Details of satellite dataset for North Sinai (acquired via https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Limerick",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}},{id:"269580",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerard",middleName:null,surname:"Dooly",fullName:"Gerard Dooly",slug:"gerard-dooly",email:"Gerard.Dooly@ul.ie",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Limerick",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}}]},book:{id:"8271",title:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",slug:"applications-of-optical-fibers-for-sensing",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8271.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220902",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Cuadrado-Laborde",slug:"christian-cuadrado-laborde",fullName:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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That is to say, each repeat unit has an ionizable group. In this case, in water they easily absorb many times their own weight. Polymers that do this are called superabsorbers. Acrylates are made from vinyl monomers. Some acrylates have an extra methyl groups attached to the alpha carbon or directly attached to the carbonyl carbon formed ester groups. Acrylic elastomer is a general term for a type of synthetic rubber whose main component is acrylic acid alkylester (ethyl or butyl ester). Acrylic elastomer has characteristics of heat and oil resistance. Acrylic paint is a fast-drying paint made of pigment suspended in acrylic polymer emulsion. Acrylic paints are water-soluble, but become water-resistant when dry, it also less a stain on clothes than oil paint. Acrylic fibers are synthetic fibers made from a polymer (polyacrylonitrile) with an average molecular weight of ~100,000, about 1900 monomer units. For a fiber to be called "acrylic" in the US, the polymer must contain at least 85% acrylonitrile monomer. It is manufactured as a filament, then cut into short staple lengths similar to wool hairs, and spun into yarn. Acrylic fiber is lightweight, soft, and warm, with a wool-like feel. Adhesive acrylate used in pressure-sensitive tapes, labels, glue dots, note pads, automobile trim, and a wide variety of other products.
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Radiation Research of Polymer department - National Center for Radiation Research and Technology (NCRRT) - Atomic Energy Authority (AEA), Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt. He also manages the analytical Laboratory in Ain Shams University, Faculty of engineering. Dr. Ghobashy began his career on the design and application of new polymeric materials in all areas of applications, in particular adsorption science. He is also interested in the development of smart hydrogel systems by chemical modification for applications including agriculture proposal, and biomedical application. Application of radiation chemistry for synthesis of polymer and hydrogel with a wide range biomedical application. Further Research interests are focused on examination of swelling behaviour of another kind of polymeric material likes (Organogel, fabric polymer and grafted films for different applications like self-cleaning and self-healing hydrogel. 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This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. 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Due to its cosmetic impact, vitiligo can impact the quality of life in children and adults. There are multiple therapies used for repigmentation beginning from topical corticosteroids, calcineurin inhibitors, and narrowband ultraviolet B (NB-UVB) to oral systemic medications and surgery. Even though a good number of patients may achieve successful repigmentation, there may be a few in whom the progression of vitiligo may affect extensive body surface areas making repigmentation an uphill task. The aim in such patients with extensive vitiligo (more than 50% body surface area) would be to achieve a uniform skin tone by depigmenting the remaining pigmented sites [1].
Depigmentation therapy is an accomplishable alternative therapy in patients who are extensively affected by vitiligo. It can be used in all skin types. Most readily used and available depigmenting agents are monobenzyl ether of hydroquinone (MBEH), 4-methoxyphenol, and phenol. Other therapies such as lasers and cryotherapy have also been used. The depigmentation process is a gradual one and can take anywhere between 1 and 3 years. In the author’s experience, those who have undergone depigmentation are satisfied and happy with the therapeutic outcome if one achieves uniform color.
The depigmentation approach is quite recent and is derived from the observations of unwanted depigmenting action of the phenol derivatives [2]. However, there are very few published studies on it. The aim of the researchers was to explain the possible mechanism of action for this class of compounds. Tyrosinase was the first suggested target. Also the potential of different phenol derivatives to act as an alternative substrate of the enzyme or as a competitive inhibitor was evaluated. Thus, it was hypothesized that this class of substances, or some of them, may be used for the treatment of skin disorders caused due to hyperpigmentation or melanocyte hyperproliferation. Further structural studies have indicated that the role of the position and type of substitutes in the phenolic ring allow the compound to be hydroxylated or oxidated by tyrosinase [3]. Considering phenol derivatives have a role in this process, hydroquinone was evaluated. Hydroquinone (HQ) belongs to the phenol/catechol class of chemical agents. Tyrosinase gets inhibited by HQ when interaction occurs with copper at the active site. This further decreases the amount of intracellular glutathione and induces the production of oxygen-reactive species. Thus, HQ acts as an alternative substrate, according to most part of phenol/catechol compounds, because it is similar to tyrosine. The enzyme can thus oxidize HQ without generating the pigment. The quinones produced are able to react with the sulfhydryl residues of the proteins, generating oxidative damage and affecting the cell growth. The depigmenting action is the result of the oxidative damage, involving both lipids and proteins of the cellular membranes. Functional studies have demonstrated that HQ and other phenolic compounds, such as tert-butylphenol, may even act through different mechanisms, including the oxidation of TRP1, and by interfering with RNA and DNA synthesis. HQ has been identified as the main depigmenting agent, whereas among the various phenolic derivatives, the monobenzyl ether of hydroquinone (MBEH) appeared as the more handful one. In this chapter, we will review and compare various established and potential depigmentation agents as well as emerging therapies that can be used in extensive and universal vitiligo.
Selection of an appropriate patient is of utmost importance in depigmentation therapy. The option of depigmentation should be made available to only those patients having extensive vitiligo. Detailed and thorough consultation sessions should be conducted with the patient and their families (preferably 2–3 sessions), explaining to them in detail that this therapeutic modality utilizes a potent depigmenting agent and should not be used for cosmetic purposes [2, 3]. They should be explained with all realistic expectations, treatment time frame, the cost involved, and side effects if any, and that once one particular type of treatment is done, they will not be a good candidate for any other type of treatment. Subjects with skin types (V and VI) with a disfiguring contrast between dark-pigmented skin and white vitiliginous areas, especially involving exposed areas (face or the hands), may be a candidate for depigmentation. Moreover, incomplete or trichrome repigmentation (e.g., when using UV light) may cause more disfigurement, thus making such individuals good candidates for depigmentation therapy. The patients should be informed that even after depigmentation, spontaneous repigmentation might occur in vitiligo lesions, warranting additional depigmenting cycles. Patients must be informed that these treatments lead to a definitive irreversible depigmentation. Younger patients with extensive involvement can be given an option of repigmentation instead of opting for depigmentation explaining that complete repigmentation may or may not be achieved. Depigmentation therapy should be avoided in children less than 12 years of age [4].
MBEH (monobenzone, p-benzyloxy-phenol) is the most common topical depigmenting agent used mainly because it is the only product approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) for depigmentation in vitiligo, if the affected body surface area is more than 50% [1]. It is a hydroquinone (HQ) derivative and was first introduced in 1930s. MBEH is the first-line agent for depigmentation therapy in vitiligo patients.
There are multiple pathways through which MBEH causes depigmentation [5]:
Reaction with tyrosinase enzyme during melanin synthesis leads to conversion of MBEH to quinones. The reactive quinone products formed bind with cysteine found in tyrosinase proteins (sulfhydryl (-SH) group) to form hapten-carrier compounds resulting in formation of neoantigens. These neoantigens stimulate a systemic, melanocyte destruction and an inflammatory reaction.
Another result of MBEH conversion by tyrosinase is production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS leads to lysosomal degradation of melanosomes. Additionally, there is interference of the melanosome structure and membranes, following which the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II routes and initiation of melanocyte Ag-specific T-cell responses cause an increase in surface expression of melanosomal antigens.
ROS also contributes to an innate immune response due to the release of exosomes.
MBEH-exposed skin presents with rapid and persistent innate immune activation. It is quoted by Gupta et al. “that MBEH is a contact-sensitizer, inducer of a type IV delayed type hypersensitivity response against the quinone hapten. However, this only occurs if there is production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1b and IL-18 by the Langerhans cells or keratinocytes” [6].
There have been reports that when MBEH therapy was combined with all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA), it enhanced depigmentation process and the melanocytotoxic effects via inhibition of the enzyme glutathione S-transferase in melanocytes. This could be a possible way to avoid contact dermatitis when using high concentrations of 40% MBEH. However, combination of ATRA-MBEH did not affect hair pigmentation in animal studies [7].
After the patient has been duly consulted and informed about all the possible outcomes and consequences of the treatment, the depigmentation therapy is initiated. Application of MBEH can be done by the patient at home. Initially, the exposed areas are treated. A test spot is advised over a normal pigmented skin (usually forearm) to assess the development of contact dermatitis. If there is no adverse reaction, the patient can continue with the application of the cream on the areas of top priority and then move in stages for low priority areas. To avoid contact dermatitis, different concentrations of MBEH can be used. MBEH can be diluted to 5% for use on the neck, 10% on the face, and 20% on the arms and legs. In patients who fail to respond to 20% MBEH over a course of 3 to 4 months, the concentration of MBEH can be increased to 30% and then further to 40%. Concentrations of 30 and 40% MBEH have been used primarily on the extremities, especially the elbows and knees. Concentrations greater than this are not recommended [8].
It takes anywhere between 4 and 12 months for gradual depigmentation [8]. It is to be noted that depigmentation is mostly irreversible and histologically associated with loss of melanosomes and melanocytes [1].
Patients should always be informed and well instructed about certain precautions while using MBEH.
Application of MBEH at one site can lead to loss of pigment at distant body sites, i.e., application of MBEH to the arm may result in loss of pigment on the face [4]. Moreover, it can also reactivate a stable disease.
Application of MBEH to the eyelids is not advised [8] because of risk of ochronosis. It may lead to pigmentation of the conjunctiva if MBEH is applied on the eyelids.
Avoid skin-to-skin contact on a continuous basis with another person as it can cause a decrease in pigmentation at the site of contact in the other person.
The use of sunscreens with a high-sun protection factor (SPF) is essential. This also helps to prevent repigmentation as well as sunburn reactions [4].
Follicular repigmentation may occur spontaneously upon sun exposure [8]. This happens mainly because MBEH only destroys epidermal melanocytes keeping follicular melanocytes intact.
Irritant contact dermatitis and common allergic reactions can develop [9]. In which event, application of MBEH is stopped, and open wet dressings are applied to the affected area along with topical steroids. Once the dermatitis has subsided, MBEH can be restarted at a lower concentration of 5% [8]. Other side effects include exogenous ochronosis [10], unmasking of telangiectasias and phlebectasias on the lower extremities [8], pruritus, xerosis, erythema, rash, edema, conjunctival melanosis, and distant depigmentation [4].
Risk of carcinogenesis with MBEH has not been reported but cannot be ruled out, and hence it is banned from the European Union since 2001 in cosmetics [11].
All-trans retinoic acid (RA), which is a vitamin A derivative primarily employed in the treatment of acne, is shown to serve as a weak depigmenting agent when used for several weeks.
A combination or RA and MBEH induced significant depigmentation within 4–8 weeks. Nair et al. proposed that RA might enhance the skin penetration of depigmenting agents. Thus, RA increases the susceptibility of melanocytes to hydroquinone and 4-hydroxyanisole via the impairment of glutathione-dependent defense mechanisms of melanocytes and reducing melanogenesis activity in viable melanocytes [12, 13, 14, 15].
This compound is a phenol derivative and is also known as p-hydroxyanisole (HA) or mequinol [1].
Mequinol acts in the similar way as MBEH acts. This compound usually acts via a dose-dependent response manner. It can be used as monotherapy or in conjunction with a Q-switched ruby laser.
The compound is used in a 20% concentration in an oil/water cream base. As with MBEH, cream is applied on an initial test patch to observe for any allergic reactions. If there are no reactions, the patient is advised to apply cream twice daily until complete depigmentation is observed [16]. The effectiveness of 4-MP has been correlated with the duration of the use of the cream; the longer the cream was used, better the results that were obtained [1].
A combination product of 2% 4-hydroxyanisole (mequinol) and 0.01% tretinoin was tested in a double-blind multicentric study and was found to significantly improve solar lentigines and related hyperpigmented lesions of the face and hands after a twice-daily application of up to 24 weeks [1].
Phenol is an inexpensive peeling agent having medium-depth capability and used for treatment of photodamage or rhytids. The toxicity of phenol toward melanocytes is well documented. Phenol has the ability to penetrate deeper into the tissue up to the upper reticular dermis.
Phenol is involved in melanogenesis, inducing coagulation of protein in the epidermis. The melanocytes lose their capacity to synthesize melanocytes normally. This property of phenol is different than that of MBEH and hydroquinone wherein they destroy the melanocytes [17]. Hence, 88% phenol can be used as therapeutic option to eliminate residual normally pigmented lesions in patients.
The area to be treated is cleaned with spirit/alcohol. Application of phenol is done with the help of a swab soaked with phenol until cutaneous frosting occurs. There might be a burning sensation experienced by the patient for approximately 60 seconds, which gradually decreases in intensity but can last from minutes to hours. In a case study reported by Zanini and Machado Filho, they reported the use of 88% phenol on a 62-year-old female patient. Post 2 sessions, with a gap of 45 days, total elimination of residual pigmentation was achieved [17].
In general, 88% phenol does not produce any major complications when used in limited areas. However, some complications such as cardiotoxicity and other systemic toxicities have been reported in patients treated with medium and deep peeling over larger areas. Its cellular uptake is both rapid and passive because of its lipophilic character and signs of systemic toxicity develop soon after exposure. Cardiovascular shock, cardiac arrhythmias, and bradycardia, as well as metabolic acidosis, have been reported within 6 hours of skin-peeling procedures with phenol [17]. Other complications include non-esthetic scar formation, dyschromia, and development of herpetic eczema. However, the authors of this chapter have also noted a paradoxical response, wherein phenol application led to repigmentation of the skin!
Depigmentation with topicals is effective; however, they come with their share of side effects and can take up to 10 months or more for completion of the process and rarely complete depigmentation may not be achieved. Depigmentation by physical means, i.e., by cryotherapy and lasers, can be done when rapid depigmentation is desired or when patients have not responded well to topicals or have had contact dermatitis or any side effects due to the same.
Cryotherapy is nothing but cold therapy or the use of low temperatures to treat a variety of tissue lesions. With cryotherapy, it is possible to achieve rapid and permanent depigmentation via irreversible tissue damage resulting from intracellular ice formation. Liquid nitrogen is used as a cryogen for clinical use. The degree of damage depends on the rate of cooling and minimum temperature achieved. Further, inflammation develops within 24 hours of the treatment, which contributes to destruction of lesions via immunologically mediated mechanisms. In areas of koebnerization, cryotherapy is more effective.
Initially, spot testing by a single freeze-thaw cycle is done. Once the edema and erythema subside, patches are treated with cryotherapy 3–6 weeks later. Either CO2 or liquid N2 can be used. A 2-cm flat-topped and round cryoprobe is used at approximately 40 mm from the skin surface. The whole patch is frozen with a single freeze-thaw cycle from the periphery followed by forming successive rows inward. Procedure should be terminated when a narrow (<1 mm) frost rim forms around the periphery of the cryoprobe. The rim can develop within 10–20 s by a cryogun connected to a container with barometric pressure above 80 kg/cm2. For lesions around the orbits or uneven areas of the nose, cryoprobes having smaller diameters may be required. No more than one freeze-thaw cycle is advised per session. There have been cases reported which have used two freeze-thaw cycles [18]. Results are visible by the end of 4 weeks after the procedure.
Alternatively, a cryospray/cryopen or the traditional dip-stick method of application can be used following the same freeze-thaw cycle protocol.
Low cost and simple to perform.
Does not require anesthesia.
Minimal wound care with no dressing or antibiotics.
Safe and efficacious.
No scar formation if performed by an experienced dermatologist.
It can be performed only on smaller areas.
Multiple sittings may be required.
If performed aggressively, it can lead to permanent scarring.
Another faster method of depigmentation is the use of laser therapy. Lasers have been advocated more than MBEH and other bleaching agents due to their failure rate, as they have been proven to selectively destruct the melanocytes causing depigmentation. Further the risk of scar formation is minimized with laser therapies [16].
Mainly, the Q-switched ruby (QSR, 694 nm) and alexandrite (755 nm) lasers have been used in depigmentation. Both of these lasers operate in a similar manner in terms of mechanism of action. They induce photothermolysis of the pigmented lesions as they have wavelengths between 600 and 800 nm. These wavelengths are more readily and well absorbed by melanin. The frequency and pulse width is adjusted according to the skin type of the patient by a trained and experienced dermatologist. A maximum of 80 cm2 area is treated per session.
Q-switched ruby | Q-switched alexandrite |
---|---|
|
|
Some other potential Q-switched lasers that can selectively destruct melanocytes include neodymium:yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser (1064 nm) and the frequency-doubled Q-switched Nd:YAG laser (532 nm) [1]. In a study by Boen et al., Q-switched ruby laser (QSRL) 694 nm, Q-switched alexandrite laser (QSAL) 755 nm, and picosecond 755-nm alexandrite lasers provided the most significant pigment reduction when different recalcitrant pigmented areas of the body were treated by the abovementioned lasers over different areas in the same patient. In all the patients treated with this laser therapy, no adverse reactions apart from mild postprocedure erythema and crusting were noticed. The picosecond laser poses more advantages over the traditional Q-switch laser as it has increased photochemical action due to shorter pulse duration, requires lesser treatment sessions, and has reduced specific photothermal damage. This results in an increase in the safety profile of the laser and improves the effectiveness of this therapeutic modality [19, 24, 25, 26].
Procedure is slightly painful and may require local anesthesia.
Treatment is expensive.
Possibility of failure in removing pigmented patches even after several treatments because of Koebner’s phenomenon.
Patients with active vitiligo respond better to laser treatments compared to those with stable vitiligo. Hence, patients who are Koebner negative may often relapse [16].
Also known as imatinib mesylate, it is used to treat conditions like leukemia and gastrointestinal stromal tumors. It was observed that patients treated with imatinib were reported to develop generalized depigmentation as a side effect. Imatinib is a tyrosinase kinase inhibitor, thus inhibiting the activity of the enzyme, resulting in decreased pigmentation of the skin. The side effects of imatinib include fluid retention, periorbital edema, diarrhea, and myelosuppression. Some of the dermatological side effects include erythroderma, follicular mucinosis, and lichenoid eruption [27].
Imiquimod is usually used for topical treatment of anogenital warts and basal cell carcinomas [20]. It is an imidazoquinoline and is an immune response modifier. It acts by stimulating the monocytes/macrophages and plasmacytoid dendritic cells in dermis and epidermis of the immune system to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, mainly interferon α and other signals that activate T-cell-mediated response leading to apoptosis of tumor cells. Prolonged use of imiquimod has shown to result in depigmentation [1]. Imiquimod also stimulates CD8 cells to become cytotoxic and enhances antigen presentation [21]. Recently, it was reported that human melanocytes express toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7). When applied topically, imiquimod binds to TLR7 followed by stimulation of various cytokines, which induce the abovementioned T-lymphocytic response [22]. Imiquimod also has a direct action on melanocytes via apoptosis of melanocytes. This action is related to reduction of expression of Bcl-2 and/or an increase in the proapoptotic stimulus (cytotoxic T lymphocytes, natural cytotoxic T cells/killer cells, granzymes B, Fas, TNF, Bax, etc.) [23].
Thus, there is a strong possibility that imiquimod may cause elimination of melanocytes by direct influence on cells as well as inducing acquired immunity indirectly, which eventually induces vitiligo-like hypopigmented lesions [28]. Some common side effects include itching, pain, burning, erosions, erythema, and crusting.
DPCP is used traditionally as a treatment modality for alopecia areata. Depigmentation was found to be one of the side effects due to the use of DPCP. It has an immunomodulatory mechanism of action. As reported by Duhra and Foulds [12], in a case of alopecia totalis where topical DPCP was used, there a was marked reaction with erythema and edema on the forearm after 3 days, but the scalp manifested only slight macular erythema. The reaction on the forearm subsided after 2 weeks and was replaced by a depigmented patch over a period of 6 weeks. Upon incubating the affected skin with dopa followed by electron microscopy, an absence of melanosomes and melanocytes was revealed. It has been observed that vitiligo can develop even with DPCP concentrations as low as 0.0001% [12].
Some of the adverse effects include hyperpigmentation, regional lymphadenopathy, blistering, and eczematous reactions [20].
The science of depigmentation is still not a perfected one and that does leave many questions unanswered. Further research in this arena can help shed light on these doubts:
Aspects that cannot be controlled
Remote depigmentation.
End result (color matching or same color).
Hairs do not lose pigment (can give repigmentation especially follicular).
Repigmentation during pregnancy (at times extensive).
Resistance to MBEH.
Can patients with less than 50% involvement, willing to accept that no more repigmentation is possible, are candidates for depigmentation?
Whether depigmentation in children is a safe and viable alternative?
Vitiligo has a huge psychological impact and is also socially stigmatizing, particularly for patients with darker skin types in whom the contrast between the vitiliginous lesions and uninvolved skin can be especially apparent and disfiguring. In patients with widespread involvement covering more than 50% of their body and in cases where medical modalities including phototherapy have proved ineffective, depigmentation therapy should be considered. Patient selection, adequate counseling, and patient education are extremely important for a positive long-term outcome.
Coastal zones are now experiencing increased natural and human disruptions, such as sea-level rise, coastal erosion, and resource overexploitation, to name a few. Coastal erosion affects almost 80% of the world’s beaches, with rates ranging from 1.0 cm year−1 to 30 m year−1, posing a major threat to several coastal regions [1]. According to [2], increased knowledge of many driving forces is affecting the health of global coastal ecosystems has expedited efforts to evaluate, monitor, and reduce coastal stressors to understand the spatial distribution of erosion risks, predict their growth tendency, and support mechanism research on erosion and its solutions.
Shoreline extraction and change detection rates at different times are critical for coastal zone monitoring. The coastline, defined by [3] as the position of the land-water interface at a single point in time, is a highly dynamic characteristic that serves as a predictor of coastal erosion and accretion. Shoreline changes occur on a variety of time scales, ranging from geological to short-term catastrophic events. Waves, winds, tides, sea-level rise, frequent storms, geomorphic processes of erosion and accretion, and human activities are all factors that affect these changes [4].
Several international studies looked at quantitative and qualitative analysis of shoreline spatiotemporal fluctuations [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
Alternatively, efforts were made to estimate the potential position of the shoreline to reduce the impact of the upcoming erosion activity. Moreover, for future predictions of shoreline spatial change, extensive and reliable information regarding historical and present coastline position is required. In a GIS framework, shoreline prediction models are simple to implement. With the help of historical data, several statistical models for example the Average of Rates (AOR), Least Median of Squares (LMS), Linear Regression Rate (LRR), End Point Rate (EPR) model, and Jackknife model (JK) were used to evaluate shoreline prediction [12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].
Few encouraging investigations have been conducted along Egypt’s North Sinai shore [20] used an aerial picture taken in 1955 and a topographic map analyzed in 1992 to describe the shoreline alteration along Sinai’s northern coast. Despite this, the magnitude of shoreline variations was not quantified in their analysis due to the inability of the analyzed maps’ surveying methodologies to calculate it. Moreover [21] used a hydrographic survey to investigate the impact of the El Arish power station (located west of the El Arish valley coast) on the surrounding area on Sinai’s Mediterranean coast. The authors discovered a 5.5 m/year coastline retreat east of the El Arish power plant breakwater [22] used topographic maps from 1973 with satellite pictures from 1984 and 1996 to tutor the coastal changes over the western half of the North Sinai coast (i.e., from El Tinah Bay to El Bardawil Lake). They also calculated how the area of El Bardawil Lake changed throughout time. They discovered that the extent of El Bardawil Lake changed dramatically from 1973 to 1984, losing an average of 128 km2, then slowing to a loss of 5 km2 from 1984 to 1996. El Banna et al. (2009) used the same method to track changes in the shoreline along the North Sinai coast for 15 years (from El Bardawil Lake to Rafah) by studying TM and ETM true color Landsat pictures from 1986 to 2001. The accretion and erosion rates were calculated to be +0.076 km2 year−1 and 0.123 km2 year−1, respectively.
To sum up, the extensive literature survey undertaken in the North Sinai coast area demonstrated that the current published data related to the area needs to be improved and renovated. Furthermore, it cannot determine coastline change rates with high-precision approaches. The current study uses GIS and DSAS geospatial approaches to examine shoreline changes along the North Sinai coastline from 1989 to 2016. Furthermore, the current research aims to: (1) apply three different semi-automated shoreline extraction methods, including Histogram threshold of band ratio, Histogram threshold of band 5, and Tasseled Cap Transformation (TCT); (2) plot and measure shoreline accretion/erosion rates using several statistical methods functionalized in DSAS, including NSM, LRR, EPR, and LMS; and (3) develop a decision-support algorithm that can vigorously support in elaborating shoreline accretion/erosion rates; (4) using the EPR model, outline a futuristic decision plotting based on the North Sinai shoreline forecast in the years 2025, 2035, and 2050.
Sinai’s coastal area is considered an essential part of Egypt’s Mediterranean Coast [22]. It is a geographical connecting point between Asia and Africa, with the Gulf of Suez and the Suez Canal on the west, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Egyptian-Israeli border on the east, and the Mediterranean Sea on the north (Figure 1). The latitudes and longitudes are (28°–31°N) and (32° 30/–34° 30/ E) respectively. The northern Sinai coast stretches for about 220 km along the Mediterranean Sea, extending from Port Said in the west to Rafah in the east, from the Egyptian border [23]. The current study area is split into three subzones based on the vulnerability of coastal areas as well as the availability of data from the field and remotely sensed data. Zone I contain El Tinah Plain Bay, which stretches 38.5 km from Port Said in the west to El Bardawil Lake in the east, (Figure 1a). Zone I is characterized by some features such as Lagoons, vegetation cover, and fish ponds. Zone II includes El Bardawil Lake (Figure 1b). This lake covers approximately 60% of Sinai’s northern coast. It has a total area of over 700 km2 and is approximately 72.5 km long, 22 km wide-ranging, and 2 m deep. The Mediterranean Sea is isolated from the Lake by shallow sand barriers that range in width from 300 to 1000 m, and are overtopped by storm waves in the winter. It has three inlets joining it to the Mediterranean Sea, two of which are manmade (no. 1 and 2) and one of which is natural (El Zaranek inlet), [24]. Zone III includes the El Arish Valley shore, which almost forms a 37 km west-to-east intersection between the El Arish power plant and Rafah, (Figure 1c).
False-color composite images of the study area and shoreline digitization in different periods from (1989–2016) for the three zones (a, b, c) respectively, after [
The intensity and direction of wave action along Egypt’s Mediterranean coast are inextricably linked to significant pressure systems over the Mediterranean and North Atlantic [25]. Wave heights reach 1.16 m and average 0.4 m during the spring and summer, with the prevailing wave direction being NW. Prevailing wave direction is come mainly from N, NNW, and NW in Winter. The maximum wave height is 4.25 m, with an average wave height of 0.51 m and a period of 6.5 sec.
Wave data was analyzed previously by [26, 27, 28] along Egypt’s Mediterranean coast show that waves from the northwest predominate (81%), with small components from the northeast (14%) and southwest (5%). The prevailing wave direction is the main key of the eastward-flowing alongshore current. Reversed alongshore currents are generated by waves incoming from the N, NNE, and NE (Figure 2). The main alongshore current path (62–65%) on the North Sinai coast is from west to east, stimulated by waves from the NNW and NW, according to preceding measured data. However, west trending alongshore currents (24–29%) result from the remaining wave components from the N, NNE, and NE, particularly during March and April due to easterly winds. Furthermore, with a range of 31 cm, the tide along Sinai’s Mediterranean coast is micro-tidal and semi-diurnal. The average high water level is 20 cm, and the average low water level is −11 cm [30].
Wave rose for study area, and wave induced currents’ directions (modified from El Banna et al., 2009), after [
This study used multi-temporal satellite data from Landsat TM, ETM, and OLI/TIRS that cover our coast from 1989 to 2016. Even so, thanks to the shortage of cloud-free imagery during the selected period, satellite images could not be obtained at regular intervals. The polynomial geo-rectification method is used to ortho-rectify the selected satellite images, as it is afterward used to track changes in the shoreline along the Sinai Peninsula’s northern coast Satellite images’ data are described in detail in Table 1. Data acquired for North Sinai coastline surveying from El Tinah bay to El Arish valley was supplied by the Egyptian Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries in 2010.
Satellite data | Path/Row | Year of acquisition | Resolution (pixel size) | Zone |
---|---|---|---|---|
Landsat 4 - TM | 176/38 | 1989 | 30 m | I |
Landsat 5 - TM | 175/38 | 1989 | 30 m | II and III |
Landsat 5 - TM | 176/38 | 1998 | 30 m | I |
Landsat 5 - TM | 175/38 | 1998 | 30 m | II and III |
Landsat 7 - ETM | 176/38 | 2003 | 30 m | I |
Landsat 5 - TM | 175/38 | 2003 | 30 m | II and III |
Landsat 7 - ETM | 176/38 | 2010 | 30 m | I |
Landsat 7 - ETM | 175/38 | 2010 | 30 m | II and III |
Landsat 8 - OLI/TIRS | 176/38 | 2016 | 15 m | I |
Landsat 8 - OLI/TIRS | 175/38 | 2016 | 15 m | II and III |
Related abbreviations: | ||||
TM | : Thematic Mapper; | |||
ETM | : Enhanced Thematic Mapper; | |||
OLI | : Operational Land Imager; | |||
TIRS | : Thermal Infrared Sensor. |
Details of satellite dataset for North Sinai (acquired via https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/).
Image processing carried out in this study were strip filling, georeferencing, and radiometric correction. Firstly, gap filling was applied to image 2010 for all its bands using modeling done by [31] in Arc GIS 10.2.2 using the python algorithm, see Figure 3.
Landsat image for zone I in 2010; (a) before gap filling; (b) after gap filling.
Ground Control Points (GPCs) are used to implement the geometric correction process (i.e. more than 40 GCPs are identified on the images), [10, 32]. The geometric correction is accomplished utilizing ENVI 5.3 software to reduce distortions caused by scale variation, angle, and lens distortion.
The image is projected to actual coordinate Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), WGS-84 datum. After georeferencing, (RMSE) was found to be less than 0.5 pixels, indicating that the images were geometrically well-matched. After that, a radiometric correction is applied using the ENVI software’s radiometric, which combines the sun and view angle effects, as well as sensor calibration and atmospheric correction. Eventually, all georeferenced images are processed in ArcGIS to get the coastline digitized.
Shorelines are the high water line as surveyed by GPS units in kinematic mode [33]. Meanwhile, automatic coastline demarcation from low resolution satellite images is a complicated job due to the unclear boundary between water and land in saturated zone [34]. Three semi-automatic delineation approaches are first tried for Landsat images ETM 2010 in this study to identify the best digitization methodology that gives the least error with the related field data in 2010 (Figure 4).
Methodology framework to extract shoreline.
Since water absorbs the majority of radiation in the near-infrared and mid-infrared regions of the spectrum, its reflectance in these wavelengths is nearly zero; nevertheless, the reflectance is higher in these areas for land cover than water bodies. As a result, the coastline can be derived from a single band image. As a consequence, getting the binary image is becoming simple by estimating the histogram threshold for one of the infrared bands (i.e. Band 5) of the TM or ETM imagery [35]. Another method is to use the histogram threshold of band ratio technique, which produces a binary image by combining the two conditions of Band (2)/Band (4)
Moreover, the Tasseled Cap Transformation technique (TCT) is also used to extract shorelines. The coefficients for TCT of Landsat data are determined from [37]. TCT reconstitutes the spectral information of the six ETM bands into three primary perspective elements using coefficients deduced from sampling known land cover spectral features. The moistness component is used to distinguish land from water among the three main view elements (brightness, greenness, and wetness). In this wetness index band, the land-water configuration is clearly visible, and a binary image could be easily acquired. Finally, in 2010, each technique’s raster binary image is transformed into a vector image, which can then be used to extract the coastline border.
To identify the best technique, a comparison is made in Arc GIS 10.2.2 for the three regions between the derived shorelines (e.g., by TCT) and the observed shorelines in 2010 (Figure 5). This comparison is assessed using DSAS tools, which developed by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The original purpose of this extension is to compute change rate in coastline’ positions. Using DSAS is summarized in the following steps: After extraction of shoreline, the baseline is created; creating transects; calculating the distances between coastline and baseline for transects; finally, the shoreline change rate is calculated [38]. Accordingly, the deviation between the derived and observed shoreline is computed using 1800 perpendicular to the baseline transects. These transects are accurately cast at intervals of 20 m (Figure 5a–c).
Comparison of digitized shorelines based on field data from 2010 and the corresponding Landsat imagery (e.g., using TCT) for (a) Zone (I); (b) Zone (II); (c) Zone (III).
Figure 6 depicts a validation process between data from a field investigation and extracted shoreline from satellite image obtained in 2010. It is based on the coupling of DSAS software and Arc GIS 10.2.2. The residuals between the measured and computerized shorelines in 2010 at each transect line from 1 to 1800 were estimated using both the histogram threshold of band 5, histogram threshold of band ratio, and TCT, as shown in Figure 6a–c. It is noticed that data are reasonably correlated (Figure 6a1, b1, and c1).
Validation process between the shoreline monitored in the field and the shoreline detected by imagery 2010 for the different zones based on NRMSE of ; (a,a1) histogram threshold of the band (5); (b,b1) histogram threshold of band ratio; (c,c1) TCT.
The normalized root means square error (NRMSE) is considered to find the best method that precisely extract the coastline. TCT technique is proved to be better in shoreline delimitation using low resolution satellite imagery (medium resolution). It achieved the least NRMSE for all zones, Figure 6a1, b1, and c1. As a result, the TCT technique was used to demarcate shorelines in 1989, 1998, 2003, and 2016 (see sectors a1, b1, b2, c1, and c2 in Figure 1a–c).
Changes in the shoreline locations are calculated using different four analysis methods (i.e., EPR, LRR, LMS, and NSM). The End Point Rate (EPR) is easily determined by dividing the length (in m.) between two coastlines by number of the years (Eq. (1) and Figure 7). This method is widely used by different coastal researchers and is widely used in shoreline movement rate calculations [39, 40, 41, 42].
Detecting changes of zone I; (a, b) Satellite images (TM) and OLI/TIRS of band (5) for the year1989 and 2016; (c, d) TCT’s equivalent binary images from 1989 and 2016; (e) The Change detection image for the period 1989 to 2016; (f) Vector map showing the erosion/accretion pattern showed in vector map for the period 1989 to 2016.
where:
L1 and L2 are the distances between the baseline (benchmark) and the shoreline, while t1 and t2 are the dates of the two shoreline locations.
Linear Rate Regression (LRR) is the second method for calculating change rates. For a specific transect, this method entails fitting a least-squares regression line to multiple shoreline location points, (Figure 8). R-squared (Eq. (2)), R2 > 0.87 has been held as the threshold of certainty in our research, considering a confidence interval (LCI) of 95%. R2 at each transect line are calculated as follows:
Explanatory example of NSM, EPR, LRR, and LMS computation; (a) Map of multi-temporal shoreline locations west and east El Bardawil inlet (1); (b) transect line’ details (x) and coastline intersection; (c) Time series of shoreline distances from the baseline along the transect line (x).
where:
L: observed distance between the reference line(baseline) for a coastline’ data point;
Lp: forecast value based on the best-fit linear regression equation;
L−: Average of the observed shoreline data points; and.
N: number of dates.
The sample data are used to calculate an average offset in the linear regression method, and the formula for the line is deduced by reducing this value so that the source points are as near to the regression line as possible. In the least median of squares method (LMS), instead of using the average, the median value of the squared residuals is used to identify the optimal equation for the line (Figure 8).
The net spacing (in meters) between the past and present shoreline locations for each transect is recognized as the Net Shoreline Movement (NSM) (i.e., 1989 and 2016). It represents a distance rather than a rate (Figure 8b).
EPR, LRR, LMS, and NSM have negative values, implying landward decline of the shoreline, whereas positive values indicate landward advancement. The erosion/accretion rates measured along the North Sinai coast are divided into seven categories (Table 2) [43].
Category | shoreline change’ rate (m/year) | classification of shoreline |
---|---|---|
1 | > -2 | Very high erosion |
2 | > -1 and < -2 | High erosion |
3 | > 0 and < -1 | Moderate erosion |
4 | 0 | Stable |
5 | > 0 and < +1 | Moderate accretion |
6 | > +1 and < +2 | High accretion |
7 | > +2 | Very high accretion |
The classification of Shoreline according to EPR, LRR, and LMS.
A long-term process of two-dimensional shoreline change detection has been extensively investigated along the coastal line of different three zones over a 27-year period (1989–2016). This procedure is conducted through different steps. Firstly, binary images from 1989 and 2016 are derived for each zone using TCT techniques to separate land and water. This step masks the land cover with all of its categories. Second, the binary images are converted from raster to vector (feature class) using ArcGIS10.2.2 software, with two main polygon attributes: water and land. Finally, the two polygon layers are superimposed to assess shoreline erosion/accretion trend from 1989 to 2016, (Figure 7f).
As a result, Figure 7a and b show satellite TM and OLI/TIRS images of the band (5) for zone I in 1989 and 2016, respectively, while Figure 7c and d show their classified binary images The post-classification change detection image (Figure 7e) on the other hand, shows severe erosion in El Tinah Bay’s western part. This erosion is the result of the combined effects of the coast’s stormy climate and the restriction of sediment movement from the Nile Delta as a result of the construction of both the jetties at Suez Canal entrance and seawalls at eastern canal. Besides that, a portion of the incident wave’s energy is shifted into the adjacent beach due to the construction of this seawall. Consequently, the shifted energy, soil disconnection has occurred in the western part of El Tinah Bay. Based on the hydrodynamic processes on the North Sinai coast, alongshore currents induced sediments to move from west to east, resulting a highly sensitive eroded area (Figure 7f, f1).
In 2013, a natural opening nearly in the middle of El Mallaha Lagoon was formed as a result of this erosion. Furthermore, as a result of hindering the sediment path by inlet (2) jetties and groins at east of the inlet, part of the transported sediments has settled nearly in the middle of El Tinah Bay shoreline. In 2015, the artificial inlet (2) was completely blocked due to sediment restrictions.
The eastern part of the Bay, on the other hand, appears to be relatively stable. This part’s shoreline is almost straight, with no major merged parts to erode or major embayments to receive sediments, hence, the shore zone is nearly stable; Only a few small pockets of accumulation have been noticed. To quantify the dynamical changes in the zone I coastline from 1989 to 2016, an asymmetrical difference vector map is created from binary images in ArcGIS10.2.2 and is then classified into two categories: erosion and accretion pattern, (Figure 7f). The change detection clearly shows a cumulative accretion of +3.442 km2 and a rate of +0.127 km2/year, while the cumulative erosion is −5.409 km2 and a rate of −0.2 km2/year over a period of 27 years (Table 3).
Study zone | Research | Date | Data source | The used technique | Area (km2) | Rate (km2/year) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Loss | Gain | Net | Loss | Gain | Net | |||||
I | (Azab & Noor 2003) | 1973-1996 | Topographic maps | Manually by FCC | -3.22 | 2.42 | -0.81 | -0.14 | 0.105 | -0.035 |
Present study | 1989-2016 | Satellite imagery | TCT | -5.41 | 3.44 | -1.97 | -0.2 | 0.127 | -0.073 | |
II | (Azab & Noor 2003) | 1973-1996 | Topographic maps | Manually by FCC | -4.12 | 2.19 | -1.93 | -0.179 | 0.095 | -0.084 |
(El Banna et al. 2009) | 1986-2001 | Satellite imagery | Histogram threshold | -3.03 | 1.52 | -1.52 | -0.202 | 0.101 | -0.101 | |
Present study | 1989-2016 | Satellite imagery | TCT | -6.95 | 4.37 | -2.57 | -0.257 | 0.162 | -0.095 | |
III | (El Banna et al. 2009) | 1986-2001 | Satellite imagery | Histogram threshold | -0.63 | 0.77 | 0.138 | -0.042 | 0.051 | 0.0092 |
Present study | 1989-2016 | Satellite imagery | TCT | -1.61 | 1.947 | 0.339 | -0.059 | 0.072 | 0.0126 | |
Overall | Present study | 1989-2016 | Satellite imagery | TCT | -24.9 | 16.6 | -8.31 | -0.925 | 0.61 | -0.308 |
Calculated area of erosion(-ve), accretion(+ve), and net balance surfaces along the North Sinai coast.
The defined trend of the two-dimensional shoreline change rate (km2/year) along the coastline, extracted using TCT technique is noticed to be rather coherent with other earlier studies when compared to the other two remote sensing techniques. This is evident when the current results have been compared with the previous results in researches of [22, 23] as shown in
Mean change rates (km2/year) along the North Sinai shoreline.
The digitized shorelines have been used in the ArcGIS extension Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) to calculate the rate of shoreline change in vector format over a specific period of time [44]. DSAS is a statistical software applied in coastal research to compute rate of change from historical GIS-based shoreline positions [45].
In this study, DSAS is utilized to calculate shoreline change rate from different historical shoreline locations along the North Sinai coast in 1989, 1998, 2003, 2010, and 2016. The method for determining shoreline change rates begins with the creation of a personal geodatabase for the extracted shoreline positions in ArcCatalog 10.2.2. Each shoreline has attributes that include date, length, ID, shape, and uncertainty. Each image’s acquisition date is entered in the date column, whereas the length, ID, and shape are easily obtained. Uncertainties are also measured (Table 2) and recorded in the uncertainty column as integers. The five shoreline positions are then appended to one shapefile. Thereafter, speculative baseline is formed from the shoreline. Three different methods are available in DSAS to delineate baseline: (1) constructing a baseline along the shoreline at a particular distance; (2) utilizing a previously established baseline; (3) buffering method. The last method is the most consistent and accurate technique for baseline demarcation because it uses the same sinuosity shape as the nearby shoreline, so it was selected for the current study [12].
The baseline is then created at a buffering distance of 1000 meters offshore from the nearest shoreline.
These attributes provide DSAS with information about the sequence of transects as well as the baseline’s position in relation to the shoreline (onshore or offshore). Transects have been set orthogonally from the benchmark (baseline) along the coastline of various years in 100 m intervals for the three different zones. Finally, the shoreline change rates are statistically computed using the various techniques (i.e., EPR, LRR, LMS, and NSM). As shown in (Figure 10a–c), a qualitative analysis is performed to determine the related erosion/accretion transects using the NSM model. The field that connects the table of NSM statistical results to the transect feature class is the field that they have in common. Where the values in the transect-ID field of the NSM results table are equal to the object identifier field (Object ID) in the transect feature class. After completing the joining process, the symbology of the transect feature class can be adjusted to classify transects into two categories: erosion (green transects) and accretion (orange transects), (Figure 10). Most beaches in zones I, II, and III are susceptible to accretion and retreat (1989–2016), according to the delineation of erosion and accretion transects.
Qualitative analysis of erosion/accretion transects using NSM, conducted in DSAS, in the years of 1989, 1998, 2003, 2010, and 2016 for (a) zone (I); (b) zone (II); (c) zone (III).
Furthermore, the results reveal that, 49.61% (191 transects), 73.52% (533 transects), and 72.24% (255 transects) of the coastline corresponding to 19.1, 53.3, and 25.65 km are experiencing erosion for zone I, II, and III respectively. On ht. eother hand, 50.39%, 26.48%, and 27.76% of the coastline with lengths of 19.4, 19.2, and 9.85 km are suffering accretion (
The rates of shoreline change are computed annually for each zone during the period from 1989 to 2016 using the statistical outcomes of EPR, LRR, and LMS (Figure 11). The findings of this study are summarized in
Shoreline change rates by EPR, LRR, and LMS (m/year) for Zones, (a) I; (b) II; and (c) III during the period from 1989 to 2016. Shoreline change rates by EPR, LRR, and LMS (m/year) for Zones, (a) I; (b) II; and (c) III during the period from 1989 to 2016.
Comparison of shoreline change rates (m/year) calculated by, (a) EPR vs LRR; (b) EPR vs LMS; (c) LRR vs LMS for the overall North Sinai coast.
Geospatial techniques and DSAS models were utilized to assess the shoreline morphodynamic changes along the North Sinai shoreline between 1989 and 2016 via multi-temporal satellite images. The semi-automatic shoreline extraction method (Tasseled Cap Transformation technique, TCT) was accustomed to digitalize the shoreline positions in 1989, 1998, 2003, and 2016. Extreme variance in the spatial scale characterizes the study area where the highest obtained coastal erosion/accretion kinematics for El Arish valley coast, El Bardawil Lake, and El Tinah Bay are −1.61/+1.95 km2, −6.95/+4.37 km2, and − 5.41/+3.44 km2, respectively.
Moreover, the construction of eastern jetty of the Suez Canal extremely lowered sediments inputs to El Tinah Bay, which highlighted the erosion of the western segment by wave hydrodynamics and the eastwards alongshore currents. Contrary, the eastern part of El Tinah Bay has demonstrated a nearly constant shoreline throughout the study period. Instantaneously, protection jetties of El Bardawil inlet 1, El Bardawil inlet 2, and El Arish Harbor have intermittent long-shore sand movement resulting in a continuous erosion at the downdrift side and an accretion at their updrift side. The institution of El Arish power plant has substantially decreased the sedimentary routine and created destructive impacts on coastal dynamics in the west of El Arish harbor.
In the meantime, the forthcoming speculation of the North Sinai coastline variations is predicted using the End Point Rate (EPR) model for the near future of years 2025, 2035, and 2050 after model validation based on 2010 data. A well-matching between the historical and futuristic trends of shoreline is obtained which means the calculation is almost succeeding the same accretion and erosion patterns. Study results in this chapter prove that medium-resolution satellite images, geospatial features of the GIS, and digital shoreline analysis system (DSAS) successfully assessed the coastal morphodynamic changes and shoreline detection of the North Sinai coast and could be used for other coastal areas based on the data quality and availability. Additionally, the results of this study deliver a high-reliable tool to the decision-makers and the coastal managers to support their decision when developing sustainable coastal management plans for North Sinai coast.
The author would like to thank the editor and the reviewers for their constructive comments for enhancing the chapter quality.
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Iordanskii"},{id:"82600",title:"Impact of the Spreading of Sludge from Wastewater Treatment Plants on the Transfer and Bio-Availability of Trace Metal Elements in the Soil-Plant System",slug:"impact-of-the-spreading-of-sludge-from-wastewater-treatment-plants-on-the-transfer-and-bio-availabil",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103745",abstract:"The spreading of sludge from sewage treatment plants increased the production of durum wheat and rapeseed. Their richness in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium gives them a beneficial effect on crops. However, the application of the sludge can induce increases in the concentration of metals in plant tissues. This increase can generate disturbances at the level of the cell and organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, which can be altered. Repeated applications of the sludge on the same site tend to increase the accumulation of heavy metals in the soil, so that an cause toxicities for soil microorganisms, animals, and humans, via the food chain. However, it is important to specify that these nuisances mainly concerned industrial sludge, but the use of this sludge is strictly prohibited. In addition, the high doses used in our field experiments are significantly higher than those authorized in agricultural practice. Finally, the risk assessment by calculating both the level of consumer exposure and the number of years for soil saturation shows that the use of urban sludge is safe, especially in the short and medium-term. Nevertheless, the quality of the sludge to be spread must be constantly monitored.",book:{id:"11173",title:"Wastewater Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11173.jpg"},signatures:"Najla Lassoued and Bilal Essaid"},{id:"81249",title:"Electrospun Polymeric Substrates for Tissue Engineering: Viewpoints on Fabrication, Application, and Challenges",slug:"electrospun-polymeric-substrates-for-tissue-engineering-viewpoints-on-fabrication-application-and-ch",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102596",abstract:"Electrospinning is the technique for producing nonwoven fibrous structures, to mimic the fabrication and function of the native extracellular matrix (ECM) in tissue. Prepared fibrous with this method can act as potential polymeric substrates for proliferation and differentiation of stem cells (with the cellular growth pattern similar to damaged tissue cells) and facilitation of artificial tissue remodeling. Moreover, such substrates can improve biological functions, and lead to a decrease in organ transplantation. In this chapter, we focus on the fundamental parameters and principles of the electrospinning technique to generate natural ECM-like substrates, in terms of structural and functional complexity. In the following, the application of these substrates in regenerating various tissues and the role of polymers (synthetic/natural) in the formation of such substrates is evaluated. Finally, challenges of this technique (such as cellular infiltration and inadequate mechanical strength) and solutions to overcome these limitations are studied.",book:{id:"11127",title:"Electrospinning - Material Technology of the Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11127.jpg"},signatures:"Azadeh Izadyari Aghmiuni, Arezoo Ghadi, Elmira Azmoun, Niloufar Kalantari, Iman Mohammadi and Hossein Hemati Kordmahaleh"},{id:"82145",title:"Slope Casting Process: A Review",slug:"slope-casting-process-a-review",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102742",abstract:"Semi solid processing is a near net shape casting process and one of the promising techniques to obtain dendritic free structure of metals. Semi solid casting gives numerous advantages than solid processing and liquid processing. Semi solid casting process gives, Laminar flow filling of die without turbulence, Lower metal temperature, Less shrinkage, Less porosity, Higher mechanical properties. Semi solid casting process is industrially successful, producing a variety of products with good quality. Slope Casting process is a simple technique to produce semi solid feed-stoke with globular microstructure and dendrite free structure castings. Slope casting process depends on different process parameters like slope length, slope angle, pouring temperature etc. The present study mainly focuses on review of various explorations made by researchers with different process parameters of the Slope casting process and explain the mechanisms that lead to microstructural changes which leads to good mechanical properties.",book:{id:"11119",title:"Casting Processes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11119.jpg"},signatures:"Mukkollu Sambasiva Rao and Amitesh Kumar"},{id:"81861",title:"Emerging Human Coronaviruses (SARS-CoV-2) in the Environment Associated with Outbreaks Viral Pandemics",slug:"emerging-human-coronaviruses-sars-cov-2-in-the-environment-associated-with-outbreaks-viral-pandemics",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103886",abstract:"In December 2019, there was a cluster of pneumonia cases in Wuhan, a city of about 11 million people in Hubei Province. The World Health Organization (WHO), qualified CoVid-19 as an emerging infectious disease on March 11, 2020, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which spreads around the world. Coronaviruses are also included in the list of viruses likely to be found in raw sewage, as are other viruses belonging to the Picornaviridae family. SRAS-CoV-2 has been detected in wastewater worldwide such as the USA, France, Netherlands, Australia, and Italy according to the National Research Institute for Public Health and the Environment. In addition, the SARS-CoV-2 could infect many animals since it has been noticed in pigs, domestic and wild birds, bats, rodents, dogs, cats, tigers, cattle. Therefore, the SARS-CoV-2 molecular characterization in the environment, particularly in wastewater and animals, appeared to be a novel approach to monitor the outbreaks of viral pandemics. This review will be focused on the description of some virological characteristics of these emerging viruses, the different human and zoonotic coronaviruses, the sources of contamination of wastewater by coronaviruses and their potential procedures of disinfection from wastewater.",book:{id:"11173",title:"Wastewater Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11173.jpg"},signatures:"Chourouk Ibrahim, Salah Hammami, Eya Ghanmi and Abdennaceur Hassen"},{id:"81797",title:"Study of Change Surface Aerator to Submerged Nonporous Aerator in Biological Pond in an Industrial Wastewater Treatment in Daura Refinery",slug:"study-of-change-surface-aerator-to-submerged-nonporous-aerator-in-biological-pond-in-an-industrial-w",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104860",abstract:"Daura refinery, with a capacity of 140,000 barrel per stream day as a refining capacity, wastewater discharged from refining and treatment processing units, polluted water as foul water, drainages, oil spills, blowdown of boilers and cooling towers, and many other polluted water sources, aims to remove pollutants and reject clean water to the river; wastewater treatment system takes place in this treatment process. Wastewater treatment system suffers from many problems and specifically biological stage; at this stage, activated sludge with bacteria, should be supplied with oxygen, aeration system done by surface aerators with four surface fans; these fans suffer from high vibration, loss support, and in consequence, lack in oxygen supply to aerobic bacteria less than 4 ppm. The nonporous aerator is suggested as an oxygen source for the biological pool. The pilot plant builds the aim to study the ability to apply the new aeration system at the biological pool, pilot plant build with 1 cubic meter capacity tank and continuous overflow of wastewater of 10 liters.min−1, air injected with the pressure of (0.5–0.75) bar(g), and airflow of (7.6–9.7) liter.min−1 respectively. Oxygen concentration was recorded as (3.4–6.0) ppm; in terms of consumption power, changing the aeration system reduces it to less than 20%.",book:{id:"11173",title:"Wastewater Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11173.jpg"},signatures:"Omar M. 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She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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