It may be possible to form pure hematite crystals from an aqueous solution but it will have the shape of a crystal and not a perfect sphere. A recent attempt to form spherules by freezing an aqueous hematite nanoparticle suspension failed in a laboratory setting [20]. The concretion model does not explain the following: (i) why are the Martian hematite spherules limited in size? (ii) why are the spherules pure hematite? and (iii) why are grains of the host soil missing from the interior of the spherules? The formation of concretion from aqueous media also leads to another interesting fact: concretions are formed deeper in the soil. This is because during the dry season, the level of ground-water goes down. This increases the concentration of dissolved chemicals in the subsurface soil, which favors the formation of concretions in deeper soil. For Earth’s concretions, a relatively larger number are observed in the deeper soil [17] than the top surface layer. In contrast, the Martian blueberries are mostly concentrated within 1 cm of the top surface [11, 13, 17, 21]. No blueberries were observed in the deeper soil when trenches were excavated on Mars [6, 11, 12, 13] as shown in Figure 5.
\nIn addition, Earth’s concretions are not as shiny as some of the Martian blueberries. This is because on Earth erosion plays a critical role in the formation of concretions. Concretions are formed inside the host matrix and are released from the host matrix by eroding away the surrounding material. The erosion of surrounding material takes several thousand years. Therefore, it is easy to see signs of erosion, pitting, and flow patterns due to the presence of aqueous media on Earth’s concretions, which appear as dull metallic-looking objects [16, 17]. The erosion process plays a critical role in the formation of concretions and dictates that the Earth’s concretions are very old [17].
\n\nFigure 8 shows an image (sol 251) of a large 1 m long rock, “Wopmay,” found on the Endurance Crater, showing hundreds of blueberries on its surface. The NASA science team suggested that the blueberries in the region are embedded in the rocks and eroding from them [11, 13]. One of the problems with this conclusion is that all the blueberries observed on the rock are fully exposed spherules and no blueberry is seen emerging from the rock. It is expected that the erosion process would reveal some partially exposed blueberries on the rock if they are concretions. In addition, rock erosion produces soil that has a similar reddish color as the rock and would be mixed in with the bluish-looking soil. Lastly, the distribution of blueberries in the region and around the rock is consistent with the hypothesis that they fell from above. Region A, which is near the slope of the rock, shows a high concentration of blueberries as compared to region B, which is away from the rock. Also, in region C, in the shadow of the rock, there are no spherules, which contradicts the concretion mechanism. Another interesting observation is that spherules are heavy and therefore not easily transported by dust devil events. Otherwise, there would be no spherules on the slopes of the rock and region C would be filled with spherules. The observation of spherules on Wopmay rock suggests that blueberries fell from the top and are not eroding out of the rocks. The hypothesis of deposition of blueberries from the top is also consistent with the observation that the entire blueberry inventory is within 1 cm of the top surface layer.
\nImage showing hundreds of fully exposed blueberries on “Wopmay Rock“ and nearby area. No blueberries are observed in region C (sol 251). (Image courtesy of NASA/JPL).
There are two possible methods for depositing large number of hematite spherules from the top: (1) meteorite deposition and (2) volcanic deposition. Out of these two models, we suggest that the meteorite model is more consistent with all the observations of blueberries on Mars because, at present, there are no active volcanoes on Mars. Later, in this chapter, we will see evidence that some of the blueberries are very young as they have recently landed on the rovers and heat shield. This also favors the meteorite theory over volcanic deposition. According to the meteorite theory, meteorites of various sizes enter the Mars atmosphere at high speed and low temperature. When meteorites enter the Martian atmosphere, they feel friction and ram pressure, which heats up the meteorite. On Earth, commonly observed shooting stars suggest that heating can achieve very high temperatures, which make the meteorites glow. Under Martian conditions, the smaller meteorites can be completely melted. The liquid melts and then breaks down immediately into smaller spherical drops whose size is determined by the surface tension of the liquid and the atmospheric drag force. Smaller drops soon achieve terminal velocity due to lower mass, which causes the temperature of the liquid drop to fall and become solid. Depending on the size of the meteorite and the time of flight, some of the drops will hit as solid balls and others as liquid drops that form microberries on collision with the ground [22]. Larger meteorites need more time to melt completely because of their mass. In bigger meteorites, melting begins at the meteorite surface, and as soon as the surface liquid reaches a critical depth, the liquid falls away as drops. This prediction suggests that the fusion crust on a meteorite should be also limited in thickness, and meteorites should also show imprints on the surface matching the size of the liquid drop, which was removed from the surface.
\nOn sol 339, the Opportunity rover observed an iron meteorite on Mars, which was named “Heat Shield Rock.” Figure 9 shows an image of Heat Shield Rock, which is mainly iron with kamacite as the primary Fe-bearing mineral and around 7 wt.% nickel [23, 24]. A first look at the immediate surroundings of the meteorite confirms the presence of large number of microberries and blueberries near the meteorite. The surface of the fusion crust shows regmaglypts and several circular imprints. The circular imprints give an estimate of the size of the molten drops that fell off from the meteorite. This size matches with the size of blueberries lying on the ground. Several microberries and miniberries also form on meteorite impact with the ground from the liquid layer, which is still attached to the meteorite before impact. These microberries and miniberries will be distributed near the meteorite. A larger concentration of smaller blueberries and nano–dust particles forming a halo can be seen in the immediate surroundings of the meteorite (Figure 9). The image also shows several spherules on top of the meteorite. This image provides very strong direct evidence that Martian blueberries are cosmic spherules formed from the ablation of a meteorite. In addition, the same image also provides a strong evidence that blueberries are not concretions as iron meteorites do not carry enough water for concretion formation.
\nImage of “Heat Shield Rock,” an iron meteorite observed on Mars. Several blueberries and microberries are observed in the close vicinity of the meteorite. Image taken from Sol 352, courtesy of NASA/JPL/Cornell.
The formation of blueberries through molten meteorite drops also explains why all the observed blueberries on Mars are limited in size and are mostly perfect spheres with no internal structure and fine grain size. The size and shape of the blueberries are determined by the phenomenon commonly known as surface tension. On Earth, we can use raindrops as analogues: their sizes and shapes are controlled by the surface tension of water. The size of a raindrop can be estimated by assuming that the water drop will break up if the atmospheric drag force is greater than the surface tension force. When the gravitational force equals the atmospheric drag force, the raindrops achieve terminal velocities. These conditions give the estimated diameter of the raindrop (D) to be proportional to [25]:
\nwhere σ is the surface tension of the liquid,
where subscripts 1 and 2 represent two different types of liquids. By assuming that the melting of iron meteorites forms spherules, we can estimate the diameter (D2) of Martian spherules. Using σ1 = 0.073 N/m surface tension of water,
Raindrop shapes with various sizes. (Courtesy USGS website).
One of the puzzling observations on Mars is that there are very large numbers of blueberries (Figure 3) and the vast majority of spherules are isolated spheres. The Opportunity rover observed doublets and triplets [3, 5, 13, 15] as shown in Figure 11 but these instances were very rare. It is important to note that the observation of large numbers of blueberries and microberries does not suggest a large number of meteoritic events on Mars. A single small meteorite can produce a large number of spherules. For example, a 2-inch diameter meteorite is equivalent to 2048 spherules with diameter of 4 mm. In addition, a small meteorite entering the Martian atmosphere will distribute thousands of spherules over a large area on Mars along its trajectory. A very large number of spherules could also be formed during a meteorite shower event. Another important observation is that the population of doublets and triplets is very low in comparison to isolated spherules, which can be explained by the meteorite ablation mechanisms. The doublets can be formed when two liquid drops come in contact. However, in the liquid phase, this simply forms a bigger drop and immediately splits up into smaller drops. Similarly, two solid spherules will simply stay as two individual spherules and not form a doublet. For a doublet to form, the recombination of two spherules must occur near the liquid-solid phase transition. This significantly reduces the probability of the formation of a doublet or triplet. The meteorite model also predicts that doublets and triplets are more likely to have spherules of different diameters than the same diameter. This is because the doublet is more likely to form when one drop is moving faster than the other drop. Because the terminal speeds of drops are proportional to their masses, the doublets and triplets would be composed of spherules of different sizes as shown in Figure 11.
\nObserved doublet and triplet blueberries on Mars.
Because meteorites can fall on Mars at any time, there are other requirements that need to be satisfied for a meteorite ablation model. The first requirement is that new young cosmic spheres should be observed along with older spherules. The second is that cosmic spherules of other compositions should also be observed. Figure 12 shows very shiny younger spherules among the older spherules. This observation is in agreement with the meteorite ablation model. However, it is very difficult to explain the coexistence of old and new spherules on Mars with the concretion model, which will require evidence of water appearing, disappearing, and reappearing on Mars. Figure 13 from sol 319 shows the coexistence of both blue and yellow berries. In this false color image, the color indicates a change in optical reflectance, which indicates different chemical compositions for the blue and yellow berries. In the next section, we will look at the evidence that strongly supports the cosmic spherule mechanism.
\nCoexistence of younger and older spherules on Mars.
Coexistence of yellow berries along with blueberries.
The observations on Mars made by rovers shown in this section can only be explained by a meteorite model. There is a very small probability that man-made objects such as the rovers and heat shield will collect cosmic spherules from recent meteoritic events. However, for the meteorite model to be correct, there are few conditions: (1) the sizes of the spherules must obey the predicted size limit and (2) the spherules must look shiny in comparison to older blueberries, indicating younger age because the rovers landed on Mars in 2004.
\n\nFigure 14 from sol 339 shows a piece of the heat shield of the Opportunity rover. Because blueberries are spherical, they are most likely to collect at the bottom of a slope on the heat shield. The photograph clearly shows several fresh-looking blueberries collected on the heat shield. The size and texture can be compared with the older blueberries seen on the ground.
\nEvidence of fresh blueberries collected by heat shield. Image 1P158281536EFF40C2P2368L6M1 (sol 339). Image courtesy: NASA/JPL & M Lyle.
The images taken by the Opportunity rover of itself are shown in Figure 15 (top image: sol 322; bottom image: sol 323), which show few blueberries collected by the rover. The size of these shiny spherules are similar to the size of the older, dull-looking blueberries lying on the ground as seen in the top right corner of the image shown in Figure 15. Further strong evidence in support of meteorite model is shown in Figure 16. If the spherules are formed by molten drops of falling meteorites, then they are expected to be very hot. Figure 16 shows the image (1M156679326EFF3981P2979M2M1) taken on sol 321 of the solar panel by the microscopic imager on Opportunity. The image shows a burned impact mark at location ‘B’ along with few microspherules nearby shown as ‘A.’ The burn mark size and shape match the nearby spherules.
\nImages of Opportunity rover showing shiny spherules collected by the rover. Sol 322 (top image) and Sol 323 (bottom image).
Opportunity solar panel sol 321.
The other Mars rover “Spirit” landed in the Gusev Crater area. According to the MGS satellite image, this site is not rich in hematite. Hence, Spirit rarely observed spherules on the ground. The images from the Spirit rover taken on sol 330 show a few spherical objects on the solar panels marked by green circles (Figure 17, left). An image (Figure 17, right) of the same solar panels taken on sol 583 almost a year later shows that two of the objects have rolled off leaving behind the impact prints. A few new spherical objects have appeared near the electrical wirings. The ability of these round objects to leave impact marks on the solar panels indicates the high terminal speed of the spherules.
\nImages comparing the same solar panels of Spirit rover from sol 330 and sol 583 showing blueberries that have rolled off a year later from solar panels.
The various observations of Martian blueberries strongly support the theory that the spherules are cosmic spherules formed from the ablation of meteorites. The images shown in Figures 9 and 14–18 can only be explained by the meteorite model. In the meteorite ablation model, the cosmic spherules are formed from the liquid phase. Hence, they will be perfect spheres, hard, and size limited. The interior of the spherules will be glassy or extremely fine grained, and will not show nucleation or inclusions of basaltic grains of Martian surface. The blueberries, microberries, and nanophase material will be located only on the top soil and missing from the deeper soil. To date, all observations (listed in Table 1) made on Mars are consistent with the meteorite ablation model. To the best of our knowledge, no hematite concretions have been found on Mars and concretions made of pure hematite do not exist on Earth. The cosmic spherule mechanism also suggests that hematite found on the surface of Mars is extra-Martian and not native to Mars.
\nImages of REMS-UV sensor on Curiosity rover showing a cosmic spherule impact.
Observations | \nAgreement with meteorite model | \n
---|---|
1. Millions of blueberries found on Mars (population) | \nYes | \n
2. All blueberries are less than 6.2 mm in diameter (size limitation) | \nYes | \n
3. Predominantly perfect spheres (shape) | \nYes | \n
4. Blueberries show no grain structure (internal structure) | \nYes | \n
5. Blueberries show no nucleation (mechanism) | \nYes | \n
6. Coexistence of old and fresh blueberries (age difference) | \nYes | \n
7. Coexistence of blue and yellow berries (chemical difference) | \nYes | \n
8. All blueberries limited to top soil and missing in deeper soil (location) | \nYes | \n
9. Interior of blueberries missing grains of host soil (pure phases) | \nYes | \n
10. Hematite (composition) | \nYes\n†\n\n | \n
11. Large amount of microberries observed only on top surface (population and location) | \nYes | \n
12. Blueberries appear embedded in soil (location) | \nYes | \n
13. Hard (mechanical strength) | \nYes | \n
14. Circular burn spot on solar panel (hot impact) | \nYes | \n
15. Rare observation of doublets and triplets (mechanism) | \nYes | \n
16. Doublets and triplets are made of different-sized spherules (mechanism) | \nYes | \n
17. All blueberries on Wopmay rock are fully exposed (mechanism) | \nYes | \n
18. Blueberries found on man-made objects (heat shield and Opportunity and Spirit rovers) (recent events) | \nYes | \n
19. Blueberries on heat shield and rovers are shiny (young age) | \nYes | \n
20. Blueberries found on and near iron meteorites (mechanism) | \nYes | \n
Observations and physical properties of Martian blueberries and their comparison with a meteorite model.
Other chemical phases are also possible.
A big iron meteorite or a few meteor shower events can produce a large number of spherules on Mars. About a billion spherules of 4 mm in diameter can be produced by a 4 m diameter meteorite. Because the spherules are heavy, the distribution of spherules at the Meridiani is expected to be sharply defined, immobile, and elliptical due to trajectories of the meteors. The age of the hematite deposit on Meridiani has been suggested by reference [3] to be in excess of 3.5 Ga. Opportunity rover did discover several large iron meteorites in the Meridiani Planum [23, 29]. Some scientists [30] have argued that the six iron meteorites found at Meridiani are the result of a single rare event of a large meteorite impact.
\nMössbauer data from the Opportunity rover concluded that blueberries at Meridiani Planum are made of hematite [18]. It is possible to form hematite in a CO2 atmosphere at temperatures above 900°C from high-FeO glass-rich basalts [31]. One possible redox reaction for the formation of hematite from iron meteorite is 2Fe + 3CO2 = Fe2O3 + 3CO. For meteorites that have some iron, it is possible to form hematite-coated spherules. Cooper et al. in Ref. [32] determined that at 700°C and FeO concentration > 1.9 wt%, the Fe migration is favored over Ca and Mg migration. The evidence for the formation of hematite particles at 60 km altitude on Earth has been suggested by [33].
\nIt is interesting to note that Earth’s Moon has no atmosphere and meteorites on the Moon do not get heated due to drag force. The spherules formed on Moon are mostly due to impact heating and are known as impact glass spherules. On Earth, millimeter-sized cosmic spherules are found in abundance [34, 35, 36, 37]. The large amount of cosmic spherules on Mars could be due to its proximity to the asteroid belt [23]. Mars also has low gravity and thin atmosphere that are favorable conditions for forming large spherules.
\nA direct evidence of a cosmic spherule on Mars is shown in Figure 18. In 2012, NASA’s “Curiosity” rover landed in Gale Crater. Figure 18 shows images of the REMS-UV sensor, which is placed within the rover deck facing the sky. The sol 418 image shows that a small cosmic spherule has landed on the UV sensor, which was not observed in a previous image (Sol 282). The image taken on sol 585 shows that the spherule has rolled slightly to the right revealing the original impact spot.
\nSome of the important observations of Martian blueberries cannot be explained by a concretion model. These observations include the following: (1) spherules are size limited, (2) they are located only on the top soil, (3) they show no internal structure, and (4) they lack grains of the host matrix. In addition, the distribution of spherules suggests that they fell from above, as shown in Figure 8. The observations of spherules collected by the heat shield and rovers suggest that these spherules are very young and cannot be explained by the process of aqueous alteration, which requires a significantly longer period of time. The observations of spherules and nanophase materials near the meteorites are direct evidence that spherules are meteoritic in nature. The meteorite ablation model producing cosmic spherules on Mars explains all the observations and properties of Martian blueberries. According to this mechanism, while traveling through Martian atmosphere, a meteorite gets very hot, reaches melting temperatures, and forms liquid molten drops that reach terminal speeds due to drag force and cool down to solid spherules and microspherules. The maximum size of the spherules is limited by the surface tension of the molten material and atmospheric drag force. The spherules are expected to be mostly perfect hard isolated spheres, with no internal structure and nucleation, and located only on the top surface layer. The meteorite mechanism also suggests that hematite found on the surface of Mars is extra-Martian.
\nAll the data and images from Mars are courtesy of NASA and JPL. JPL image policy allows the use of images without prior permission as cited on their website http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/policy/\n
\nThe recent pandemic of the highly contagious coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has developed devastating consequences on human health, economy, and ecosystem services as an important public health concern [1]. Until 13 January 2022, over 307,373,791 cases have been reported, including over 5,492,154 deaths [2]. SARS-CoV-2 is a beta coronavirus that belongs to the family
Coronaviruses (CoV) are enveloped viruses with a single positive-strand RNA genome (∼26–32 kb). They belong to the subfamily
Until the present time, seven human coronaviruses (HCoVs) can be transmitted between humans. Human alpha coronaviruses, 229E and NL63, and beta-coronaviruses, OC43, and HKU1 are common respiratory viruses usually causing mild upper respiratory illness. Unlike these, the three other human beta-coronaviruses, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS), and SARS-CoV-2, are highly pathogenic in humans [17]. All seven HCoVs are the product of a Spillover, they have a zoonotic origin from bats, mice, or domestic animals. Multiple justifications support an evolutionary origin of all HCoVs from bats, where viruses are non-pathogenic and well adapted, so they show great genetic diversity. Genome analysis of the virus identified a high sequence similarity with Chinese bat coronaviruses (highest homology to bat coronavirus RaTG13). Beta coronavirus phylogenetic tree showing that SARS-CoV-2 is related to bat coronaviruses ZC45 and ZXC21. SARS-CoV-2 showed 99% sequence homology with pangolin CoV according to the findings of a research team from the South China University of Agriculture [18].
HCoV-229E is the first strain isolated from patients with upper respiratory tract contamination in the year 1966 [19]. Patients infected with HCoV-229E showed cold symptoms, including headache, sneezing, malaise, and sore throat, with fever and cough in 10–20% of cases [20]. Later, in 1967, HCoV-OC43 was disengaged from organ culture, resulting in a sequential entry in the cerebrum of nursing mice. The clinical features of HCoV-OC43 infection give off an impression of resembling those caused by HCoV-229E, which are indistinguishable from diseases with other respiratory tract pathogens such as influenza A viruses and rhinoviruses [21]. Both HCoV-229E and HCoV-OC43 circulate globally, and they are prevalently diffused during the cold period in a moderate climate [22]. Developing these two viruses is less than one week, straggled by around a 2-week disease [21]. According to a human volunteer study, healthy individuals infested with HCoV-229E developed a slight common cold [23].
The first case of SARS-CoV-1 was discovered in late 2002 in Guangdong Province of China. SARS is an infectious disease caused by a virus belonging to the coronavirus family, SARS-CoV-1. The SARS epidemic has expanded across many countries and continents and caused about 8096 reported cases with 774 deaths. The incubation period of SARS-CoV-1 was 4 to 7 days and the peak of viral load was estimated on the 10th day of illness.
Patients infected with SARS-CoV-1 showed initial symptoms of myalgia, headache, fever, malaise, and chills, followed by dyspnea, cough, and respiratory distress as late symptoms of lymphopenia. However, deranged liver function tests and elevated creatine kinase are common laboratory abnormalities of SARS [24, 25]. The insectivorous bat has been identified as an animal reservoir of the SARS coronavirus. The intermediate host that allowed the virus transmission to humans is the masked palm civet, a wild animal sold in markets and eaten in southern China [26].
In late 2004, HCoV-NL63 was isolated from a 7-month-old child in the Netherlands. It was initially prevalent in young children, the elderly, and immunocompromised patients with respiratory illnesses [27]. The common symptoms of the disease caused by HCoV-NL63 are coryza, conjunctivitis, fever, and bronchiolitis [28]. It is distributed globally and it has been estimated that HCoV-NL63 accounts for nearly 4.7% of common respiratory diseases, and its peak incidence occurs during early summer, spring, and winter [22].
In the same year, HCoV-HKU1 was isolated in Hong Kong from a 71-year-old man hospitalized with pneumonia and bronchiolitis [29]. HCoV-HKU1 was reported to be associated with acute asthmatic exacerbation besides community-acquired pneumonia and bronchiolitis [30]. Alike to HCoV-NL63, HCoV-229E, and HCoV-OC43, HCoV-HKU1 was found worldwide, producing mild respiratory diseases [30].
These four community-acquired HCoVs have been well accustomed to humans and are less probable to mutate to produce exceptionally pathogenic diseases, however, accidents can occur for unclear details as in the uncommon case of subtype HCoV-NL63, which is more virulent and has recently been reported to cause severe lower respiratory tract infection in China [31].
As it has been shown for HCoV-NL63, HCoV-229E, and HCoV-OC43, HCoV-HKU1 has a worldwide distribution and causes mild respiratory diseases [30]. However, the subtype HCoV-NL63, which was found to be more virulent, caused recently severe respiratory tract infection in China [31].
In 2012, a new respiratory virus called MERS-CoV for Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus was detected in the lung of a 60-year-old patient who developed acute pneumonia and renal failure in Saudi Arabia [32, 33].
The virus was then reported in several countries in the Middle East. Since then, 1219 cases have been diagnosed, resulting in 449 deaths. Few cases have been detected in Europe, including 2 cases in France and 3 cases in Tunisia in 2013 [34]. Later in 2015, 186 confirmed cases were reported in South Korea. Compared to SARS, MERS is a similar disease with a progressive acute pneumonia. However, unlike SARS, many patients with MERS also developed acute renal failure [32, 33]. Over 30% of patients also showed gastrointestinal symptoms, such as diarrhea and vomiting [32, 33].
As of February 2020, over 2500 confirmed cases were accounted for with an intense case fatality of 34.4%, making MERS-CoV one of the most pathogenic viruses known to humans [35].
SARS-CoV-2 was first reported in a group of pneumonia patients of unknown etiology who witnessed their visit to Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market in December 2019 in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China [36, 37]. At the beginning of the 2020s, the 2019 coronavirus disease emerged around the world and become a pandemic, which disrupts human activity through general confinements and strict sanitary measures. The incubation of SARS-CoV-2 lasts from 2 to 14 days [38]. The most frequent signs in patients were fever, cough, fatigue, anosmia, ageusia, muscle pain, chills, sore throat, rhinitis, and headache head [11]. Additionally, gastrointestinal symptoms have been reported, diarrhea, stomach pain, vomiting, nausea, and poor appetite [11]. The nucleotide sequence of SARS-CoV-2 revealed about 51.8 and 79.0% of similarity with MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-1, respectively, and is closely related to SARS-like coronavirus of bald origin—mouse (bat-SL-CoVZC45) with 87.6–89% identity [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. Recent studies strongly support the hypothesis that SARS-CoV-2 may have originated in bats and may have undergone host jumping to another intermediate mammal, including pangolins (Manis javanica) [10, 40]. Phylogenetic analyzes of the SARS-CoV-2 genome revealed this virus bind with the same human cellular receptor (ACE2: Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2) as same as SARS-CoV-1 to get into host cells with 10 times affinity higher than SARS-CoV-1, while MERS-CoV uses another (DPP4) [41, 42] … Genetic variability of SARS-CoV-2 can be the consequence of nucleotide incorporation errors by viral RNA polymerase, genomic editing by cellular restriction factors, or even homologous recombination. The expansion of SARS-CoV-2 variants was observed in fall 2020 [43]. The evolutionary mutation rate of SARS-CoV-2 is estimated at 1.103 nucleotide substitutions per site per year [44] equivalent to approximately one substitution every two weeks in the genome [45]. Currently, the WHO considered five variants as “worrying,” which were first detected in England, South Africa, and then later in Brazil (two variants were observed there, including P1 classified as worrying). In October 2020, a fourth variant (Delta) appeared in India received particular attention. This country of 1.3 billion people has seen an explosion of cases is resisted by other nations. At the end of November 2021, it was the Omicron variant, detected in South Africa, which caused the recent wave and concern all over the world.
Besides other variants called VOI (“variant under investigation” or “variant of interest” in English) has been detected in multiple countries and identified with mutations that lead to amino acid changes associated with phenotypic changes (confirmed or suspected) responsible for community transmission or multiple confirmed cases or clusters (Table 1) [46].
WHO label | Pango lineage | Clade/lineage GISAID | Clade next strain | First samples | Listed designation date |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lambda | C.37 | GR/452Q.V1 | 20D | Peru, Dec. 2020 | 14 June 2021 |
Mu | B.1.621 | GH | 21 h | Colombia, Jan. 2021 | 30 August 2021 |
Variants to follow VOI of SARS-CoV-2 [46].
And diverse variants called under evaluation, or VUM (“variant under monitoring”) exhibit genetic changes suspected of affecting the characteristics of the virus, indicating that it may pose a future risk without evidence of phenotypic or epidemiological repercussions being clear at this time, and which should be investigated repeated evaluation and enhanced surveillance pending confirmation of new evidence (Table 2) [46].
Lines PANGO* | Clade GISAID | Clade next strain | First samples listed | Date of designation |
---|---|---|---|---|
B.1.427 B.1.429 | GH/452R. V1 | 21C | U.S.A., Mar 2020 | VOI: 5 Mar, 2 July 2021 VUM: 6 Apr 2021 |
R.1 | GR | — | Many countries, Jan 2021 | 07 Apr 2021 |
B.1.466.2 | GH | — | Indonesia, Nov 2020 | 28 Apr 2021 |
B.1.1.318 | GR | 20B | Many countries, Jan 2021 | 02 June 2021 |
B.1.1.519 | GR | 20. B/S.732 A | Many countries, Jan 2020 | 02 June 2021 |
C.36.3 | GR | — | Many countries, Jan 2021 | 16 June 2021 |
B.1.214.2 | G | — | Many countries, Nov 2020 | 30 June 2021 |
B.1.1.523 | GR | — | Many countries, May 2020 | 14 July 2021 |
B.1.619 | G | 20 A/S.126 A | Many countries, May 2020 | 14 July 2021 |
B.1.620 | G | — | Many countries, Nov 2020 | 14 July 2021 |
C.1.2 | GR | — | South Africa, May 2021 | 01 Sept 2021 |
B.1.617.1§ | G/452R. V3 | 21B | India, Oct 2020 | VOI: 4 Apr 2021 VUM: 20 Sept 2021 |
B.1.526 | GH/253G. V1 | 21F | U.S.A., Nov 2020 | VOI: 24 Mar 2021 VUM: 20 Sept 2021 |
B.1.525 | G/484 K. V3 | 21D | Many countries, Dec 2020 | VOI: 17 Mar 2021 VUM: 20 Sept 2021 |
Variants under intensive care or VUM of SARS-CoV-2.
The bovine, porcine, and avian coronaviruses are mainly affecting production animals. These coronaviruses belong to alpha, beta, gamma, and/or delta-coronaviruses.
Later, in 1971, porcine epidemic diarrhea or DEP (Porcine enteritis disease virus or PEDV) was first described in England and caused watery diarrhea occasionally accompanied by vomiting [55]. Since 2013, a severe pathogenic variant of DEP has affected North America and then spread throughout the world, causing serious economic losses. This disease has been included in France to the list of first-category health hazards for emerging animal species. Several variants of the TGE virus are the source of several strains of porcine respiratory coronavirus (Porcine respiratory coronavirus or PRCV), responsible for discreet respiratory disorders [53]. Among these viruses, one of them infected almost most European pig herds in 1984. Two other coronaviruses were identified in 2016 also with digestive tropism [55]: the porcine enteritis coronavirus (swine enteritis coronavirus or SeCoV), a recombinant virus containing a TGEV genome in which the gene S is replaced by that of PEDV, and the porcine acute diarrhea virus (swine acute diarrhea syndrome or SADS) [56].
Under natural conditions, SARS-CoV-2 infection has been observed in owner-infected animals. This case is called Spillback when infections are gained by animals through contact with humans. Few confirmed cases of SARS-CoV-2 in pets were reported in diverse countries: France (2 cats), Spain (2 cats), Germany (1 cat), Russia (1 cat), China (2 dogs and a cat in Hong Kong), Belgium (4 cats), the United States (31 cats and 24 dogs), United Kingdom (one cat), Japan (4 dogs), Chile (one cat), Canada (one dog), Brazil (one cat), Denmark (a dog), Italy (a dog) [61]. A recent French study has shown for the first time a significant circulation of SARS-CoV-2 in a population of pets (34 cats and 13 dogs) whose owners were infected with COVID-19 [62].
Experimental conditions have revealed that pigs and poultry are resistant to every inoculation with SARS-CoV-2 [63] while rabbits (which are also pets or laboratory animals) [64], and other laboratory animals include the golden hamster (
On November 29, 2021, recent reports have proven that SARS-CoV-2 has been transmitted from humans to wild white-tailed deer in the United States, but conversely, no cases of transmission from deer to humans have been reported. All were “apparently in good health,” and “showed no clinical signs of the disease” [67].
In the United States, 4 tigers and 3 lions were probably infected by humans in a zoo in the Bronx. They presented mild respiratory symptoms. Since then, a tiger and a puma have been also reported infected [68]. Recent studies from the Friedrich-Loeffler Institute in Germany reported raccoon dogs (canids bred in China for their fur) previously susceptible to SARS-CoV-1 were also susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 and could contaminate other raccoon dogs by direct contact with no clinical signs. These animals can be intermediate hosts potentially involved in the emergence of COVID-19 [69]. On the other side, infected mink farms by SARS-CoV-2 were detected (2 on April 26, 33 to August 14, then 52 to September 14). Two million mink were then culled by the Dutch authorities. As of September 1, the first human cases contaminated by mink were reported [70] 66 of the 97 employees of these farms tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, with whole-genome sequencing revealing mink-like variants in 47 cases [71].
Wastewater-Based epidemiology (WBE) has been successfully used to investigate polio circulation within the community. This novel biomonitoring tool has been successfully used to evaluate international poliovirus vaccine campaigns and to investigate the use of some illicit drugs. Additionally, this tool has been successfully used to detect the occurrence of hepatitis and norovirus outbreaks [72, 73].
The environmental circulation of viruses as human pathogens has been given more attention since the first occurrence an spread of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 1 appeared (SARS-CoV-1) in 2003 and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) in 2012. Even more focus on the development of surveillance systems of viruses in the environment has been reported since the first occurrence of COVID-19 in December 2019 in Wuhan, China [73, 74].
Since most patients infected with SARS-Cov-2 might be asymptomatic, rapid and accurate detection of potential virus carriers is a critical step to suppress the risk of disease transmission at an early stage of the disease [75]. SARS-CoV-2 has been shown to replicate actively in enterocytes of the human intestine, where there is the highest expression of ACE2 in the human body and the virus is excreted in the feces [76]. SARS-CoV-2 RNA has been detected worldwide in raw wastewater and sometimes in treated wastewater, which could imply potential environmental transmission via the water cycle [77, 78, 79]. SARS-CoV-2 RNA has been reported in wastewater treatment plants in various nations around the world such as Australia, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, the United States, Japan, Germany, the Arab Emirates States, Istanbul, and Brazil [12]. The duration of the shedding through feces can be as long as 33 days, with a decreased shedding rate, ranging from 106 to 1012 gc/L, which is lower than some other infectious viruses, like MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-1 [80, 81].
Detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater was performed by PCR-based methods such as reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and digital PCR using the amplification of parts of the viral genome, such as the genes coding for the nucleocapsid [82] and the viral envelope [83]. To gain insights into the fate and transport of SARS- CoV-2 in WWTFs, the general workflow for SARS-CoV-2 testing in wastewater is conducted in the following order sample collection, sample concentration, RNA extraction and analysis, and data reporting [84, 85]. Molecular detection of viral RNA involves three major steps:
Gene | Probe | Sequence | References |
---|---|---|---|
The nucleocapsid (N) | 2019-nCoV_N1-F 2019-nCoV_N1-R 2019-nCoV_N1-P | 5′-GACCCCAAAATCAGCGAAAT-3 ′ 5′-TCTGGTTACTGCCAGTTGAATCTG-3 ′ 5′-FAM- ACCCCGCATTACGTTTGGTGGACC-ZEN/Iowa Black-3′ | [7, 79, 92] [7, 79] |
The nucleocapsid (N) | 2019-nCoV_N2-F | 5′-TTACAAACATTGGCCGCAAA-3 | |
2019-nCoV_N2-R | 5′-GCGCGACATTCCGAAGAA-3′ | ||
2019-nCoV_N2-P | 5′-FAM—ACAATTTGCCCCCAGCGCTTCAG—ZEN/Iowa Black-3′ | ||
The the nucleocapsid (N) | 2019-nCoV_N3-F | 5′-GGGAGCCTTGAATACACCAAAA-3′ | [7, 79] |
2019-nCoV_N3-R | 5′-TGTAGCACGATTGCAGCATTG-3 | ||
2019-nCoV_N3-P | 5′-FAM- AYCACATTGGCACCCGCAATCCTG-ZEN/Iowa Black-3′ | ||
Envelop (E) | E_Sarbeco_F | 5′-ACAGGTACGTTAATAGTTAATAGCGT- 3′ | [79, 93] |
E_Sarbeco_ R E_Sarbeco_ P1 Cor-p-F2 (+) Cor-p-F3 (+) | 5′ — ATATTGCAGCAGTACGCACACA-3′ 5′-FAM— ACACTAGCCATCCTTACTGCGCTTCG— ZEN/Iowa Black-3′ 5′-CTAACATGCTTAGGATAATGG-3′ 5′-GCCTCTCTTGTTCTTGCTCGC-3′ | [94] | |
Cor-p-R1 (−) | 5′-CAGGTAAGCGTAAAACTCATC-3′ | ||
ORF1ab | 5′ — CCCTGTGGGTTTTACACTTAA-3′ 5′-ACGATTGTGCATCAGCTGA-3′ 5′-FAM- CCGTCTGCGGTATGTGGAAAGGTTATGG -BHQ1–3′ | [95, 96, 97] |
Primers/probes used for amplification of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater [91].
Varying results have been reported using these primer/probe sets targeting different parts of the viral genome. For example, [79] found that primer N1 resulted in positive amplification of all study sites (6), but primers N3 and E resulted in positive amplification of 5 and 4 study sites, respectively. However, Rimoldi et al. [97] found a high frequency of positive amplification targeting the ORF1ab gene, compared to only three positive wastewater samples for the N and E genes. As a result, our findings are equivocal in terms of the optimum primer/probe combination for viral RNA amplification in wastewater. This could be attributed to the sensitivity of primers/probes, PCR inhibitors in wastewater samples from different regions/sites, and the potential stability of the virus and viral genome in these different areas [98]. Droplet digital PCR is another molecular technique used for the detection of coronaviruses in clinical and sewage samples. This was found to have an improved, more sensitive, and more accurate lower limit of detection than RT-PCR for environmental samples [99, 100].
Khan et al. [101] discovered that smaller sample volumes (50–100 ml), 30% (w/v) PEG-NaCl, a 12-hour incubation interval, and a 24-hour storage period resulted in improved RNA recoveries in terms of N1 and N2. RNA concentrations were always at least one order of magnitude greater in RT-qPCR than in RT-ddPCR. However, under all test conditions, both RT-qPCR and RT-ddPCR revealed that RNA is generally absent in the sludge samples, resulting in a false-negative result.
Fecal-oral transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is yet to be approved, but additional research is essential to clarify the potential risks of the novel coronavirus in sanitation systems. The SARS-CoV-2 virus has been detected in fecal samples and effluents. Contaminated drinking water, contaminated raw, undercooked aquatic aquaculture, sewage-irrigated food, and vector-mediated transmission are all possible sub-pathways of the fecal-oral mode of transmission. Seepage from sanitation systems (pit latrines and septic tanks), landfill leachates without geomembrane protection toward shallow groundwater systems can pollute drinking water sources. In other types of coronaviruses, one study found 99.9% percent fatality after 10 days in tap water at 23°C and over 100 days at 4°C. This data also suggests that coronaviruses have a longer survival duration in tap water than in wastewater [102].
The exposure of humans to viruses, including SARS-CoV-2 through bioaerosol and wastewater aerosols has been highlighted. For example, a laboratory study investigating the persistence of SARS-CoV-2 in aerosols showed that the virus keeps its viability and infectivity in aerosols for up to 16 h [103].
Therefore, human and animal exposure to SARS-CoV-2 via wastewater aerosols could be significant in shared sanitation systems, especially in crowded informal settlements in developing countries [104]. Various studies have registered the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in urban and rural sewer systems. This wastewater might contaminate fresh water; it can pass through untreated effluent discharged to surface waters or leak and affect the supply of traditionally treated graywater. These recycled urban waters also represent possible modes of transmission [104].
In some regions with a high prevalence of COVID-19 disease, SARS-CoV-2 was prevalent in surface water, including both saltwater and freshwater. Coronaviruses from anthropogenic activities were confirmed in different water bodies [102, 105]. Marine and fresh aquatic foods such as fish and crustaceans may be contaminated by raw wastewater. Marine foods from coastal areas receiving untreated wastewater, aquatic food acquired from surface aquatic systems receiving raw or partially treated wastewater, and raw wastewater-irrigated salad crops are all possible sources of food transmission.
Raw wastewater-aquacultural systems and raw wastewater irrigation of crops consumed raw, such as salads, are two more techniques that promote food contamination. However, more research is needed to determine the prevalence and durability of SARS-CoV-2 in marine and surface aquatic systems, as well as food derived from these sources. Such research should also look into the effects of various food pre-treatments and culinary processes on SARV-CoV-2 persistence. Studies based on genomic and phylogenetic analyses are needed to evaluate whether SARS-CoV-2 may leap from aquatic environments to humans. This is important given the interactions between humans and wildlife, including the widespread consumption of aquatic and terrestrial animals [106].
Information from the general suppression of viruses and surrogates of coronaviruses could be used, with caution, to give additional information on the possible suppression of these viruses. For example, [107] observed that activated sludge treatment (ASP) processes in subtropical conditions removed over 3 logs 10 of enteric viruses. ASP is a commonly used wastewater treatment process around the world [108, 109, 110]. This treatment process includes primary settling, biological degradation, and secondary clarification [107, 111]. Ye et al. [112] demonstrated that during ASP processes, the highest removal of coronaviruses can occur at the primary settling stage.
For example, a sewage pond system [113] reported an average reduction of 1 log10 of viruses for 14.5 to 20.9 days of retention. Besides adsorption on particles, a longer HRT (hydraulic retention time) may be required for coronavirus inactivation in wastewater. Because coronaviruses adsorb to solid surfaces, a large concentration can be expected in the sludge. Anaerobic digestion of sludge, which is a typical sludge treatment method, reduces pathogenic bacteria. The most commonly used membrane technologies in wastewater treatment are microfiltration (0.1–0.2 μm) and ultrafiltration (0.005 ≈ 10 μm). There are reports of microfiltration membranes with larger pore sizes (0.2 to 0.4) being used [114]. The best membrane technology for coronavirus removal is ultrafiltration with an average viral particle diameter of 120 nm (0.12 μm) and an envelope diameter of 80 nm (0.08 μm) [115]. Adsorption of coronaviruses on wastewater solids can enhance their removal. Tertiary wastewater treatment processes such as chlorination and UV treatment can also result in further removal of remaining coronaviruses in wastewater [98]. Chlorine has been reported to inactivate viruses through the cleavage of the virus capsid protein backbone, inhibiting the injection of the viral genome into host cells [116, 117].
The inactivation of coronaviruses by UV irradiation has also been reported in several studies [118, 119, 120]. Enveloped viruses, like coronaviruses, are more sensitive to UV than non-enveloped viruses. The mechanism by which UV inactivates coronaviruses is the generation of pyrimidine dimers which damage nucleic acid [94]. Methods of disinfection used in the drinking water treatment inactivate efficiently SARS-CoV-2 in water [121]. However, there is a need to investigate and ameliorate the performance of disinfection technologies to be adopted for the inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 in municipal and hospital wastewater to reduce the related risk of possible infections [121].
There has been a significant expansion that proved pathogenic viruses in the wastewater and/or treatment plants, including the novel coronavirus. Understanding the destiny of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater treatment plants has arisen as an issue of extreme importance. The epidemiological surveillance of these viruses in wastewater would help to prevent the spread of the viral disease while producing safe treated water for reuse. Thus, the performance of various treatment procedures is now being explored to reduce viral disease outbreaks.
Potential dangers of SARS-CoV-2 transmission through water infrastructure are a major source of concern in the environmental setting, and detection and eradication will play a key role in limiting the virus’s spread in the population. To comprehend the early warning of outbreaks and to effectively inactivate before emerging, the virus must be a regular criterion for routine monitoring with other quality metrics with environmental samples. A regulatory framework that incorporates environmental systems will help to protect the global community from future outbreaks and transmissions.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"