Neglected causes of cardiovascular diseases and their causes.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5508",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Carbohydrate",title:"Carbohydrate",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Carbohydrates are the most abound macromolecules on earth, and they serve different functions within the cell. The purpose of the book is to provide a glimpse into various aspects of carbohydrates by presenting the research of some of the scientists who are engaged in the development of new tools and ideas used to reveal carbohydrate metabolism in health and diseases and as material to mimic the carbohydrate surfaces that take part in molecular recognition, often from very different perspectives. This book covers broad topics in carbohydrate including quality carbohydrates on the prevention and therapy of noncommunicable diseases, lactate, and glycolysis, as biomass in biofuel production, targets for cancer treatment and as biomaterial.",isbn:"978-953-51-3070-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3069-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4871-5",doi:"10.5772/63183",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"carbohydrate",numberOfPages:166,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e594b777fe1d4981c5b1adbe5a40f19c",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan, I. Halil Kavakli and Gul Cevahir Oz",publishedDate:"April 12th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5508.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15757,numberOfWosCitations:33,numberOfCrossrefCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:28,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:80,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 5th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 30th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 28th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 25th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51528/images/system/51528.png",biography:"Mahmut Çalışkan is a Professor of Genetics and Molecular Biology in the Department of Biology, Biotechnology Division, Istanbul University, Turkey. He obtained a BSc from Middle East Technical University, Ankara, and a Ph.D. from the University of Leeds, England. His main research areas include the role of germin gene products during early plant development, analysis of genetic variation, polymorphisms, and the characterization and biotechnological use of halophilic archaea.",institutionString:"Istanbul University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Istanbul University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"186695",title:"Dr.",name:"İbrahim Halil",middleName:null,surname:"Kavaklı",slug:"ibrahim-halil-kavakli",fullName:"İbrahim Halil Kavaklı",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186695/images/5401_n.png",biography:"İ. Halil Kavaklı is a professor of molecular biochemistry in the Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering at Koç University in Turkey. He obtained his BSc degree from Middle East Technical University, Ankara, in the Department of Biology and attended Washington State University, Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, USA, for his PhD degree. He worked as a postdoctoral fellow at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in the Department of the Biochemistry and Biophysics. His main research interests are the carbohydrate metabolism and circadian clock.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Koç University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"186696",title:"Dr.",name:"Gül Cevahir",middleName:"Cevahir",surname:"Öz",slug:"gul-cevahir-oz",fullName:"Gül Cevahir Öz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186696/images/system/186696.jpeg",biography:"Gül Cevahir Öz is a professor in the Department of Biology at İstanbul University. She received her PhD degree in plant physiology from İstanbul University, İstanbul, in 1997. Her present interests include starch synthesis, especially mechanism of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase; the role of hormones in the plant development; biochemical and molecular mechanisms of plant tolerance to abiotic stress; and plant biotechnology.",institutionString:"Istanbul University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"384",title:"Chemical Biology",slug:"chemical-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"53489",title:"Effect of Quality Carbohydrates on the Prevention and Therapy of Noncommunicable Diseases: Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/66702",slug:"effect-of-quality-carbohydrates-on-the-prevention-and-therapy-of-noncommunicable-diseases-obesity-an",totalDownloads:1652,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glycemic index (GI) is defined as “how certain meals raise blood glucose after eating, expressed as a percentage of the area under the glucose response curve when the same amount of carbohydrate was consumed as glucose or bread.” Glycemic load (GL) corrects GI according to the quantity of carbohydrates ingested. Both have been related to a higher risk of developing obesity and type 2 diabetes (DM2). High GI meals have been altered to create structurally similar meals with low GI levels. Observational studies and clinical trials have been developed using subjects with DM2 and subjects with obesity undergoing bariatric surgery. It was possible to lower the GI of meals, keeping the sensory properties of the original high GI preparation. Observational studies conducted on DM2 under treatment with metformin have shown associations between GI, GL and glycated hemoglobin. However, the same has not been proven with DM2 individuals under basal insulin therapy. Another observational study in subjects with obesity undergoing bariatric surgery showed that GI affects weight loss after surgery. Regarding experimental studies, a better glucose response has been seen following low GI breakfast intake in DM2 subjects undergoing intensive insulin therapy (IIT).",signatures:"Claudia Vega and Marcela Alviña",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53489",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53489",authors:[{id:"191303",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Vega",slug:"claudia-vega",fullName:"Claudia Vega"},{id:"191683",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcela",surname:"Alviña",slug:"marcela-alvina",fullName:"Marcela Alviña"},{id:"202949",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",surname:"Araya",slug:"hector-araya",fullName:"Hector Araya"}],corrections:null},{id:"53367",title:"Lactate, Not Pyruvate, Is the End Product of Glucose Metabolism via Glycolysis",doi:"10.5772/66699",slug:"lactate-not-pyruvate-is-the-end-product-of-glucose-metabolism-via-glycolysis",totalDownloads:3354,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Glucose is the monosaccharide utilized by most eukaryotes to generate metabolic energy, and in the majority of eukaryotic systems, glycolysis is the first biochemical pathway where glucose breaks down via a series of enzymatic reactions to produce relatively small amounts of adenosinetriphosphate (ATP). In 1940, the sequence of these glycolytic reactions was elucidated, a breakthrough that was recognized as the very first such elucidation of a biochemical pathway in history. Accordingly, the glycolytic breakdown of glucose ends up either with pyruvate as the final product under aerobic conditions or with lactate, to which pyruvate is being reduced, under anaerobic conditions. Consequently, pyruvate has been designated and is held to be the substrate of the mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid cycle, where it is completely oxidized into CO2 and H2O, while lactate has been defined and being held to as a useless dead-end product, poisonous at times, of which cells must discard off quickly. More than four decades after the glycolytic pathway has been elucidated, studies of both muscle and brain tissues have suggested that lactate is not necessarily a useless end product of anaerobic glycolysis and may actually play a role in bioenergetics. These studies have shown that muscle and brain tissues can oxidize and utilize lactate as a mitochondrial energy substrate. These results have been met with great skepticism, but a large number of publications over the past quarter of a century have strengthened the idea that lactate does play an important and, possibly, a crucial role in energy metabolism. These findings have shed light on a major drawback of the originally proposed aerobic version of the glycolytic pathway, that is, its inability to regenerate nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (oxidized form) (NAD+), as opposed to anaerobic glycolysis that features the cyclical ability of the glycolytic lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) system to regenerate NAD+ upon pyruvate reduction to lactate. An examination of scientific investigations on carbohydrate metabolism of brain tissue in the 1920s and 1930s has already revealed that lactate can be readily oxidized. However, due to the prevailing dogma, according to which lactate is a waste product, its oxidation was assumed to be a possible mechanism of elimination. This chapter examines both old and new research data on glucose glycolysis both in muscle and in brain tissues. This chapter consolidates the available data in an attempt to form a more accurate and clear description of this universal and very important bioenergetic chain of reactions.",signatures:"Avital Schurr",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53367",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53367",authors:[{id:"72322",title:"Dr.",name:"Avital",surname:"Schurr",slug:"avital-schurr",fullName:"Avital Schurr"}],corrections:null},{id:"53645",title:"Monoclonal Antibodies Against Tumour-Associated Carbohydrate Antigens",doi:"10.5772/66996",slug:"monoclonal-antibodies-against-tumour-associated-carbohydrate-antigens",totalDownloads:1736,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glycomic profiling of tumour tissues consistently shows alterations in N- and O-glycosylation profiles of glycoproteins and glycolipids compared to healthy tissues, with important functional implications for cancer cell biology. The overexpression of tumour-associated carbohydrate antigens (TACAs), as a result of aberrant glycosylation in tumours, is usually correlated with poor prognosis and survival of cancer patients. In tumours, TACAs are associated with worse tumour progression than the deletion and inactivation of tumour suppressor genes. The findings of TACAs acting are not merely tumour markers but also constitute part of the machinery in inducing cancer metastasis and invasiveness further strengthen the scientific rationales for immunotherapy targeting TACAs. Despite the attractiveness of the TACAs, there are very few anti-glycan monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), as glycans usually induce low-affinity IgM responses. This chapter provides an overview of TACAs, direct killing anti-glycan mAbs, and introduces two murine mAbs (FG88 mAbs) that recognise Lewis carbohydrate antigens overexpressed on tumour glycoconjugates with high functional affinity. Although the production of anti-glycan mAbs against cancers is not new, the production of high-affinity IgG anti-glycan mAbs is novel. FG88 mAbs definitely have great potential in cancer therapy and serve as valuable tools in glycobiology research.",signatures:"Jia Xin Chua and Lindy Durrant",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53645",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53645",authors:[{id:"192891",title:"Dr.",name:"Lindy",surname:"Durrant",slug:"lindy-durrant",fullName:"Lindy Durrant"},{id:"196043",title:"Dr.",name:"JiaXin",surname:"Chua",slug:"jiaxin-chua",fullName:"JiaXin Chua"}],corrections:null},{id:"53040",title:"Self‐Assembled Monolayers of Carbohydrate Derivatives on Gold Surfaces",doi:"10.5772/66194",slug:"self-assembled-monolayers-of-carbohydrate-derivatives-on-gold-surfaces",totalDownloads:2011,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Self‐assembled monolayers (SAMs) presenting carbohydrates (glycans) have been widely prepared on gold surfaces to mimic the carbohydrate surfaces that are involved in molecular recognition phenomena in living cells. The binding affinity of carbohydrate immbolized on SAM surfaces to various carbohydrate‐binding proteins (such as lectins) can be studied by optical, electrochemical, piezoelectrical and thermal sensing techniques. The lectins present on the surface of pathogens (e.g., bacteria or viruses) can be used as targets for capturing onto carbohydrates immobilized on SAM surfaces. The immobilized carbohydrates can also be used for detecting different types of disease biomarkers present in bodily fluids. Synergistic properties of carbohydrate SAMs and gold nanoparticles can be used for vaccine preparation and drug delivery. By studying different types of glycans, their properties, and the behavior toward recognition of specific pathogens and biomarkers, we can develop not only new therapeutics but also enhance the diagnostic strategies of various diseases. In this chapter, we discuss carbohydrate‐terminated SAMs and their common preparation strategies. Next, we focus on roles of different components of SAMs, characterization techniques, and applications.",signatures:"Jay K. Bhattarai, Dharmendra Neupane, Vasilii Mikhaylov, Alexei V. Demchenko and Keith J. Stine",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53040",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53040",authors:[{id:"192643",title:"Prof.",name:"Keith J.",surname:"Stine",slug:"keith-j.-stine",fullName:"Keith J. Stine"}],corrections:null},{id:"53783",title:"Melatonin: A Silent Regulator of the Glucose Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/66625",slug:"melatonin-a-silent-regulator-of-the-glucose-homeostasis",totalDownloads:3856,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the human organism, the circadian regulation of carbohydrates metabolism is essential for the glucose homeostasis and energy balance. Unbalances in glucose and insulin tissue and blood levels have been linked to a variety of metabolic disorders such as obesity, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. Melatonin, the pineal hormone, is the key mediator molecule for the integration between the cyclic environment and the circadian distribution of physiological and behavioral processes and for the optimization of energy balance and body weight regulation, events that are crucial for a healthy organism. This chapter reviews the interplay between melatonin modulatory physiological effects, glucose homeostasis and metabolic balance, from the endocrinology perspective. The tremendous effect of melatonin in the regulation of metabolic processes is observed from the chronobiology perspective, considering melatonin as a major synchronizer of the circadian internal order of the physiological processes involved in energy metabolism.",signatures:"Cristina Manuela Drăgoi, Andreea Letiţia Arsene, Cristina Elena Dinu-Pîrvu, Ion Bogdan Dumitrescu, Daniela Elena Popa, George T.A. Burcea-Dragomiroiu, Denisa Ioana Udeanu, Olivia Carmen Timnea, Bruno Ștefan Velescu and Alina Crenguţa Nicolae",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53783",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53783",authors:[{id:"167348",title:"Dr.",name:"Ion-Bogdan",surname:"Dumitrescu",slug:"ion-bogdan-dumitrescu",fullName:"Ion-Bogdan Dumitrescu"},{id:"176095",title:"Dr.",name:"Olivia",surname:"Timnea",slug:"olivia-timnea",fullName:"Olivia Timnea"},{id:"190111",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreea",surname:"Arsene",slug:"andreea-arsene",fullName:"Andreea Arsene"},{id:"192919",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cristina Manuela",surname:"Drăgoi",slug:"cristina-manuela-dragoi",fullName:"Cristina Manuela Drăgoi"},{id:"193026",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela Elena",surname:"Popa",slug:"daniela-elena-popa",fullName:"Daniela Elena Popa"},{id:"193027",title:"Dr.",name:"George Traian Alexandru",surname:"Burcea Dragomiroiu",slug:"george-traian-alexandru-burcea-dragomiroiu",fullName:"George Traian Alexandru Burcea Dragomiroiu"},{id:"193028",title:"Mrs.",name:"Denisa Ioana",surname:"Udeanu",slug:"denisa-ioana-udeanu",fullName:"Denisa Ioana Udeanu"},{id:"193030",title:"Mrs.",name:"Alina Crenguta",surname:"Nicolae",slug:"alina-crenguta-nicolae",fullName:"Alina Crenguta Nicolae"},{id:"195248",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina Elena",surname:"Dinu-Pirvu",slug:"cristina-elena-dinu-pirvu",fullName:"Cristina Elena Dinu-Pirvu"}],corrections:null},{id:"53182",title:"Glass Transition of Ultrathin Sugar Films Probed by X-Ray Reflectivity",doi:"10.5772/66432",slug:"glass-transition-of-ultrathin-sugar-films-probed-by-x-ray-reflectivity",totalDownloads:1436,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Besides being the main types of carbohydrate in food, sugars are a representative protectant in biopharmaceutical formulations. To identify the protection mechanism, researchers have extensively investigated the bulk physicochemical properties of sugars. However, whereas the glass transition of sugar has been widely studied and debated, the physicochemical properties of sugar molecules in confined circumstances such as nanometer thick films remain largely unknown. In this chapter, we introduce an experimental procedure for analyzing the glass transition of sugars in ultrathin films. The analysis is based on X-ray reflectivity (XRR) analysis, which has been often applied in glass transition studies of polymer films, but never in sugar media.",signatures:"Shigesaburo Ogawa and Isao Takahashi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53182",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53182",authors:[{id:"191688",title:"Dr.",name:"Shigesaburo",surname:"Ogawa",slug:"shigesaburo-ogawa",fullName:"Shigesaburo Ogawa"},{id:"192528",title:"Prof.",name:"Isao",surname:"Takahashi",slug:"isao-takahashi",fullName:"Isao Takahashi"}],corrections:null},{id:"53748",title:"Use of Ionic Liquids for the Treatment of Biomass Materials and Biofuel Production",doi:"10.5772/67026",slug:"use-of-ionic-liquids-for-the-treatment-of-biomass-materials-and-biofuel-production",totalDownloads:1714,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomass, as fuel source, is renewable, environmental friendly and abundant in nature. It is of great interest to produce green energy and bio-products from lignocellulose. The replacement of conventional organic solvents by a new generation of solvents that are less toxic, less flammable and less polluting is a major challenge for the chemical industry. The aim of this work is to study the solubility of biomass-based materials in ionic liquids in order to overcome the lack of experimental data on phase equilibria of {carbohydrate-ILs} mixtures. Solubility data were successfully correlated using NRTL and UNIQUAC thermodynamic models. The fundamental natures of the interaction between carbohydrates and ILs were investigated using ab initio calculations. The pretreatment of miscanthus with ILs resulted in the regeneration of amorphous, porous cellulose almost free of lignin, which is suitable for enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation processes. A successful ethanol production was obtained with an overall ethanol yield reached up to 150 g ethanol kg−1 miscanthus.",signatures:"El-Sayed R.E. Hassan and Fabrice Mutelet",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53748",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53748",authors:[{id:"186677",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrice",surname:"Mutelet",slug:"fabrice-mutelet",fullName:"Fabrice Mutelet"},{id:"195400",title:"Dr.",name:"El Sayed R.E.",surname:"Hassan",slug:"el-sayed-r.e.-hassan",fullName:"El Sayed R.E. 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Poverty is also defined as not having socially acceptable material possessions or money [2]. The second definition raises the question of who defines what is socially acceptable. Absolute poverty on the other hand is defined as a complete lack of means to meet basic needs like food, clothing and shelter [2]. Relative poverty is defined as an inability of a person to meet a minimum level of living standards compared to others in the same time and place, taking into account context (society or country) [3]. Context matters and it matters a lot [3]. It is imperative to note that none of the above definitions explicitly mentions that a lack of access to education or health care services is poverty. The very means that take a person out of poverty are not mentioned when defining poverty. In most African contexts, one has to be healthy first and foremost, before gaining access to education, and access or entitlement to land.
Billions world-wide live in squalid conditions of disease, hunger and desperation-a state of pandemic poverty [4]. Poverty eradication has become a buzz word but commitment to addressing systemic causes of poverty is lacking [4]. The inextricable link between poor health, poverty and development is well documented [5]. Hunger can lead to poor health, social unrest, conflict and displacement [5]. The decision to migrate itself is not easy and many illegal migrants face challenges to access health care in transit and even years after settling [6].
UHC is defined as ensuring that everyone has access to health care services of high quality without suffering financial impoverishment. The services range from health promotion, prevention, treatment, rehabilitative and palliative care [7, 8, 9]. Good health allows children to access school and learn and adults to be productive and earn. UHC, good health therefore is a determinant for people to escape poverty.
We reckon, it is imperative for societies and governments to identify health as a tool and resource against poverty that needs to be protected and guarded. Poverty is defined by the United Nations as a violation of human dignity through not having choices and opportunities. It includes not having basic capacity to participate effectively in a society, not having enough food, clothing, not having access to education or health care, not having land, a job or access to credit facilities [10]. Health, the very condition that defines whether we can attend school or till the land, is not emphasised enough in the definitions of poverty. Having land but being in poor health or having access to education but being in poor health is a form of poverty. Health, is therefore the basic block in life which gives one access to education, work, food, clothes and shelter. From a public health perspective, health ought to be identified as a basic block that is essential for the eradication of poverty. One prerequisite to accessing everything else in life though seems to be health. Health poverty affects all the other domains. See Figure 1 above.
What health unlocks.
Poverty may include social, economic and political elements as seen above [11]. An unemployed young person, who has migrated to a foreign land, leaving behind friends and family, and now illegally living in a crowded township room, might be socially, economically and health poor all at once.
How best to help the poor is a longstanding debate [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. Governments and other organisations try to reduce economic poverty by a) providing basic needs to people who are unable to earn a sufficient income like the child grant in South Africa. Barriers are corruption, a dwindling tax base in a society that is driven by the informal sector and ultimately sustainability. Less than half of South Africas’ rather population eligible for work is formally employed [18].
The physically healthy, the very assets of our economies, are currently not sufficiently being made aware of their wealth-health, and neither are they supported sufficiently to value their own health nor are they protected from environmental pollution, water pollution, unsanitary conditions, and the lack of access to health care services. Many black South Africans live in crowded squalor illegally and with no or limited access to land.
Many public health facilities are overcrowded. Someone who needs to be seen by a doctor has to calculate many hours of waiting. Many people are forced to take a day or two from work making them time impoverished. Additional hours are also lost daily during the commute to and fro the work, leaving them both time and economically poor [18].
Poverty exposes one to violence, since it renders one powerless and excluded from society, living in marginal or fragile environments, with limited access to clean water or sanitation [10]. One can have access to education but being hungry will affect outcomes [12]. Children can be sent to school in poor health, suffering from e.g. anaemia, bilharzia or worms and this will affect outcomes [12]. So, health is a fundamental building block.
24 years since independence apartheid in South Africa has persisted in an economic form [18]. Many families live in airless hovels constructed using splintered boards and metal sheets [18]. Post-apartheid, land is still largely in the hands of the white elites with most black South Africans still living in the townships [18] and one needs political ties to survive and thrive in business [18], closing this door to many.
Health is determined by the conditions in which we are born, grow, live and work [19]. We take this a step further and say health is determined by the conditions in which we are
In rural settings, people often have land, are surrounded with friends and neighbours, have time, have spiritual groups usually and the environment is less crowded and less filthy. Many have access to seasonally available fruit and vegetables. In the urban setting, many blacks have no access to land, live in crowded unsanitary, unsafe environments and neighbourhoods, isolated and often cannot practice spirituality, and many live from hand to mouth-informal sector. The usual diets are high in carbohydrates and saturated fats.
The impact of former apartheid policies on the health system have been documented and these inequalities have grown along class rather than racial lines recently [20] and these issues still have effects on children being conceived under these conditions to date. The well to do have access to quality health care services from the private health sector, while 80 percent access health care from the overburdened public health sector [21]. Rapid urbanisation is also partly to blame for the increase in coronary heart and artery disease and metabolic disorders [22]. Some people moved from a shack during apartheid to another shack [18] post-apartheid. The living conditions have not changed much. Several hours a day are spent commuting [18] to places of work making them time poor. A foetus conceived while mum is in poor health, malnourished etc., will be affected by these conditions even later on in life -health consequences. The health of the mother affects the heath of the baby. A healthy mum is predictive of a healthy infant. This might sound like chicken egg debate, which was first-and health is the chicken.
No land no collateral [18], is another glaring issue in South Africa. Many South Africans have no access to land. Investment in ensuring that people have access to land, ensuring safe water supplies through digging more wells, boreholes and improving sanitation- the very conditions that promote people to be and stay healthy is fundamental. Land ownership is one instrument that is pivotal in addressing both rural and urban poverty [16]. In good health people can then access education, employment etc.
Causes of cardio vascular diseases (CVDs) in SA are high BP, smoking, drinking, poor eating habits, obesity and lack of physical activity [22, 23] and psychosocial stress (depression, anxiety, hostility) [24]. Cardiovascular risk factors disproportionately affect the socio-economically disadvantaged [25] and we can speculate how this comes about.
People use fire for cooking, breathing in fumes, barefoot they walk on ground littered with broken glass, needles, tins and daily they exchange armed robbery updates [18]. Is this conducive for health? Police frequently descend on these informal settlements tearing down these shacks without warning [18]. In some settlements human waste forms puddles [18]. While in some predominantly white areas toilets are stocked with soap, toilt paper, staffed with janitors and security guards [18], many townships are ghettos of isolation [18]. Diet, sedentary life, loneliness and stress and how people deal with it e.g., drinking and smoking are prevalent issues in townships. People often do not know where to get the next meal and the insecure environments prevents physical activities like walking forcing people to take taxis home or to school (no safe places to walk). Attending worship is also affected by these unsafe places. Some services are in the evening. Spirituality has been proven to give meaning and purpose to stressful life events leading to more positive emotions like well-being, happiness, optimism and fewer negative emotions. The psychological benefits of spirituality affect immune, inflammatory, endocrine and even autonomic functions. These unsafe contexts further deprive people of these benefits further affecting heart health [24].
Living in filthy overcrowded and unsanitary conditions
Lack of food
Lack of knowledge- leading to exposures
Having knowledge but no options e.g., forced to scavenge from dump sites
Lack of financial means to buy drugs, pay for transport, lack of knowledge to eat healthy (ongoing care and regular checks) and the condition gets worse.
Living conditions, not safe to exercise, or walk, limited access to clean water and sanitation
No means to follow recommendations made by medical staff (medical education to change) e.g., Eat broccoli when you cannot afford this or live-in rural areas where such foods do not exist-unrealistic recommendations by medical personnel that do not take context into account
People get medicine and are sent back to the very environment that caused the disease, leaving the stressors unaddressed e.g. the crime ridden township that caused disease.
How to destress, a different approach that includes preventive and promotive health is needed. There is a direct link between stress and heart health. High emotional stress, isolation and loneliness have been linked to atrial and ventricular arrhythmias [24].
Causes of CVD in SSA are hypertension, cardiomyopathy, rheumatic heart disease and congenital heart disease [26]. One multicentre study on PHC in SA revealed that primary care is dominated by NCDs and the most common diagnosis and reason to attend PHC being hypertension and HIV ranking third [25]. Death rates from non-communicable diseases in SA now exceed those of TB and HIV combined [25] and cardiovascular diseases are leading the NCDs. Obesity (68% of women and 31% of men) is another culprit [25]. The high burden of HIV directs most health care spending towards antiretroviral treatment, limiting funds for NCDs particularly in primary health care setting.
Neglected CVDs in SSA are endomyocardial fibrosis, congenital heart diseases, and rheumatic heart disease [26]. Rheumatic fever affects children in low resource settings where poverty is rife, overcrowding and poor sanitary conditions and limited access to health care services. Rhematic heart disease can be prevented by preventing streptococcal infections or treating them early when they occur [27].
Congenital heart disease: Genes and environmental factors are associated with congenital heart diseases. Maternal health is critical particularly during the first trimester [28]. New-born heart health is affected by maternal health during pregnancy and the environmental conditions in which the mother lives. Causes of endomyocardial fibrosis are virus infections and toxic insults among others [29, 30]. See Table 1 below.
Condition | Cause | Available interventions |
---|---|---|
Congenital heart disease | Genes and environmental factors | Preventive Promotive Curative-medical and surgical treatment Rehabilitative |
Endomyocardial fibrosis | Virus infections and toxic insults | Preventive Promotive Curative-treatment Rehabilitative |
Rheumatic heart disease | Poverty, overcrowding, poor sanitary conditions and limited access to health care services | Preventive Promotive Curative-treatment with antibiotics Rehabilitative |
Neglected causes of cardiovascular diseases and their causes.
It is important to point out that social determinants of health are alluded to in the national development plan 2030 [31]. The realisation and implementation of these policies however, remain a challenge.
SA has plans to decrease NCD related premature mortality by 25% by end of 2020. This includes population and individual based strategies.
Detection, treatment and control of cardiovascular disease risk [25]
Emphasis -assertive treatment, targeting antihypertensive and statin treatment guidelines [25]
Training of nurses (lest we forget) on correct measurement and aggressive management of NCDs, active detection, prevention, control of cardio-vascular diseases to avert expenses on hospitalizations [25].
Both the population based and individual based strategies above, are focussing mainly on treatment rather than prevention. Why wait for the population to fall sick? Simple, cost effective and culturally adapted behaviour and educational interventions rather needed (Figure 2) [23].
We are waiting for people to fall sick as depicted below.
Health of the population should be protected- a central tenet of public health. The health care in SA is hospicentric rather than preventive and promotive. Only 10% of health expenditure is spent on promotive health? The system seems to foster the idea that people should get ill first before being assisted.
Step 1: Health is an asset -acknowledgement and identification of that).
Step 2: Health needs to be preserved.
Step 3: Health gives us access to everything else in the society, education, jobs, security etc.
Making people aware that being healthy is an asset can go a long way. In the HIV context too, little money is spent on preventive strategies. Some young people are not aware that being healthy, HIV negative is an asset worthy to be protected. Some seem not afraid of HIV saying if they get it, they will get onto treatment. The value of health as an asset seems not widely and explicitly valued?
The environments in which many South Africans live are characterised by land poverty, environmental poverty, social or relational poverty, economic poverty, political poverty (lack of voice for some) and spiritual poverty, all of which lead to health poverty including cardiovascular health issues. See Table 2 below.
Forms of poverty | Effects |
---|---|
Environmental poverty | Causes stress, toxic exposures, violence |
Time poverty | Causes stress, loss of income |
Spiritual poverty | Causes stress and hopelessness |
Land poverty | Limits access to loans, one cannot grow own food |
Social or relational poverty | Causes loneliness |
Economic poverty | Reduces access to food and basics including health care |
Political poverty | Lack of voice, stress |
Health poverty | Decreases access to land, education, jobs, relationships, spirituality and increases health complications |
How do these factors affect heart health?
The interconnectedness of the different forms of poverty and their effect on health ought to be mentioned [33]. Systems thinking is therefore called for if health issues are to be addressed effectively. See Figure 3 below.
Interconnectedness and the need for systems thinking.
Figure 4 shows how connected the different forms of poverty are and how they affect health.
Forms of poverty.
As depicted above, Figure 5, the current interventions work differently for the poor and the rich. The poor often have no choice to change their environment, be it living or working environment, they live in unsafe neighbourhoods where it is unsafe to walk let alone access to a gym. Many church services are held at night. The poor are not safe to attend these spiritual opportunities depriving them of a freely available healing tool-spirituality. They eat what is cheap and this is often high in unsaturated fats, and they often miss check-ups due to transport costs etc.
The current interventions and their effect on health including heart health depending on whether one is rich or poor.
It is therefore easier for the well to do who get diagnosed with cardiovascular diseases to get back to the optimal health line. The current CVD interventions are pro rich. How can we make them pro poor? Doing so would mean addressing environmental and psychosocial factors and economic and health system factors. Context matters. The training of medical personnel should incorporate locally available nutrition that promotes health without making the poor sink into deeper poverty if they want to stay healthy. The currently recommended healthy diet should be high in fibre, green vegetables, fruit the year round, fish and low processed foods and fat [24]. Can the average township person afford this? Locally available foods e.g., seasonal fruits, wild vegetables, peanut butter and insects are all good for heart health and should be widely promoted and made easily available.
Health is an asset. The conditions in which we are born, grow, live and work affect our health. Countries do not necessarily need wealth to gain health e.g. Sri Lanka had a maternal mortality rate of 2% in the 1930s not comparable to any country today [34]. Sri Lanka reduced maternal mortality to 0.6% today, spending less each year as they learnt what worked and did not work [34]. Similarly, countries in SSA could adapt their approach through first identification of health as asset and then investing in preventive and promotive health while still ensuring efficacy and efficiency of curative services. Addressing the different forms of poverty, utilising a systems thinking lens, could contribute to healthier societies.
In this modern era, pharmaceutical research associated with nano-sized products is rapidly growing. Nanoscience/technology has changed the way of diagnosing, treating, and curing the diseases which proves to be a great change in human life. Nano-sized formulations/products include nano-emulsion, ethosomes, liposomes, nanoparticles, etc. Nanoparticles ranging from 1 to 100 nm are in trend nowadays due to its size-depending optical, thermal, electrical, and biological properties [1]. Nano-sized metallic particles are unique because they can considerably change their chemical, physical, and biological properties because of their surface-to-volume ratio. Silver nanoparticles have unique physical and chemical properties among other metallic nanoparticles; besides this, its wide applications in different fields make them the most catchy and different from all other nano-formulations. Silver nanoparticles are well recognized for their diagnostic (as biological tags in biosensors, assays, and quantitative detection), conductive (in conductive inks, pastes, and fillers), optical (metal-enhanced fluorescence and surface-enhanced Raman scattering), and household (pesticides and wastewater treatment) applications. Silver nanoparticles gained their immense attraction due to its magnificent role in cancer treatment. The biological activity of silver nanoparticles depends upon various factors like surface morphology, surface chemistry, size, size distribution, cell type, cell agglomeration, and reducing agent used for the synthesis of nanoparticles. Silver nanoparticles were firstly recorded by M.C. Lea; by citrate reduction method, he produced stabilized silver colloids. Many methods are there for the synthesis of silver nanoparticle which include a physical method, chemical method, biological method, etc. Physical and chemical methods are somewhat hazardous and costly, whereas biological methods are safe and are simpler to apply for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles. After synthesis and before applying it for any purpose, silver nanoparticles must pass all the characteristic parameters like size, shape, size distribution, surface area, solubility, aggregation, toxicity, and biocompatibility. Many techniques have been used to evaluate all these parameters like UV-Vis spectroscopy, differential screening calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) [2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
Advantages of silver nanoparticles [7]:
There is a possibility of high-scale production of silver nanoparticles.
Silver nanoparticles possess long-term stability.
Controlled drug delivery of silver nanoparticles can be achieved.
Silver nanoparticles can be freeze-dried and lyophilized to get powder formulation.
Disadvantages of silver nanoparticles [7]:
Less drug loading capacity.
Dispersion of silver nanoparticles includes some amount of water.
The less capacity to load lipophobic drugs.
Physical methods use physical energies to produce the silver nanoparticles with narrow size distribution. Physical methods produce a large quantity of silver nanoparticles in a single process. These methods are also able to give silver nanoparticle powder (Figure 1) [8].
Physical methods for the preparation of silver nanoparticles.
In this method, the metallic (silver-organic) source is kept in the boat with the heat center in a tube furnace. Center heat is enough to evaporate the non-silver particles which get eliminated with the carrier gas leaving behind the silver nanoparticles. The more the temperature of the furnace, the more the concentration of silver nanoparticles formed. But this method takes a quite large time to reach stabilized temperature [9].
In this method, metallic/silver plate is dispersed in a liquid medium and illuminated with a laser beam. The metal plate absorbs the laser beam and forms a hot plasma which contains silver particles in maximum concentration. The liquid medium lowers down the temperature and cools the vicinity which initiates the formation of silver nanoparticles. The nature of the silver nanoparticles formed and the ablation efficiency depends upon many factors such as the wavelength of the laser impinging the metallic target, the duration of the laser pulses (in the femto-, pico-, and nanosecond regime), the laser fluency, the ablation time duration, and the effective liquid medium, with or without the presence of surfactants [1].
The major advantage of both the methods is that it does not include any chemical/reducing and stabilizing agent; therefore, the silver nanoparticles produced by these methods are contamination free and do not need to be purified for further application. However, the major disadvantage is that they consume high energy and costly. Due to these drawbacks, some methods were adopted which are also based on this physical approach but overcome these limitations. These adopted methods are like using ceramic heater which uses less energy and produces continuous heat without any fluctuation and where there is a steep temperature gradient in the vicinity. The second method adopted is thermal decomposition method which produces the silver nanoparticles in solid form. This method works on the principal of complexation between silver and oleate ions and gives silver nanoparticles with 10 nm size. The arch dispersion method was also adopted to overcome the abovementioned limitations and involves the formation of silver nanoparticles in deionized water and does not include the incorporation of any surfactant; it yields silver nanoparticles with less than 10 nm size and hence proves to be a very efficient method [1, 9].
These methods are most employed in synthesizing the silver nanoparticles. These methods are based on the reduction of silver ions to the silver atoms which get agglomerated to form the oligomeric clusters which lead to form silver nanoparticles. Various precursors are used in these methods like silver nitrate (AgNO3), silver acetate, and silver chlorate. In these precursors reducing agents like ascorbate, borohydride, and compounds with the hydroxyl and carboxyl group like alcohol, aldehyde, and carbohydrates are incorporated which reduce the silver ion in the precursor and form the silver atom followed by formation of silver nanoparticles. The silver nanoparticles formed are greatly influenced by the nature and properties of reducing agents. The reducing agents are categorized into strong and mild reductants. The strong reductants like borohydrides give large-sized monodispersed nanoparticles, whereas ascorbates and citrates produce small-sized nanoparticles with wide dispersion. Besides this, the morphology (size and shape) of nanoparticles depends upon the type of dispersion medium. The dispersion mediums are a solvent system which acts as the protective or stabilizing agent and is absorbed on the particle surface to prevent agglomeration. Various solvent systems used are mostly polymers like polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polymethyl acrylic acid (PMAA), and polyethylene glycol (PEG). Polymers are the best candidate as stabilizing agents [10, 11].
The chemical methods involve a large number of chemical agents like stabilizers (PVP, PMMA, PMAA, and PEG), reducing agents (borohydrides, citrates, and ascorbates) which turns the final product (silver nanoparticles) contaminated. To overcome these limitations, the natural reducing agents are being used nowadays, and this method refers to a biological or green method which is eco-friendly, gives contamination-free product, and consumes less energy. The natural reducing agents like biological microorganisms such as bacteria, fungus, and plant extract are used. The basic principle of this method is that all the natural reducing agents like flavonoids, oils, terpenoids, carbohydrates, enzymes, etc. give an electron to reduce silver ions to silver atoms. This method proves to be a simpler viable alternative to the complex chemical methods to obtain silver nanoparticles. Bacteria are known to be very effective natural reducing agents which give organic and inorganic material, intracellularly and extracellularly. There is a wide range of biological reducing agents available which hence gives a wide choice of precursors for this method (Figure 2) [12, 13].
Overview of the synthesis of silver nanoparticles by the green method.
Photochemical method uses light especially UV light to transform solution of colloidal silver nanoparticles to stable formulation with different sizes and shapes (Figure 3). In this method, the precursor source is a silver colloidal solution (silver nitrate, silver perchlorate, etc.) which gets photochemically reduced to form the silver nanoparticles in the presence of polymer stabilizers such as PVP, PMMA, and PMAA. The growth of the nanoparticles formed by this method can be controlled by choosing the concentration of stabilizers and type of light source [8, 9].
Other conventional approaches for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles.
In this method, the silver nanoparticles are formed in a special electrochemical cell in which the silver acts as an anode and the platinum acts as a cathode. The external electrical field is applied to the silver anode which in turn forms the silver clusters followed by the formulation of silver nanoparticles that get deposits on the platinum cathode. This process is conducted at the room temperature, and current density can control the size of silver nanoparticles [9].
The silver nanoparticles of controllable and uniform size can be synthesized by this technique. The metal precursor and the reducing agent are firstly separated in the two immiscible liquids; the intensity at the interphase and interphase transporters which are mediated by the quaternary ammonium sulfate affects the rate of interaction between metal precursors and reducing agents. The silver nanoparticle clusters when formed at the interphase get stabilized by the stabilizers at the interphase and then transported to the organic solvents by interphase transporter. The major disadvantages of this method are that the organic solvents which are used are deleterious in nature and that the final product is contaminated in nature and must be separated from the surfactants and organic solvents for further applications which are quite difficult [1].
In this method, unlike conventional oil bath heating method, microwave heating is used to synthesize the silver nanoparticles. It is a promising method nowadays because microwave heating has a shorter reaction time, reduced energy consumption, and better yield of product which prevent the agglomeration of particles formed. This synthesis involves the carboxymethyl cellulose sodium as a stabilizer. The nanoparticles formed by this have the stability of 2 months without any visual change. Microwave-heated starch is used as a stabilizer which also serves as a template. Polyols like polyethylene glycol and N-vinylpyrrolidine are used as reducing agents as well as stabilizers in which inorganic salt is reduced to form nanoparticles [1].
In this method, the Ag(NH3)2+ (Tollens reagent) is reduced by saccharides in the presence of ammonia which yields silver nanoparticle films of size 20–50 nm and silver nanoparticles of different sizes. The pH is usually between the 11.5 and 13.0. pH also influences the particle size as at low pH the size of nanoparticles is comparatively small. The polydispersity of the silver nanoparticles can be achieved by lowering the pH [1].
The absorbance of plasmon is responsible for giving a specific color to the nanoparticles. The electromagnetic radiations and the conduction electron are absorbed by the incident light oscillations and hence produce a specific color. The plasmon sample is diluted with the distilled water generally, and silver nanoparticles show peak near about 400 nm. The lambda max of the plasmon resonance solution is responsible for indicating the size of the formulation (Figure 4) [2, 3].
Various techniques used in the characterization of silver nanoparticles.
In this method, the functional group of the silver nanoparticles is detected. The transmittance goal of silver nanoparticles can be found at 490 nm, and the signaling of OH near 3499 cm [2, 3].
The XRD depicts the crystalline structure of nanoparticles. When X-rays reflect on the sample (crystal structure), it reflect different diffracted patterns. From these patterns, various physicochemical properties of the sample can be predicted. The X-ray diffraction pattern is matched with the standard/reference pattern of the sample, and from this impurities can be detected easily. There is interplanar spacing in the diffraction pattern which is also called d values; these d values are matched with standard silver values. The average crystalline size of nanoparticles can be calculated using Debye-Scherrer formula:
where D is the average crystalline size of the nanoparticles, k is the geometric factor (0.9), λ is the wavelength of X-ray radiation source, and b is the angular full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of the XRD peak at the diffraction angle. From this formula the average size of the silver nanoparticles can be calculated [3, 14].
Atomic force microscopy characterizes not only the size shape and sorption but also the dispersion and aggregation of the nanoparticles. AFM helps in the measurement of real-time interactions of nanoparticles with the lipid biological layers, which cannot be achieved by current electron microscopy techniques. No conductive surface or oxide-free surface is required for the measurement in the atomic force microscopy. In addition to this, the major advantage of AFM is that it does not cause any destruction to the native surface and can measure sub-nanometer scale in aqueous fluids. However, the major drawback is the overestimation of the lateral dimensions of the sample due to the size of the cantilever. The operating mode (no contact or contact) is a very crucial factor in sample analysis [2].
It is a high-resolution technique/microscopy used to detect whole morphology and surface characteristics of the nanoparticles. It is based on the reflection of very high energetic electrons to the probe object. It is a very efficient method to resolve different particle sizes, size distributions, and nanomaterial shapes. The surface morphology of the micro- and nanoscale particles can be easily detected by using SEM. By the histogram obtained particles can be counted either manually or using any software. More specifically for the determination of surface morphology and chemical composition of silver nanoparticles, SEM can be combined with the energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The major advantage of this technique is that it can identify the morphology of nanoparticles having size below 10 nm; however, the drawback of this technique is that it is not helpful in determination of the internal structure of the nanoparticles [3].
TEM is a quantitative method for determination of particles, particle size, size distribution, and morphology. In this technique, the resolution is based upon the ratio of distance between the objective lens and specimen and distance between objective lens and image plane. The major advantages of this technique over the SEM are that it has better efficiency of spatial resolution and other analytical measurements can also be done by this technique. However, the major disadvantage of TEM is sample preparation which is a highly crucial step for better imaging and is highly time-consuming; in addition to this, another disadvantage is high-vacuum and very fine and thin sections of sample are required which are quite difficult to maintain and prepare, respectively [2].
Applications of silver nanoparticles can be classified in two major classes, that is, therapeutic and physical applications (Figure 5).
Applications of silver nanoparticles.
Silver nanoparticles have various biological applications (Figure 6) majorly antimicrobial, anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, antimalarial, etc. Inbathamiz et al. synthesized silver nanoparticles using aqueous extract of
Natural sources used for preparation of silver nanoparticles and their biological potential.
Most of the urinary tract infections are caused by
Exopolysaccharide of the
Boonkaew et al. developed a burn wound dressing that contains silver nanoparticles to treat infection in a 2-acrylamide-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid sodium salt (AMPSNa+) hydrogel and revealed that hydrogels were nontoxic to normal human dermal fibroblast cells as well as had good action against
Ramar et al. synthesized silver nanoparticles using ethanolic extract of rose (
Sankar et al. prepared silver nanoparticles using the aqueous extract of
Rajeswari et al. synthesized silver nanoparticles using
Arun et al. developed silver nanoparticles using a mushroom fungus
Subbaiya and Selvam synthesized silver nanoparticles by
Rajam et al. prepared silver nanoparticles using fungus
Silver nanoparticles were prepared using culture supernatant of
Kalaivani et al. prepared silver nanoparticles using
Alshehri et al. have prepared two samples: the first was fabricated from the nano-metallic silver, and the second consists of micrometer-sized grains. Both types were prepared using thick-film fabrication process. The material involved in sample preparation was fine metal powder, an inorganic binder-like metal oxide, and an organic vehicle that evaporates during the initial drying stages. Both the samples were characterized for the electrical performances. They found that in the lower-frequency range, both types of conductors (samples) behave similarly with electrical loss but increase approximately linearly with increased frequency range (from 0.1 dB/mm/GHz up to 80 GHz), but above 80 GHz frequency, the silver nanoparticle-fabricated sample showed lower electrical loss, and this behavior continues up to the above whole frequency range. The lower level of the loss from the silver nanoparticle conductors and the overall trend in loss per wavelength do not depend significantly on frequency. Therefore, it has been concluded that the silver nanoparticle-fabricated conductors show a less electrical loss at high-frequency range which in turn attributed to lower surface roughness found in the nanoparticles due to better packing and may open opportunities for low-temperature fabrication of antennas and for sub-THz metamaterials with improved performance [61].
Silver nanoparticles can be used as a silver paste in the electrodes because of their high conductivity. They have also been used as conductive fillers in electronically conductive adhesives (ECAs). Chen et al. have synthesized the silver nanoparticles by reducing the silver nitrate with ethanol in the presence of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). Various reaction conditions have been studied such as PVP concentration, reaction time, and reaction temperature. In this method, PVP prevents the aggregation; in addition to this, the PVP increases the rate of spontaneous nucleation and decreases the mean size of silver nanoparticles. The ethanol used in this has been employed as a reducing agent or diluent to adjust the viscosity of the ECAs. The resulting silver nanoparticles obtained with chemical reduction method had very fine dispersion and narrow size distribution. The ECAs had the silver nanoparticles re-dispersed in the ethanol. The absorption peak was determined at 410 nm which was a clear signature of the quantum size effect occurring in the absorption property of silver nanoparticles. It has also been concluded that the particle size of nanoparticles has been decreased with increasing concentration of silver nitrate and with increasing reaction temperature, but with increasing reaction time, the size of nanoparticles has been increased [62]. Yang et al. have prepared silver nanoparticles, silver nanorods, and epoxy resins containing high-performance electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs) using a novel preparation method. The prepared nanoparticles and nanorods were dispersed well, and there was no agglomerate in the matrix. The volume electrical resistivity tests showed the volume electrical resistivity of the ECA was closely related with the various sintering temperatures and time and time and the ECA could achieve the volume electrical resistivity of (3–4) × 9 10–5 Ω after sintering at 160°C for 20 min. They found that the prepared ECA was able to achieve low-temperature sintering and possessed excellent electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties [63]. This offers the possibility to effectively use these synthesized nanoparticles for improving the conductivity of ECAs.
The silver nanoparticles can be used in ink-jet printing. Wu and Hsu have synthesized the silver nanoparticles by chemical reduction from the silver nitrate using triethylamine as reducing and protecting agent. After that the nanoparticles have been sintered using the process involved cleaning it with acetone and deionized water to remove the particles and organic contaminants on the surface; after cleaning the film, it was treated with ozone by UVO-100 UV ozone for 30 min. The silver nanoparticle suspensions were spin coated (500 rpm, 15 s) on the polyimide substrate and dried at room temperature in order to remove the solvent. The resulting silver nanoparticles on the polyimide substrate were heated from 100 to 200°C and held at 200°C for 1 h in order to convert to silver films. The polyimide substrate was then naturally cooled at room temperature in the glass dish. The above synthesized silver nanoparticles were sintered at different temperatures, and it was found that the resistivity of the silver film sintered at 150°C for 1 h was close to the resistivity of bulk silver. Based on the above data, the synthesized nanoparticles had the low sintering temperature; hence, the silver nanoparticle suspensions could be used to fabricate the flexible electronics by ink-jet printing [64].
The micro-sized silver particle fillers appear as the full-density silver flakes, and the silver nanoparticles fillers appear to be the highly porous agglomerates (similar to open-cell foams). Ye measured/analyzed the distribution of different sized particles using TEM. The electrical resistivity was also measured which was compared with the different levels of filler loading. The silver nanoparticles were prepared using the nano-sized spheres of size approximately 50–150 nm in diameter, micro-sized particles with a diameter of 5–8 μm, and flakes of silver of 10 μm in length. By TEM studies of the distribution of silver particles in micro-sized particle sea, it was concluded that it is difficult to find the cross-linkage of particles and there are fewer chances of different contact and contact area, and by the resistivity measurements, it has been revealed that the conductivity of micro-sized silver particle-filled adhesive is dominated by constriction resistance, the silver nanoparticle-containing adhesive is controlled by tunneling and even thermionic emission, and hence the respective nanoparticles are used to increase the electrical conductivity [65].
Dankovich prepared silver nanoparticles in a paper using microwave irradiation. Antibacterial activity and silver release from the silver nanoparticle sheets were assessed for model
Plasmonic effects in thin film silicon solar cell are an emerging technology and area of rigorous research for the researchers from the past couple of years. It has promising application in solar cell fabrication industries where it uses nanoscale properties of silver nanoparticles incorporated in the interface between the metal and dielectric contacts that enhance the light-trapping properties of thin film silicon solar cells by increase absorbance capacity and generation of hot electrons that enhance the photocurrents in the solar cell. Sangno et al. had taken two different thicknesses of the silver thin film (made of silver nanoparticles) of 5.9 and 7.8 nm in 2 × 10–4 (Torr) and 2.5 × 10−4 (Torr) pressure environment for investigation purpose. Samples were annealed at different temperature ranges for a definite time period under vacuum condition of 4.5 × 10−6 Torr. They found that reflectance reduces 13–11% due to plasmonic effect and enhancement in the conversion efficiency of the solar cell [69].
Li et al. fabricated nanoenzymatic glucose biosensors by depositing silver nanoparticles using in situ chemical reduction method on TiO2 nanotubes which were synthesized by the anodic oxidation process. The structure, morphology, and mechanical behaviors of the electrode were examined by scanning electron microscopy and nanoindentation. It was found that silver nanoparticles remained both inside and outside of TiO2 nanotubes whose length and diameter were about 1.2 μm and 120 nm. The composition was constructed as an electrode of a nonenzymatic biosensor for glucose oxidation. The electrocatalytic properties of the prepared electrodes for glucose oxidation were investigated by cyclic voltammetry (CVs) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). When compared with bare TiO2 and silver-fresh TiO2 nanotube, Ag-TiO2/(500°C) nanotube exhibited the best electrochemical properties from cyclic voltammetry (CVs) results. In addition, the nonenzymatic glucose sensors exhibited excellent selectivity, stability, and repeatability. Nanoenzymatic glucose biosensors have potential application in catalysis and sensor areas [70]. Ruth et al. has synthesized the oligonucleotide-silver nanoparticle (OSN) conjugates and revealed their use with magnetic beads as a biosensor for
Tung N.H reported that silver nanoparticles labeling could be used in protein sensing studies by liquid electrode plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (LEP-AES). This technique is suitable for on-site portable analysis because plasma gas and the high-power source are not required. Proposed detection method could have a wide variety of promising applications in metal nanoparticle-labeled biomolecule detection [74].
Duran et al. prepared silver nanoparticles by using
Lipids are the major components of cell membrane and abnormal cellular metabolism-induced lipid changes. Hua et al. investigate silver nanoparticle-induced lipid changes on the surface of macrophage cells using time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). By using this technique, one can understand the mechanism of cell-nanoparticle interactions at the molecular level and characterize the changes in lipids on the single cell surface [76]. Citrate- and polyethyleneimine-coated silver nanoparticles can be used to understand how the type of capping agents and surface charge affects their colloidal stability, dissolution, and ecotoxicity in the absence/presence of Pony Lake fulvic acid (PLFA). On the basis of this, Jung et al. demonstrate that the differences in colloidal stability, ecotoxicity, and dissolution may be attributed to different capping agents, surface charge, and natural organic matter concentration as well as to the formation of dissolved silver complexes with natural organic matter [77].
Silver nanoparticles synthesized by Guilger et al. using fungus
Chen prepared silver nanoparticles from filamentous fungus
It is revealed that silver nanoparticles have potential applications in therapeutics as well as in other physical fields. In therapeutics, researchers are seemed to be more focused on anticancer and antimicrobial evaluations. Green synthesis makes them eco-friendly and nonhazardous. Applications of silver nanoparticles are not limited to therapeutics only, they are equally covering physical fields too such as biosensors and antenna fabrication, conductive adhesives, in ink-jet printing, water treatment, solar cell optimization, protein sensing, etc. Rigorous research has been carried out and continued on this nanostructure. Therefore, the silver nanoparticle has the ability to be a lead nanoparticle of the future due to its wide variety of applications.
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Thin films are considered as backbone for advanced applications in the various fields such as optical devices, environmental applications, telecommunications devices, energy storage devices, and so on . The crucial issue for all applications of thin films depends on their morphology and the stability. The morphology of the thin films strongly hinges on deposition techniques. Thin films can be deposited by the physical and chemical routes. In this chapter, we discuss some advance techniques and principles of thin-film depositions. The vacuum thermal evaporation technique, electron beam evaporation, pulsed-layer deposition, direct current/radio frequency magnetron sputtering, and chemical route deposition systems will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Asim Jilani, Mohamed Shaaban Abdel-wahab and Ahmed Hosny\nHammad",authors:[{id:"192377",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Jilani",slug:"asim-jilani",fullName:"Asim Jilani"},{id:"192972",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Sh",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Wahab",slug:"m.sh-abdel-wahab",fullName:"M.Sh Abdel-Wahab"},{id:"192973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"H",surname:"Hammad",slug:"ahmed-hammad",fullName:"Ahmed Hammad"}]},{id:"17722",doi:"10.5772/23174",title:"Study of SiO2/Si Interface by Surface Techniques",slug:"study-of-sio2-si-interface-by-surface-techniques",totalDownloads:14161,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"332",slug:"crystalline-silicon-properties-and-uses",title:"Crystalline Silicon",fullTitle:"Crystalline Silicon - Properties and Uses"},signatures:"Rodica Ghita, Constantin Logofatu, Catalin-Constantin Negrila, Florica Ungureanu, Costel Cotirlan, Adrian-Stefan Manea, Mihail-Florin Lazarescu and Corneliu Ghica",authors:[{id:"50919",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodica V.",middleName:null,surname:"Ghita",slug:"rodica-v.-ghita",fullName:"Rodica V. 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The principles underlying RF‐magnetron sputtering used to prepare calcium phosphate‐based, mainly hydroxyapatite coatings, are discussed in this chapter. The fundamental characteristic of the RF‐magnetron sputtering is an energy input into the growing film. In order to tailor the film properties, one has to adjust the energy input into the substrate depending on the desired film properties. The effect of different deposition control parameters, such as deposition time, substrate temperature, and substrate biasing on the hydroxyapatite (HA) film properties is discussed.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Roman Surmenev, Alina Vladescu, Maria Surmeneva, Anna Ivanova,\nMariana Braic, Irina Grubova and Cosmin Mihai Cotrut",authors:[{id:"193921",title:"Dr.",name:"Alina",middleName:null,surname:"Vladescu",slug:"alina-vladescu",fullName:"Alina Vladescu"},{id:"193922",title:"Prof.",name:"Roman",middleName:null,surname:"Surmenev",slug:"roman-surmenev",fullName:"Roman Surmenev"},{id:"193923",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Surmeneva",slug:"maria-surmeneva",fullName:"Maria Surmeneva"},{id:"193948",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Braic",slug:"mariana-braic",fullName:"Mariana Braic"},{id:"194047",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanova",slug:"anna-ivanova",fullName:"Anna Ivanova"},{id:"194048",title:"BSc.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Grubova",slug:"irina-grubova",fullName:"Irina Grubova"},{id:"196398",title:"Prof.",name:"Cosmin Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Cotrut",slug:"cosmin-mihai-cotrut",fullName:"Cosmin Mihai Cotrut"}]},{id:"21157",doi:"10.5772/24330",title:"Compilation on Synthesis, Characterization and Properties of Silicon and Boron Carbonitride Films",slug:"compilation-on-synthesis-characterization-and-properties-of-silicon-and-boron-carbonitride-films",totalDownloads:5219,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"326",slug:"silicon-carbide-materials-processing-and-applications-in-electronic-devices",title:"Silicon Carbide",fullTitle:"Silicon Carbide - Materials, Processing and Applications in Electronic Devices"},signatures:"P. Hoffmann, N. Fainer, M. Kosinova, O. Baake and W. Ensinger",authors:[{id:"56722",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hoffmann",slug:"peter-hoffmann",fullName:"Peter Hoffmann"},{id:"56726",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Kosinova",slug:"marina-kosinova",fullName:"Marina Kosinova"},{id:"56727",title:"Prof.",name:"Wolfgang",middleName:null,surname:"Ensinger",slug:"wolfgang-ensinger",fullName:"Wolfgang Ensinger"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52684",title:"Advance Deposition Techniques for Thin Film and Coating",slug:"advance-deposition-techniques-for-thin-film-and-coating",totalDownloads:7725,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Thin films have a great impact on the modern era of technology. Thin films are considered as backbone for advanced applications in the various fields such as optical devices, environmental applications, telecommunications devices, energy storage devices, and so on . The crucial issue for all applications of thin films depends on their morphology and the stability. The morphology of the thin films strongly hinges on deposition techniques. Thin films can be deposited by the physical and chemical routes. In this chapter, we discuss some advance techniques and principles of thin-film depositions. The vacuum thermal evaporation technique, electron beam evaporation, pulsed-layer deposition, direct current/radio frequency magnetron sputtering, and chemical route deposition systems will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Asim Jilani, Mohamed Shaaban Abdel-wahab and Ahmed Hosny\nHammad",authors:[{id:"192377",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Jilani",slug:"asim-jilani",fullName:"Asim Jilani"},{id:"192972",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Sh",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Wahab",slug:"m.sh-abdel-wahab",fullName:"M.Sh Abdel-Wahab"},{id:"192973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"H",surname:"Hammad",slug:"ahmed-hammad",fullName:"Ahmed Hammad"}]},{id:"68467",title:"Semiconductor Nanocomposites for Visible Light Photocatalysis of Water Pollutants",slug:"semiconductor-nanocomposites-for-visible-light-photocatalysis-of-water-pollutants",totalDownloads:1825,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Semiconductor photocatalysis gained reputation in the early 1970s when Fujishima and Honda revealed the potential of TiO2 to split water in to hydrogen and oxygen in a photoelectrochemical cell. Their work provided the base for the development of semiconductor photocatalysis for the environmental remediation and energy applications. Photoactivity of some semiconductors was found to be low due to larger band gap energy and higher electron-hole pair recombination rate. To avoid these problems, the development of visible light responsive photocatalytic materials by different approaches, such as metal and/or non-metal doping, co-doping, coupling of semiconductors, composites and heterojunctions materials synthesis has been widely investigated and explored in systematic manner. This chapter emphasizes on the different type of tailored photocatalyst materials having the enhanced visible light absorption properties, lower band gap energy and recombination rate of electron-hole pairs and production of reactive radical species. Visible light active semiconductors for the environmental remediation purposes, particularly for water treatment and disinfection are also discussed in detail. Studies on the photocatalytic degradation of emerging organic compounds like cyanotoxins, VOCs, phenols, pharmaceuticals, etc., by employing variety of modified semiconductors, are summarized, and a mechanistic aspects of the photocatalysis has been discussed.",book:{id:"7671",slug:"concepts-of-semiconductor-photocatalysis",title:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis",fullTitle:"Concepts of Semiconductor Photocatalysis"},signatures:"Fatima Imtiaz, Jamshaid Rashid and Ming Xu",authors:[{id:"292882",title:"Dr.",name:"Jamshaid",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"jamshaid-rashid",fullName:"Jamshaid Rashid"},{id:"302498",title:"Ms.",name:"Fatima",middleName:null,surname:"Imtiaz",slug:"fatima-imtiaz",fullName:"Fatima Imtiaz"},{id:"308434",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ming-xu",fullName:"Ming Xu"}]},{id:"17728",title:"Defect Related Luminescence in Silicon Dioxide Network: A Review",slug:"defect-related-luminescence-in-silicon-dioxide-network-a-review",totalDownloads:9508,totalCrossrefCites:46,totalDimensionsCites:99,abstract:null,book:{id:"332",slug:"crystalline-silicon-properties-and-uses",title:"Crystalline Silicon",fullTitle:"Crystalline Silicon - Properties and Uses"},signatures:"Roushdey Salh",authors:[{id:"48391",title:"Dr.",name:"Roushdey",middleName:null,surname:"Salh",slug:"roushdey-salh",fullName:"Roushdey Salh"}]},{id:"58469",title:"The Electrochemical Performance of Deposited Manganese Oxide-Based Film as Electrode Material for Electrochemical Capacitor Application",slug:"the-electrochemical-performance-of-deposited-manganese-oxide-based-film-as-electrode-material-for-el",totalDownloads:1754,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The transition metal oxide has been recognized as one of the promising electrode materials for electrochemical capacitor application. Due to the participation of charge transfer reactions, the capacitance offered by transition metal oxide can be higher compared to double layer capacitance. The investigation on hydrous ruthenium oxide has revealed the surface redox reactions that contributed to the wide potential window shown on cyclic voltammetry curve. Although the performance of ruthenium oxide is impressive, its toxicity has limited itself from commercial application. Manganese oxide is a pseudocapacitive material behaves similar to ruthenium oxide. It consists of various oxidation states which allow the occurrence of redox reactions. It is also environmental friendly, low cost, and natural abundant. The charge storage of manganese oxide film takes into account of the redox reactions between Mn3+ and Mn4+ and can be accounted to two mechanisms. The first one involves the intercalation/deintercalation of electrolyte ions and/or protons upon reduction/oxidation processes. The second contributor for the charge storage is due to the surface adsorption of electrolyte ions on the electrode surface.",book:{id:"6083",slug:"semiconductors-growth-and-characterization",title:"Semiconductors",fullTitle:"Semiconductors - Growth and Characterization"},signatures:"Chan Pei Yi and Siti Rohana Majid",authors:[{id:"197956",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"S.R.",middleName:null,surname:"Majid",slug:"s.r.-majid",fullName:"S.R. Majid"},{id:"216449",title:"Ms.",name:"Pei Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"pei-yi-chan",fullName:"Pei Yi Chan"}]},{id:"60792",title:"TCAD Device Modelling and Simulation of Wide Bandgap Power Semiconductors",slug:"tcad-device-modelling-and-simulation-of-wide-bandgap-power-semiconductors",totalDownloads:2155,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Technology computer-aided Design (TCAD) is essential for devices technology development, including wide bandgap power semiconductors. However, most TCAD tools were originally developed for silicon and their performance and accuracy for wide bandgap semiconductors is contentious. This chapter will deal with TCAD device modelling of wide bandgap power semiconductors. In particular, modelling and simulating 3C- and 4H-Silicon Carbide (SiC), Gallium Nitride (GaN) and Diamond devices are examined. The challenges associated with modelling the material and device physics are analyzed in detail. It also includes convergence issues and accuracy of predicted performance. Modelling and simulating defects, traps and the effect of these traps on the characteristics are also discussed.",book:{id:"6625",slug:"disruptive-wide-bandgap-semiconductors-related-technologies-and-their-applications",title:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications",fullTitle:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications"},signatures:"Neophytos Lophitis, Anastasios Arvanitopoulos, Samuel Perkins and\nMarina Antoniou",authors:[{id:"236488",title:"Dr.",name:"Neophytos",middleName:null,surname:"Lophitis",slug:"neophytos-lophitis",fullName:"Neophytos Lophitis"},{id:"247344",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Antoniou",slug:"marina-antoniou",fullName:"Marina Antoniou"},{id:"247347",title:"Mr.",name:"Anastasios",middleName:null,surname:"Arvanitopoulos",slug:"anastasios-arvanitopoulos",fullName:"Anastasios Arvanitopoulos"},{id:"247349",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perkins",slug:"samuel-perkins",fullName:"Samuel Perkins"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"159",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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