IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
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In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\n
By listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
All three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n
"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n
"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\n
In conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n
“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\n
We invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\n
Feel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5533",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The Role of the Clinical Cardiac Electrophysiologist in the Management of Congestive Heart Failure",title:"The Role of the Clinical Cardiac Electrophysiologist in the Management of Congestive Heart Failure",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The world of clinical cardiac electrophysiology continues to evolve with newer and more advanced technologies to better serve our patients. In this book, titled The Role of the Clinical Cardiac Electrophysiologist in the Management of Congestive Heart Failure, authors from around the world have contributed their thoughts. Various chapters describing the use of biventricular pacing devices (CRT) in the management of patients suffering from systolic heart failure are included, with a chapter dedicated to management of CRT. A chapter describing the role of CRT in patients with Chagas disease is included. Authors describe the newer pharmaceuticals in the management of this disease and the role of catheter ablation in the management of atrial fibrillation and other arrhythmias. These topics are of great interest to clinicians at the various levels of training, and I believe this textbook gives a flavor of the expanding role of the electrophysiologist in the management of an ever-expanding patient population.",isbn:"978-953-51-2948-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2947-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7339-7",doi:"10.5772/63292",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"the-role-of-the-clinical-cardiac-electrophysiologist-in-the-management-of-congestive-heart-failure",numberOfPages:168,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"72992f70d4e3ffcae4aa03439ea54954",bookSignature:"John Kassotis",publishedDate:"February 15th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5533.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12314,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 17th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 7th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 3rd 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 2nd 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 31st 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"146888",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Kassotis",slug:"john-kassotis",fullName:"John Kassotis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/146888/images/system/146888.png",biography:"Dr. John Kassotis received his doctorate in chemical engineering from the Columbia University, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, in 1985 and earned his MD degree from the Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1990. After completing his residency, cardiovascular fellowship, and electrophysiology fellowship at the Presbyterian Hospital, Dr. Kassotis began the Arrhythmia Service at New York Methodist Hospital (clinical affiliate of the NY Presbyterian Hospital Network) where he served as the director. In 2005, Dr. Kassotis was appointed the director of the Clinical Cardiac Electrophysiology Section and Fellowship Programs at SUNY Downstate Medical Center. He has authored or coauthored over 70 peer-reviewed articles, book chapters, and patents. He is the recipient of multiple teaching awards and serves as associate editor of the journal Cardiology.",institutionString:"Rutgers University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"986",title:"Clinical Cardiac Electrophysiology",slug:"clinical-cardiac-electrophysiology"}],chapters:[{id:"54032",title:"Role of New Therapies in Reducing Mortality and Major Morbidity in Patients with Systolic Heart Failure",doi:"10.5772/66284",slug:"role-of-new-therapies-in-reducing-mortality-and-major-morbidity-in-patients-with-systolic-heart-fail",totalDownloads:1947,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Though heart failure therapies, particularly for systolic heart failure, have developed rapidly and markedly during the past four decades, a need for additional relief persists and is progressively being met. Two new drugs have been approved for marketing in the United States within the past two years, and two other glucose lowering therapies for diabetes appear to have efficacy for heart failure as well. In addition, device therapy for heart failure has progressed markedly during the past 5 years, particularly in refinements of the indications and applications of devices to minimize symptoms and hospitalizations and to maximize survival. This chapter will outline these recent developments.",signatures:"Oleg Yurevich and Jeffrey S. Borer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54032",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54032",authors:[{id:"195160",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeffrey",surname:"Borer",slug:"jeffrey-borer",fullName:"Jeffrey Borer"},{id:"195161",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleg",surname:"Yurevich",slug:"oleg-yurevich",fullName:"Oleg Yurevich"}],corrections:null},{id:"53990",title:"Sympathetic Blockade for Dysrhythmia Management in Heart Failure: Rationale and Therapeutic Progression to Intervention",doi:"10.5772/66517",slug:"sympathetic-blockade-for-dysrhythmia-management-in-heart-failure-rationale-and-therapeutic-progressi",totalDownloads:1182,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Continuous ganglionic blockade is being used increasingly to help manage ventricular tachydysrhythmias. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the physiologic and anatomic basis of ventricular tachydysrhythmias in detail that are mediated by the sympathetic nervous system and to discuss appropriate indications for the use of sympathetic ganglion blocks. These blocks can be instituted as both destination and bridging therapeutic options to control these dysrhythmias. These blocks therefore have value in the heart failure patient population since they offer a means of controlling the dysrhythmias that can be devastating to an already compromised myocardium.",signatures:"Daryl I. Smith and Albert O. Duah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53990",authors:[{id:"191972",title:"Dr.",name:"Daryl",surname:"Smith",slug:"daryl-smith",fullName:"Daryl Smith"},{id:"195361",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",surname:"Duah",slug:"albert-duah",fullName:"Albert Duah"}],corrections:null},{id:"53558",title:"The Impact of Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy in the Treatment of Heart Failure",doi:"10.5772/66947",slug:"the-impact-of-cardiac-resynchronization-therapy-in-the-treatment-of-heart-failure",totalDownloads:1309,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The number of patients who suffer from heart failure is rapidly increasing. In about one‐third of heart failure patients, conduction delays cause dyssynchronous left ventricular contractions, which leads to reduction in left ventricular function, adverse cardiac remodelling and finally increased mortality. Cardiac resynchronization involves simultaneous pacing of both ventricles, and improves left ventricular contractile function. Although resynchronization does not restore myocardial function, multiple studies have shown that cardiac resynchronization therapy improves quality of life, exercise capacity, symptoms of heart failure, left ventricular ejection fraction, morbidity and mortality. The use of cardiac resynchronization therapy has increased significantly, since its initial approval in 2001, in patients with advanced heart failure.",signatures:"Takashi Murashita",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53558",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53558",authors:[{id:"192448",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashi",surname:"Murashita",slug:"takashi-murashita",fullName:"Takashi Murashita"}],corrections:null},{id:"53765",title:"Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy in Advanced Heart Failure: Predictors of Response and Optimization of Therapy",doi:"10.5772/67037",slug:"cardiac-resynchronization-therapy-in-advanced-heart-failure-predictors-of-response-and-optimization-",totalDownloads:1414,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Heart failure affects a high percentage of the population, especially older patients. Cardiac resynchronization therapy is indicated in some patients with advanced heart failure. However, 20–40% of patients with implanted resynchronization device have no clinical response. In this chapter, we review factors related with the absence of a clinical response, recent technological advances that can reduce the failure rate, and an algorithm for management of patients without a clinical response.",signatures:"García García Miguel Ángel, Martínez Cornejo Alfonso and Rosero\nArenas María de los Ángeles",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53765",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53765",authors:[{id:"192810",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Ángel",surname:"García García",slug:"miguel-angel-garcia-garcia",fullName:"Miguel Ángel García García"}],corrections:null},{id:"53928",title:"Utility of Cardiac Implantable Electronic Devices in Patients with Chagas Disease and Systolic Heart Failure",doi:"10.5772/67079",slug:"utility-of-cardiac-implantable-electronic-devices-in-patients-with-chagas-disease-and-systolic-heart",totalDownloads:1401,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chagas disease (CD) is the principal cause of congestive heart failure (CHF) in areas where the disease is endemic and migration has increased the likelihood of these diseases being the probable cause of CHF in other countries of the world. Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the most common cause of death in CD (55–65%). Implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) is useful in the secondary prevention of SCD, but there is less information regarding primary prevention. The evidence supporting the use of cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) in CHF of chagasic etiology is poor; however, one should apply current guidelines regarding the insertion of these devices in patients with Chagas disease and CHF.",signatures:"Guillermo Mora",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53928",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53928",authors:[{id:"192796",title:"Prof.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Mora",slug:"guillermo-mora",fullName:"Guillermo Mora"}],corrections:null},{id:"53821",title:"Transcatheter Ablation of Atrial Fibrillation in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure",doi:"10.5772/67024",slug:"transcatheter-ablation-of-atrial-fibrillation-in-patients-with-chronic-heart-failure",totalDownloads:1546,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most frequent of all cardiac arrhythmias and it is associated with an increased risk of stroke, systemic embolism and heart failure. Patients with AF have a twofold increased risk of death and fivefold increased risk of stroke compared with those without AF. In patients with heart failure (HF), AF ablation improves left ventricular (LV) function over short- and long-term follow-ups, especially compared with medical treatment. Furthermore, AF ablation in HF patients relates to a significant improvement in quality of life, functional class and exercise tolerance, possibly related to the improvement in LV function and hemodynamic status of the patients. Finally, data showed that restoration of sinus rhythm in this setting of patients reduced the incidence of stroke and death. In this review, we reported all the major data regarding atrial fibrillation therapy in patients with heart failure.",signatures:"Antonio Di Monaco, Federico Quadrini, Nicola Vitulano and\nMassimo Grimaldi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53821",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53821",authors:[{id:"192460",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Massimo",surname:"Grimaldi",slug:"massimo-grimaldi",fullName:"Massimo Grimaldi"},{id:"195372",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Di Monaco",slug:"antonio-di-monaco",fullName:"Antonio Di Monaco"},{id:"195373",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",surname:"Quadrini",slug:"federico-quadrini",fullName:"Federico Quadrini"},{id:"195374",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola",surname:"Vitulano",slug:"nicola-vitulano",fullName:"Nicola Vitulano"}],corrections:null},{id:"53423",title:"Role of the Electrophysiologist in the Treatment of Tachycardia-Induced Cardiomyopathy",doi:"10.5772/66515",slug:"role-of-the-electrophysiologist-in-the-treatment-of-tachycardia-induced-cardiomyopathy",totalDownloads:1547,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy is a systolic cardiac dysfunction given by prolonged elevated heart rates in patients with incessant or frequent tachyarrhythmias. Arrhythmias associated with tachycardiomyopathy can be either supraventricular (atrial tachycardia, atrial flutter, atrial fibrillation, AVNRT, permanent junctional reciprocating tachycardia, high rates of atrial pacing) or ventricular (frequent premature ventricular complexes, right ventricular outflow tract tachycardia, LVOT, left ventricular fascicular tachycardia, bundle-branch reentry or high rate of ventricular pacing). Electrophysiological study confirms the clinical diagnosis of tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy, reveals the arrhythmia mechanism and facilitates catheter ablation that results in complete recovery of ventricular function. This chapter has two parts: 1. Theoretical insight into the pathogenesis of tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy, clinical manifestations and therapy. 2. Practical issues: we describe our EP lab’s experience on electrophysiological study and ablation in patients with tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy. We will present five cases of ablation: PVCs >30,000/24 h, antidromic tachycardia, 2:1 atrial flutter, persistent atrial fibrillation and RVOT PVCs with nonsustained VT.",signatures:"Cismaru Gabriel, Lucian Muresan, Puiu Mihai, Radu Rosu, Gabriel\nGusetu, Dana Pop and Dumitru Zdrenghea",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53423",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53423",authors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru"},{id:"195419",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucian",surname:"Muresan",slug:"lucian-muresan",fullName:"Lucian Muresan"},{id:"195420",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihai",surname:"Puiu",slug:"mihai-puiu",fullName:"Mihai Puiu"},{id:"195421",title:"Dr.",name:"Radu",surname:"Rosu",slug:"radu-rosu",fullName:"Radu Rosu"},{id:"195422",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Gusetu",slug:"gabriel-gusetu",fullName:"Gabriel Gusetu"},{id:"195423",title:"Prof.",name:"Dana",surname:"Pop",slug:"dana-pop",fullName:"Dana Pop"},{id:"195424",title:"Prof.",name:"Dumitru",surname:"Zdrenghea",slug:"dumitru-zdrenghea",fullName:"Dumitru Zdrenghea"}],corrections:null},{id:"52978",title:"Impact of Thyroid Disease on Heart Failure",doi:"10.5772/66283",slug:"impact-of-thyroid-disease-on-heart-failure",totalDownloads:1968,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The modern vision concerning the physiological actions and pathological relevance of endocrine cardiac system is a very complex one. Decreased or increased action of thyroid hormone (hypo‐ or hyperthyroidism) on different cellular and molecular pathways in the heart plays an important role in the development and progression of myocardial remodelling and heart failure. Cardiovascular signs and symptoms that accompany both hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism are presented, highlighting that correction of thyroid dysfunction most often reverses the abnormal cardiovascular hemodynamics.",signatures:"Adina Elena Stanciu, Adina Zamfir‐Chiru‐Anton, Marcel Marian\nStanciu and Dan Cristian Gheorghe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52978",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52978",authors:[{id:"193244",title:"Dr.",name:"Adina Elena",surname:"Stanciu",slug:"adina-elena-stanciu",fullName:"Adina Elena Stanciu"},{id:"195352",title:"Dr.",name:"Adina",surname:"Zamfir-Chiru-Anton",slug:"adina-zamfir-chiru-anton",fullName:"Adina Zamfir-Chiru-Anton"},{id:"195355",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",surname:"Stanciu",slug:"marcel-stanciu",fullName:"Marcel Stanciu"},{id:"195356",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan-Cristian",surname:"Gheorghe",slug:"dan-cristian-gheorghe",fullName:"Dan-Cristian Gheorghe"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"997",title:"Tachycardia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1a5908b405f4ffb028f51f29863469d0",slug:"tachycardia",bookSignature:"Takumi Yamada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/997.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68148",title:"Prof.",name:"Takumi",surname:"Yamada",slug:"takumi-yamada",fullName:"Takumi Yamada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4584",title:"Abnormal Heart Rhythms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"81532d7ef92dec2fed90a8c7ea7a051c",slug:"abnormal-heart-rhythms",bookSignature:"Francisco R. Breijo-Marquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4584.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63299",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco R.",surname:"Breijo-Marquez",slug:"francisco-r.-breijo-marquez",fullName:"Francisco R. Breijo-Marquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5216",title:"Update on Essential Hypertension",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7f462a8fbbf6a1af402d2689a50a9670",slug:"update-on-essential-hypertension",bookSignature:"Lizbeth Salazar-Sanchez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5216.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73775",title:"Dr.",name:"Lizbeth",surname:"Salazar-Sanchez",slug:"lizbeth-salazar-sanchez",fullName:"Lizbeth Salazar-Sanchez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3528",title:"Cardiac Surgery",subtitle:"A Commitment to Science, Technology and Creativity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"95973b4f0e34524407c79ddb123a0d09",slug:"cardiac-surgery-a-commitment-to-science-technology-and-creativity",bookSignature:"Miguel Angel Maluf and Paulo Roberto Barbosa Evora",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3528.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"106872",title:"Prof.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Maluf",slug:"miguel-maluf",fullName:"Miguel Maluf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3815",title:"Cardiac Arrhythmias",subtitle:"Mechanisms, Pathophysiology, and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fe6dad804d0257a3922593b7861a1b74",slug:"cardiac-arrhythmias-mechanisms-pathophysiology-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Wilbert S. Aronow",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3815.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"164597",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilbert S.",surname:"Aronow",slug:"wilbert-s.-aronow",fullName:"Wilbert S. 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\r\n\tIn this book, the technological and functional properties of barley will be highlighted comprehensively. Moreover, Nutritional and bioactive profiles and barley utilization in different baking products will also be in the limelight of this book. This depiction will be valuable for all consumers from health points of view.
\r\n
\r\n\tFood security is an alarming issue in developing countries as the population is increasing day by day. So, researchers have to think about alternative sources of staple diet(wheat) that should have the same nutritional composition as compared to wheat. Among cereals, barley is an alternative source because of its nutritional and functional properties, despite all the functional ingredients it is rarely used in the food industry. From different researches, it is revealed that it contains 24 % dietary fiber, so it is beneficial for CVDs and other health-related disorders. Now a day, barley consumption is very rare. There are many barley products in the food market such as malt flour, grits, flakes, pot, and pearled barley. Bread formulations also involve the usage of barley flour and cracked barley. The possibility of high fiber barley utilization in breakfast cereals production through blending with other grains, flaking, puffing, and extrusion is becoming common. So, there is a dire need to do value addition of barley into various products. Furthermore, the most important reason for wheat replacement with barley is its allergy-causing nature in some cases. Keeping in view all of the above facts, the present book has been designed.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-924-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-923-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-925-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"996125d4599193b3b6b749f5d8aa3cb2",bookSignature:"Dr. Farhan Saeed and Dr. Muhammad Afzaal",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11793.jpg",keywords:"Cereal, Barley, Dietary Fibers, Nutritional Composition, Grains, Technology, Processing, Milling, Flour, Rheology, Bioactive Profile, Utilization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 6th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 14th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 13th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 1st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 31st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Farhan is an Assistant Professor at Government College University Faisalabad-Pakistan where he finished his Ph.D. at the age of 28 years. 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His research interests are food science and technology, food microbiology and biotechnology, microencapsulation, probiotics, prebiotics & synbiotics, biopreservation, and waste value addition.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"192244",title:"Dr.",name:"Farhan",middleName:null,surname:"Saeed",slug:"farhan-saeed",fullName:"Farhan Saeed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192244/images/system/192244.jpg",biography:"PERSONAL STATEMENT\r\nMy name is Farhan Saeed. During Master study, I received an Indigenous Fellowship from Higher Education Commission (HEC) Pakistan. The selection process was a rigorous process starting from a GRE-based test. After being short listed by HEC, part of the Fellowship was the opportunity to complete doctorate degree mainly within Food Science and Technology field. I did my Doctorate thesis entitled 'Biochemical characterization of non-starch polysaccharides in relation to end-use quality of spring wheats” under the supervision of Dr. Imran Pasha. The doctorate research was focused on value addition of bioactive components extracted from spring wheats. The addition of extracted non-starch polysaccharides enhances the quality of baked products as well as important in nutraceutical point of view. The products under proposed study were thoroughly investigated for assessment of nutritional and end use quality of bread. The output of the proposed research work was highly beneficial to the consumers as well as Government of Pakistan for their intended purposes. The awareness about nutritional significance of non-starch polysaccharides enriched bread was really set the new horizons in product development in Pakistan. In 2012, I joined Institute of Home & Food Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad as Assistant Professor. In 2014, I became HEC Approved Supervisor. During 2015, I have visited Massachusetts, Amherst, USA under Pakistan Program for Collaborative Research (PPCR), HEC Pakistan for two months training program for the development of innovative project. After that, I have been selected to receive a 2016 'Endeavour Research Fellowship” to undertake proposed program in Australia. I did work in Centre for Nutrition & Food Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia under the supervision of Professor Mike Gidley. The commencing date of current program is May 17, 2016 and the expiry is on November 15, 2016. In October, 2018. I was promoted to Tenured Associate Professor. I have published more than 70 papers in reputed journals with impact factor more than 140. I have 20 book chapters in international books. I presented research works in international level at Huazhong University Wuhan, China and Conference on Food Properties in Sharjah. I also got two research projects funds from Higher Education Commission Islamabad, Pakistan. I would like to be granted the KGSP because it will offer me with the opportunity to partake in Post-Doctoral program of Food Science and Biotechnology at Kyungpook National University (KNU) among the best universities in Korea. In my home country, vital issues stressed in this particular degree program are quite overlooked, and this scholarship program will bring me a great chance to come within reach of them. By taking this course, I am optimistic for finding innovative and effective practices to improve food production, quality and safety, keeping in view the betterment of human health; and moreover, to improve the end-product quality for maintenance of customer’s health. To sum up, winning the KGSP will enable me not only to broaden my knowledge, but also to gain experience from people and culture of both countries Korea and Pakistan. In the longer term, I sturdily desire to contribute to the cause of assuring food security and safety initially in my country and laterally worldwide. The main objective of applying here to get international exposure while working with world class food experts especially those working in the area of functional foods and nutraceuticals. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
The study of lymphocytes in microgravity has been conducted by various researchers to investigate how the immune system is altered due to the change in the gravitational pull [1, 2, 3]. Immune system adaptation during spaceflight is a concern in space medicine. Decreased circulating leukocytes observed during and after space flight infer suppressed immune responses and susceptibility to infection. Research has provided sound studies that outline the correlation between extended exposure to microgravity and inhibited activation of lymphocytes. One of the major concerns from the effects of microgravity is the potential for astronauts to be afflicted with opportunistic infections that can only be acquired through a seriously compromised immune system [4]. The microgravity aspect of the space environment has been simulated on Earth to study adverse biological effects in astronauts. It is well known that immune cell function is severely suppressed in microgravity, which renders the cells of the immune system an ideal model organism to investigate the influence of gravity on the cellular and molecular level. In lymphocytes, microgravity affected the protein kinase C [5]. The various factors in the space environment that contribute to immune dysregulation during and post-spaceflight include exposure to microgravity, stress, deconditioning (the reduced physical activity and shift of fluids), and radiation exposure. The body’s primary immune defense heavily relies on immune cell distribution and function, which can clearly be influenced by a combination or synergy of any of the factors described above that exist in the space environment. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell critical for adaptive immune responses. Of the blood cell types, lymphocytes are the most sensitive to ionizing radiation exposure.
\n
During flight, the activation of cultured human lymphocytes is depressed to less than 3% of the ground controls when exposed to Concanavalin A [4]. When human lymphocytes are exposed to microgravity in a rapidly rotating clinostat, Concanavalin A stimulated T cell activation is depressed [6]. The functionality and activation of lymphocytes is altered and compromised due to space flight. Microgravity and radiation exposure in space suppress human immune systems but, some countermeasures to rescue immune systems in microgravity have been discovered. With the emphasis of space travel being centered on finding various areas to support substantial human life outside of earth, it is imperative that we find ways to supplement a safe journey to another planet.
\n
\n
\n
2. Lymphocyte activation
\n
Earthbound living organisms, including cells, are affected by two new environmental conditions known as microgravity and cosmic radiations when introduced to space. In several experiments dedicated to space missions and simulated microgravity, evidence has shown that microgravity causes a dramatic depression of the mitogenic in vitro activation of T lymphocytes [7]. Lymphocyte activation is dependent upon cell-to-cell contact established in three ways, temporary contacts, permanent aggregation or the uptake of soluble factors such as interleukin 1. Granted, in microgravity, it has been suggested that cell-to-cell interactions are less probable or even impossible.
\n
Studies finding the reduction of lymphocyte activation during exposure to microgravity corroborates with the observations of Soviet and U.S. astronauts during the pre-Shuttle era [5]. The data also reflects the more recent data collected from 41 crew members of shuttle flights (Taylor et al., 1986) who each had declining immune functions to activate lymphocytes upon their return to earth. Additionally, recent studies are deriving similar results of a functional association between the cytoskeletal protein spectrin and PKCβ in the cytoplasm of lymphocytes [8]. PKCβ has a critical role in lymphocyte activation-related signaling, which could be disturbed by disorganization in the cytoskeleton due to gravity, resulting in a disturbed localization of signaling molecules. Results of experiments done by Dr. Chang and her colleagues indicate that microgravity was the causative factor for impaired T cell activation during spaceflight by inhibiting transactivation of key immediate early genes. [9].
\n
Microgravity plays a major role in activating the self-limiting gene expression through miR-21. In microgravity the miR-21 will maturate and accumulates causing the inhibition of translation of the target genes, thus suppressing normal immune responses that would occur at ground level [10]. The heat map found in Hughes-Fulford et al. study shows the expression of 17 significant gene targets of miR-21 from three donors that regulated differently after 1.5 h of activation. They followed the activation under normal gravity and microgravity conditions on board the ISS (P ≤ 0.05) (Figure 1). For some genes there were multiple gene probe sets targeted to different regions. Three specific genes with multiple probe sets include FASLG, TAGAP, and EGR1, each showing the same trends of significant inhibition of gene expression under different gravities. Due to their uniformity in their activation profile of normal gravity, there is evidence that after activation with concanavalin A/anti-CD28 all three donors were stimulated in similar genes and pathways. In the microgravity flown samples gene expression was low and less uniformity than the activated normal gravity samples. Consequently, some cases produced a microgravity profile almost equivalent to nonactivated samples, illustrating the suppression of gene expression in all three donors. The onboard normal gravity-activated, microgravity-activated, and nontreated control conditions varied distinctly in their profiles across the 17 predicted miR-21 gene targets, due to this, early activation gene expression could be pinpointed for each condition.
\n
Figure 1.
Heat map of 17 significant genes. Courtesy: [10]. Heat map of predicted miR-21 target genes showing differential regulation of T-cell activation after 1.5 h in microgravity (mg) and normal gravity (1 g). The Pearson’s centered metric with centroid linkage was used to enforce the grouping of the genes. Rows are comprised of the gene probes while the columns indicate the expression profiles of the donors. Using log2 normalized expression values, the scale of the heat map ranges from green (indicating downregulation) to red (indicating upregulation). The blue-labeled columns illustrate normal gravity-activated samples, in the red labeled columns microgravity-activated samples are illustrated, and yellow-labeled columns illustrate microgravity-nonactivated T cells. Seventeen unique miR-21 gene targets are depicted with differential expression in normal gravity and microgravity condition (P # 0.05; FASLG P # 0.06). Even with considerable variability in nonactivated samples and some variability in microgravity activated donors the gene expression in normal gravity-activated samples become significantly more uniform after 1.5 h of activation.
\n
In the study by Martinez et al., they compared the conditions of microgravity spaceflight, random positioning machine (RPM) and rotating wall vessel (RWV) during gene activation of iI2 and iI2r in the genes of mouse splenocyte. They were able to confirm two early activated T-cells, ligp1 and Slamf1 in which they confirmed activation of these genes for the ground samples and suppression of the mouse’s immune function in the other conditionsFigures 2 and 3.
\n
Figure 2.
Hypothesized pathways of expression and downregulation. Courtesy: [10]. Postulated actions of miR-21 and gene expression of early T-cell activation. miR-21 is known to downregulate AP1 (28), additionally the presence of its seed sequence in 39-UTR of target genes, it will also downregulate BTG2, TAGAP, SPRY2, and FASLG as miR-21 expression increases after 24 h of activation. These results suggest that miR-21 projects a self-limiting mechanism to regulate T-cell activation. It is possible that miR-21 provides a mechanism of self-limited induction regulating T-cell activation.
\n
Figure 3.
Rotatory cell culture system. Courtesy: OIPL lab, Texas Southern University. The RCCS was originally developed in NASA’s Johnson Space Center in order to simulate the microgravity conditions of space. It is structured is based on the principle of clinorotation, which is defined as the nullification of gravity’s force by slowing the rotation around one or two axes. NASA’s clinostat is a single axis device known as the rotating wall vessel (RWV), the RCCS is the commercial version of this device. The NASA rotating bioreactor simulates microgravity by gently moving the growth medium while growing cells are kept in suspension by a constant “free fall” effect.
\n
In the study of Bradley et al., they investigated how T lymphocytes recognized the antigen presenting cells like the dendritic cells which invokes T cell proliferation driven by interleukin-2 (IL-2) and other cytokines. With this activation these cells are able to function in order to kill invaders and tumors, in retrospect, during spaceflight the production of cytokines is reduced along with reduced proliferations and effector functions, symbolizing the control that gravitational forces have over the immunity function. The researchers then propose that this may be the leading cause for the opportunity for cases of viral reactivation events and opportunistic infections associated with astronauts of numerous missions. In conclusion they found that over exposed culture of T cells in SMG resulted in increased expression of the inhibitory receptor, CTLA-4. Blockade of CTLA-4 interaction with DC ligands resulted in improved T cell IL-2 production [4].
\n
In the study of the microgravity effects of embryotic growth, Shinde et al. found that their morphological changes in the EBs size and shape observed by clinorotation as compared to 1 g control EBs. The number of total EBs formed under clinorotation was less than 1 g indicating that there were no significant differences between proliferation in microgravity conditions and ground conditions. They were able to determine that the major effect of microgravity was the suppressive conditions of cardiomyogenic [11].
\n
\n
\n
3. Lymphocyte locomotion
\n
In order to foster efficient human exploration of space, various studies have been conducted to understand the fundamental role of gravity in development and function of biological organisms The effects of microgravity can be attributed to numerous physical phenomena relevant to biological research; this included but is not limited to hydrostatic pressure in fluid-filled vesicles, sedimentation of organelles, and buoyancy-driven convection of flow and heat [12]. These physical phenomena can in turn, directly and indirectly, affect cellular morphology, metabolism, locomotion, secretion of extracellular matrix and soluble signals, and assembly into functional tissues [12]. In order to start locomotion on a surface or also transmigration through the epithelium, a resting lymphocyte changes its round shape into a polarized one. This involves a reorganization of the cytoskeletal network with a collapse of the vimentin system [13]. In long-term space travel, the crewmembers are exposed to various amounts of microgravity and radiation that invoke potential hazards to the immune system. The activation of T cells is a critical point in the immune responses. In both microgravity and modeled microgravity (MMG) the receptor-mediated signaling is inhibited which is followed by diminished DNA synthesis in the peripheral blood lymphocytes, which in turn diminish lymphocyte locomotion through type I collagen [14]. Lymphocyte motility through interstitium is critically important for the immune response. It is investigated in vitro using collagen as a model matrix. Motile morphology not only includes the constriction and longitudinal contraction shape changes, but also includes clustering [15]. Clustering is random and preceded the motile morphology, which in turn preceded locomotion. Two phases of locomotory activity have been investigated: (a) native motility in lymphoid cell populations, and (b) induced motility resulting from incubation of lymphocytes with matrix, polyclonal activators, and cytokines. Much of the characterization of lymphocyte translocation has been performed on the latter model.
\n
Previous studies showed that modeled microgravity (MMG/RCCS) and Space Shuttle Missions STS-54 and STS-56) microgravity (MG) inhibit human lymphocyte locomotion [16]. Modeled microgravity also suppressed polyclonal and antigen-specific lymphocyte activation [17]. By applying video microscopy and digital scanning, we observed, both in lymphocyte samples from the RCCS and from the Shuttle missions, changes in cell shape, suggestive of a decreased ability to polarize.
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The loss of locomotory activity in microgravity, along with decreased activation, suggests that tumor allografts may not be rejected in spaceflight, since the absence of locomotion portends poor invasion of the grafted tissue. Interestingly, activation of lymphocytes prior to exposure to analog microgravity partially or completely abrogated the inhibitory effect of microgravity on lymphocyte motility. Our data suggest that the loss of locomotory function and T cell activation is probably due to lesion(s) in transmembrane signaling possibly involving calcium independent PKC isoforms such as delta and epsilon [6, 14, 18, 19]. Gene expression data from our laboratory on normal and activated peripheral blood lymphocytes cultured in modeled microgravity indicate that selective genes involved in inflammatory processes are affected by changes in gravity. Locomotion can be recovered by nutritional supplements such as nucleotides [1, 2, 20] (Ward et al., 2007).
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\n
\n
4. TH1 to TH2 transition in microgravity
\n
Mature CD4+ helper T lymphocytes have been categorized into two major functional phenotypes, TH1 and TH2. Cytokine data from crew members on short- and long-duration spaceflight showed a significant reduction of IFN-γ and IL-2 [21]. In the 45-day head down bed rest (HDBR) study designed to mimic a real space flight, they found similar decreases of IFN-γ after activation of peripheral blood T cells with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28. Additionally, there was a significant reduction of IL-17A suggesting a weakened T helper (Th1) along with Th17 types of responses. Defective T cell activation or cytokine expression, increased Th2 type cytokine production [22]. Various documentations of decreased Th-1 cytokines production have been assessed repeatedly in astronauts (Taylor et al., 1997). In most flight there is decrease in the IFNg:IL-10 ratio and a Th1:Th2 shift during space flight (Curcian et al., 2008). Th1:Th2 shift can most likely be seen in support of cell-mediated immunity during space flight (Taylor and Janney, 1992; [8]) yet unaltered humoral immunity during space flight (Fuchs and Medvedev, 1993; Stowe et al., 1993).
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\n
5. Countermeasures to rescue immune systems in microgravity
\n
Astronauts are exposed to radiation and microgravity during space missions, which causes harm to their immune systems and other negative health effects. Previous studies report that, benzofuran-2-carboxylic acid and its derivatives (KMEG) may provide protection from radiation and restore normal immune function [23] Tables 1 and 2.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Upregulated genes
\n
Fold increase
\n
Functions
\n
\n\n\n
\n
RAB17
\n
2.949
\n
Plays an important role in the regulation of membrane trafficking
\n
\n
\n
CDCA7
\n
4.537
\n
Early response gene mediating C-myc-related proliferation
\n
\n
\n
RPSA
\n
1.780
\n
Required for the assembly and/or stability of the 40S ribosomal subunit
\n
\n
\n
YME1L-1
\n
1.559
\n
Ensures cell proliferation, promotes anti-apoptotic activity and protects mitochondria from the accumulation of oxidatively damaged membrane proteins
\n
\n
\n
LY96
\n
1.482
\n
Cooperates with TLR4 in the innate immune response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
\n
\n
\n
AIF1
\n
1.338
\n
Promotes the proliferation of T-lymphocytes
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Genomic analysis of significantly upregulated T cell proliferation genes in spaceflight KMEG-treated lymphocytes (μg LT) compared to ground KMEG-treated lymphocytes (1 g LT).
The information on the functions of genes described was obtained from the Gene Card website (http://www.genecards.org/).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Downregulated genes
\n
Fold decrease
\n
Function
\n
\n\n\n
\n
ANKHD1/ANKHD1-EIF4EBP3
\n
−4.86
\n
Isoform 2 may possess an anti-apoptotic effect and protect cells during normal cell survival through its regulation of caspases.
\n
\n
\n
AVP
\n
−3.016
\n
Neurophysin 2 specifically binds vasopressin; acts as a negative regulator of innate immunity by inhibiting TLR2/TRL4 associated pattern recognition and pro-inflammatory cytokine production.
\n
\n
\n
TINAGL1
\n
−2.815
\n
Maybe implicated in the adrenocortical zonation and in mechanisms for repressing the CYP11B1. This is a non-catalytic peptidase C1 family protein.
\n
\n
\n
CDK5RAP2
\n
−2.489
\n
Potential regulator of CDK5 activity via its interaction with CDK5R1.
\n
\n
\n
FYN
\n
−2.442
\n
Non-receptor tyrosine protein kinase that plays a role in many biological processes including regulation of cell growth, survival and cell adhesion.
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Genomic analysis of significantly downregulated T cell proliferation genes in spaceflight KMEG-treated lymphocytes (μg LT) compared to ground KMEG-treated lymphocytes (1 g LT).
The information on the functions of genes described was obtained from the Gene Card website (http://www.genecards.org/).
\n
Since lymphocyte locomotion is inhibited due to gravity, direct activation of protein kinase C (PKC) bypassing cell surface events using the phorbol ester PMA rescues MMG-inhibited lymphocyte activation and locomotion. [14]. Microgravity exposure changed expression of 78 lymphocyte genes. Subsequent treatment with KMEG induced upregulation of six genes namely; CDCA 7, RAB 17, RPSA, YME1L-1, LY96, and AIF1 all involved in T cell early response, lymphocyte activation, growth and proliferation, and the downregulation of five genes namely; ANKHD1, AVP, TINAG L1, CDK5RA 2, and FYN all involved in tumor progression and metastasis. These findings suggest KMEG diminishes microgravity induced immune dysfunction, advancing development of countermeasures to lessen the risks faced by the crew members [18].
\n
Various countermeasure studies have been conducted to find different ways to rehabilitate the compromised immune system. The compromised immune system can lead to various infections as well as cancerous growths. Also discovering the ins and outs of the lymphocyte regulatory pathways can account for controlling and studying medicinal treatments for all forms or immune disorders [3].
\n
Tauber et al. [24] suggests that with all the viable information we have at our hands there is still an unanswered question as to how or by which mechanisms can the cell sense gravity to be affected. It is this question that causes them to propose that this mechanism is most important to explore because alleviating this unknown sensor may be the defying force to creating uninterrupted biological strife in space exploration. They introduce a popular model which enforces the idea that the cytoskeleton is the force that is affected and alarms the cell though unnatural tensions that there is a shift in the atmosphere, thus creating shock to the immune system.
\n
The study done by Bradley et al. [4], further supports this notion to underlining the inhibitory pathways will be a viable countermeasure to restore T cell responsiveness in astronauts during long-term spaceflight or those living in microgravity environment following stimulations. If there is a way to predict the interruption of a pathway or even mimic the mechanism of a pathway to jump start healthy immune functions, test can immediately be conducted to indicate where and when these artificial mechanisms need to be administered to imitate the natural performance of the immune responses.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusion
\n
To conclude, it is known that microgravity causes immune system modifications. Factors in the space environment contributing to immune dysregulation during and post-spaceflight include exposure to microgravity, stress, deconditioning and radiation. When human lymphocytes are exposed to microgravity in a rapidly rotating clinostat, concanavalin A stimulated T cell activation is depressed. Lymphocyte locomotion through type I collagen is diminished through the inhibition of receptor-mediated signaling in microgravity. Decreased production of Th-1 cytokines was documented repeatedly in astronauts and hence the defects in T cell activation or cytokine expression, increased Th2 type cytokine production. Although crew members and astronauts have a certain risk on their immune system due to their exposure to microgravity, some countermeasures to rescue their immune systems in microgravity have been discovered. Since lymphocyte locomotion is inhibited due to gravity, direct activation of protein kinase C bypassing cell surface events using the phorbol ester PMA rescues MMG-inhibited lymphocyte activation and locomotion. Previous studies also report that, benzofuran-2-carboxylic acid and its derivatives (KMEG) provide protection from radiation and restore normal immune function.
\n
It is very important to study both the long-term and short-term effects of microgravity as it has a suppressant nature that affects how the regulators of the immune system are readily able to function. Throughout the various pieces of literature, it is having been found that the healthy immune function depends on precise regulation of lymphocyte activation [3]. The access that these studies provide will not only help astronauts who have long-term side effects from space travel, it will also amplify the creation for solutions to repairing the compromised immune systems of people who are already on Earth. Each piece of research looks into the how lymphocytes are activated and then potentially suppressed due to their exposure to the gravitational pull of microgravity. In a study done by Thiel et al. [25] they suggest that long-term in vitro studies should be taken into consideration to have supporting detailed and prolonged data analysis in hopes to identify and understand adaptation mechanisms of the immune system in altered gravity. Additionally, Andreazzoli et al. [19], proposes that extensive knowledge of cellular and molecular mechanisms of gravity and its influence on T cells is an invaluable requirement for the provision of therapeutic or preventive targets to keep the bone and immune systems of astronauts fully functional during long-term space missions as well as regular people with immune deficiencies.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"lymphocyte, immunity, inflammation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/63816.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/63816.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63816",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63816",totalDownloads:1087,totalViews:193,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:62,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"August 27th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 17th 2018",datePublished:"January 16th 2019",dateFinished:"September 27th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The immune system is the body’s defense against infectious organisms and other invaders. It is our immune system that keeps us healthy as we drift through a sea of pathogens. Healthy immune function depends on meticulous regulation of lymphocyte activation. Previous studies have shown unfavorable effects of μg on several physiological systems, including a significant reduction of the adaptive immune response. Lymphocyte movement through interstitium is critically important for the immune response. Thus, the activation of lymphocytes depends on various factors such as cell-to-cell contact due to temporary contact, permanent aggregation or by the uptake of soluble factors such as interleukin 1. Microgravity induced loss of lymphocyte locomotory activity, along with diminished lymphocyte activation, can be counteracted by nutritional supplements such as nucleotides. A study conducted by Andreazzoli et al., proposes that the knowledge of cellular and molecular mechanisms of gravity and its influence on T cells is required for creating the provision of therapeutic and possible preventive targets to keep the bone and immune systems of astronauts fully functional during long-term space missions, in addition to aiding regular people with immune deficiencies. When an immune system is compromised it can lead to various infections as well as cancerous growths. Discovering the ins and outs of the lymphocyte regulatory pathways can account for controlling and studying medicinal treatments for all forms or immune disorders. Therefore, studying both the long-term and short-term effects of microgravity is of great significance, as it has an invalidation nature that affects how the regulators of the immune system are readily able to function.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/63816",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/63816",book:{id:"6969",slug:"lymphocytes"},signatures:"Vivek Mann, Elvis Okoro, Ayodotun Sodipe, Courtney Williams,\nPatricia Ngantcha and Alamelu Sundaresan",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Lymphocyte activation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Lymphocyte locomotion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. TH1 to TH2 transition in microgravity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Countermeasures to rescue immune systems in microgravity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Sundaresan A, Pellis NR. Human adaptation genetic response suites: Towards formulating new interventions and countermeasures for spaceflight. Journal of Gravitational Physiology. 2005;12(1):P229-P232\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Sundaresan A, Kulkarni AD, Yamauchi K, Pellis NR. The role of nucleotides in augmentation of lymphocyte locomotion: Adaptational countermeasure development in microgravity analog environments. Microgravity Science and Technology. 2006;18(Feb):247-249\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Martinez EM, Yosida MC, Candelario TLT, Hughes-Fulford M. Spaceflight and simulated microgravity cause a significant reduction of key gene expression in early T-cell activation. American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 2015;308:R480-R488\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Bradley JH, Stein R, Randolph B, Molina E, Arnold JP, Gregg RK. T cell resistance to activation by dendritic cells requires long-term culture in simulated microgravity. Life Sciences in Space Research. 2017;15:55-61\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Schmitt DA, Hatton JP, Emond C, Chaput D, Paris H, Levade T, et al. The distribution of protein kinase C in human leukocytes is altered in microgravity. The FASEB Journal. 1996;10:1627-1634\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Walther I, Pippia P, Meloni MA, Turrini F, Mannu F, et al. Simulated microgravity inhibits the genetic expression of interleukin-2 and its receptor in mitogen-activated T lymphocytes. FEBS Letters. 1998;436:115-118\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Pippia P, Galleri G, Meloni MA, Saba A, Pani G, Cogoli-Greuter M, et al. Stress challenges and immunity in space. In: Choukèr A, editor. From Mechanisms to Monitoring, and Preventive Strategies. 2011. pp. 170-228\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Gregorio CC, Repasky EA, Fowler VM, Black JD. Dynamic properties of ankyrin in T lymphocytes: Colocalization with spectrin and protein kinase Cβ. The Journal of Immunology. 1994;125:345-358\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Chang TT, Walther I, Li C-F, Boonyaratanakornkit J, Galleri G, Meloni MA, et al. Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 2012 Dec;92(6):1133-1145\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Hughes-Fulford M, Chang TT, Martinez EM, Li C. Spaceflight alters expression of microRNA during T-cell activation. The FASEB Journal. 2015;29:4893-4900\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Shinde V, Brungs S, Henry M, Wegener L, Nemade H, Rotshteyn T, et al. Simulated microgravity modulates differentiation processes of embryonic stem cells. Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry. 2016;38:1483-1499\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Freed LE, Vunjak-Novakovic G. Spaceflight bioreactor studies of cells and tissues. Advances in Space Biology and Medicine. 2002;8:177-195 Review. PubMed PMID: 12951697\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Brown MJ, Hallam JA, Liu Y, Yamada KM, Shaw S. Cutting edge: Integration of human T lymphocyte cytoskeleton by the cytolinker Plectin. The Journal of Immunology. 2001;167:641-645\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Cogoli A, Tschopp A, Fuchs-Bislin P. Cell sensitivity to gravity. Science. 1984;225:228-230\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Wilkinson PC. Relation between locomotion, chemotaxis and clustering of immune cells. Immunology. 1990 Jan;69(1):127-133\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Pellis NR, Goodwin TJ, Risin D, McIntyre BW, Pizzini RP, Cooper D, et al. Changes in gravity inhibit lymphocyte locomotion through type I collagen. In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology. Animal. May 1997;33(5):393\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Cooper D, Pellis NR. Suppressed PHA activation of T lymphocytes in simulated microgravity is restored by direct activation of protein kinase C. Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 1998;63(5):550-562\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Okoro E, Mann V, Ellis I, Mansoor E, Olamigoke L, Marriott KC, et al. Immune modulation in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) (lymphocytes) in response to benzofuran-2-carboxylic acid derivative KMEG during spaceflight. Microgravity Science and Technology. 2017;29(4):331-336. DOI: 10.1007/s12217-017-9551-z\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Andreazzoli M, Angeloni D, Broccoli V, Demontis GC. Microgravity, stem cells, and embryonic development: Challenges and opportunities for 3D tissue generation. Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Science. 2017;4:1-7\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Sundaresan A, Pellis NR. Cellular and genetic adaptation in low gravity environments gene regulation in modeled microgravity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2009;1161:135-146\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Gridley DS, Nelson GA, Peters LL, Kostenuik PJ, Bateman TA, et al. Genetic models in applied physiology: Selected contribution: Effects of spaceflight on immunity in the C57BL/6 mouse. II. Activation, cytokines, erythrocytes, and platelets. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2003;94:2095-2103\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Xu X et al. Changes of cytokines during a spaceflight analog–A 45-day head-down bed rest. PLoS One. 2013;8(10):e77401\n'},{id:"B23",body:'NanoRacks. The Investigation of Countermeasures to Modulate and Augment the Immune System. NanoRacks-ISS University Research (UR). Webster Texas: Nanoracks; 2017. p. 1\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Tauber S, Hauschild S, Paulsen K, Gutewort A, Raig C, Hurlimann E, et al. Signal transduction in primary human T lymphocytes in altered gravity during parabolic flight and clinostat experiments. Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry. 2015;35:1034-1051\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Thiel CS, Lauber BA, Polzer J, Ullrich O. Time course of cellular and molecular regulation in the immune system in altered gravity: Progressive damage or adaptation? REACH-Reviews in Human Space Exploration. 2017;5:22-32\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Vivek Mann",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Biology, Texas Southern University, Houston, USA
Department of Biology, Texas Southern University, Houston, USA
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1. Introduction
Protein is not only significant as an energy source, but also as a component of the body, such as muscle and connective tissue, and as a physiological function substance, such as enzymes, hormones, and immune antibodies.
On the other hand, the problem of food shortage (in particular, protein) due to global population growth is becoming increasingly serious. Because of the economic development of emerging countries, people who used to consume energy from “carbohydrates” such as bread and rice are now tending to consume “proteins” such as meat and seafood as a luxury item, and there are concerns about a shortage of protein supply on a global scale. Under these circumstances, the effective use of plant proteins as a protein source has been attracting attention. Plant proteins have been considered to be less adaptable to human tastes in terms of flavor and physical properties than animal proteins, but recent superior food processing technologies have led to the marketing of “delicious” plant protein foods that are at the same level as animal protein foods.
It has been reported that plant proteins, especially soy proteins, have beneficial functions to improve and prevent lifestyle-related diseases that cannot be overcome by animal proteins, which are currently prevalent all over the world. The US Food and Drug Administration [FDA] has approved the health claim for food labelling that the consumption of 25 g of soy protein per day reduces the risk of heart disease [1]. In Japan, the Consumer Affairs Agency [formerly the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare] has allowed the health labelling of soy protein as a food for specified health use “to people who are concerned about cholesterol levels” [FOSHU].
The beneficial physiological effects of soy protein are presumed to be due to anti-inflammatory properties. The anti-inflammatory effect of soy protein is enhanced by its processing into peptides. Indeed, it has been reported that soy peptides suppress muscle inflammation pain relief in rheumatoid arthritis and ameliorate inflammatory bowel disease.
Recently, it is being reported that not only soy proteins, but also some legume-derived proteins have excellent physiological effects that are similar to, or even absent from, soy proteins. In this chapter, the author 1] introduces the beneficial physiological effects of soy protein for MetS, CKD and inflammation; 2] reports that these effects acted complementarily when used in combination with drugs; and 3] suggests other legume-derived proteins as alternatives to soy protein as novel proteins from legumes with beneficial physiological functions.
By understanding these findings, it is hoped that plant proteins will be used more actively to contribute to the improvement of human health, as well as their value as protein nutrition, which is in short supply worldwide.
2. Soy protein and peptides
2.1 Soy protein for metabolic syndrome (MetS)
The concept of MetS has been proposed by several committees. The first formalized concept of MetS was proposed by a consultation group for the definition of diabetes for the World Health Organization (WHO); it was determined to have a high-risk status with multiple risk factors for cardiovascular disease. This group emphasized insulin resistance as the major underlying factor [2]. In 2001, a definition for MetS was devised by the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Adult Treatment Panel III (ATP III) [3]. The American Heart Association and the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute updated this definition in 2005 [4]. This updated definition is one of the most widely used criteria for MetS. The International Diabetes Foundation (IDF) published new criteria for MetS [5] in 2005. Although it includes the same general criteria as the other definitions, it requires that obesity, but not necessarily insulin resistance, be present. Although visceral obesity is now recognized as an important factor, the IDF definition has been criticized for its emphasis on obesity, rather than insulin resistance, in pathophysiology [6].
In Japan, in 2006, MetS was defined as a multiple risk factor clustering syndrome caused by visceral fat accumulation and insulin resistance that accompanies this accumulation [7]. In the MetS stage, it is advocated that lifestyle intervention to reduce visceral adiposity should be given priority over drug treatment. Subjects with multiple risk factor syndrome were diagnosed with MetS if their visceral fat areas determined by CT scan were over 100 cm2.
The Japanese Committee for the Definition and Diagnosis of MetS aimed to select subjects with multiple risk factors in which lifestyle modification to reduce visceral adiposity has priority over drug treatment [8]. For this purpose, the Japanese government started a new health policy that provides a specific health check-up followed by specific counseling for subjects diagnosed with MetS according to the Japanese criteria from 2008.
Soy protein exerts not only conventional nutritional value but also beneficial effects on human health. Many randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have assessed the effects of soy products on serum lipids. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have reported improvements in lipid metabolism (Table 1) [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
Title
Number of articles
Number of total subjects
Outcome [significant difference]
Reference
Meta-analysis of the effects of soy protein intake on serum lipids.
A Meta-Analysis of 46 Studies Identified by the FDA Demonstrates that Soy Protein Decreases Circulating LDL and Total Cholesterol Concentrations in Adults.
The effects of isolated soy protein, isolated soy isoflavones and soy protein containing isoflavones on serum lipids in postmenopausal women: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Meta-analysis on improving lipid metabolism in soy protein.
Note: ↓ and ↑ signs represent decrease and increase, respectively, after supplement of active compounds. Total-cholesterol (Total-C); low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C); triglyceride (TG); high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C); non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C); apo-lipoprotein-B (Apo-B); apo-lipoprotein-AI (Apo-AI).
Soy protein isolate [SPI] is composed of three major components, glycinin [approx. 40%], β-conglycinin [approx. 20%], and lipophilic proteins (approx. 40%) [17]. Glycinin and β-conglycinin are storage proteins in soy, and lipophilic proteins consist primarily of membrane proteins. Among these components, β-conglycinin has the function of lowering serum triglycerides preferentially over serum cholesterol [18]. Digestive decomposition products of β-conglycinin were reported that lowering the activity of fatty acid synthase and increasing the activities of β-oxidation enzymes, and the fecal excretion of TG was high in β-conglycinin-fed mice and rats [19, 20]. Therefore, in the calculation based on the recommendation by the FDA, the same effect can be expected with 5 g of β-conglycinin. In clinical study, daily consumption of 5 g of β-conglycinin per subject significantly lowered serum TG concentrations, and the apo B and VLDL-TG concentrations were significantly decreased [21]. Hence, β-conglycinin consumption may specifically affect TG metabolism. In addition, the intake of 5 g of β-conglycinin per day decreased the body fat ratio and visceral fat [21, 22]. Additionally, serum adiponectin significantly increased with the consumption of β-conglycinin, and serum free fatty acids in the β-conglycinin group were significantly decreased. Tachibana et al. showed that β-conglycinin improves insulin sensitivity in rats [23]. β-conglycinin might be an important food component for the prevention and/or amelioration of visceral fat syndrome, which is also called MetS (Table 2) [21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27].
Study title
Design of study
Number of subjects
Duration of study
Dose of β-conglycinin
Outcome [significant difference]
Reference
Decrease in serum triacylglycerol and visceral fat mediated by dietary soybean β-conglycinin*1.
Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study
Clinical studies for lipid metabolism improvements of β-conglycinin.
Note: *1; Test 1 is an examination of the serum triglyceride level and Test 2 is a measure of visceral fat by means of CT scanning. ↓ and ↑ signs represent decrease and increase, respectively, after supplement of β-conglycinin. Triglyceride (TG); apo-lipoprotein-B (Apo-B); very low-density lipoprotein triglyceride (VLDL-TG); high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C); apo-lipoprotein-CII (Apo-CII); low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C); non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA); fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21); brown adipo tissue activity (BAT act).
2.2 Soy protein for chronic kidney disease
Chronic kidney disease [CKD] is a major public health burden, with a global prevalence of ~11% in the general adult population [28]. If left untreated, CKD slowly progresses to end-stage renal disease, which requires dialysis or kidney transplant. Worldwide, a 31.7% increase in CKD mortality was observed over the last decade [29]. Effective interventions to prevent and delay the progression of CKD are well recognized. Prevention should start at the government level with the institution of multisectoral polices supporting sustainable development goals [SDGs] and ensuring safe and healthy environments.
CKD is bidirectionally associated with MetS and cardiovascular diseases [CVDs] [30, 31], and diabetic nephropathy [DN] is a complication of diabetes [32]. Moreover, it has been reported that 40% of patients undergoing dialysis are doing so because of DN [33], and approximately 50% of type II diabetes patients exhibit urinary albumin disease, which is an early stage of DN [34].
For CKD prevention, it is important to gain insight about commonly consumed foods and beverages in relation to kidney function. A report has been published in which PubMed was comprehensively searched for papers published until August 2019 describing prospective cohort studies and was supplemented by manual searches of reference lists from appropriate studies [35]. In this report, there was convincing evidence that a healthy dietary pattern may lower CKD risk. Red (processed) meat, poultry, fish, dairy, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and fruits were recommended foods for CKD patients. Dietary patterns were recommended adherence to the Dietary Approach to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, Mediterranean diet, and other healthy dietary patterns. As unhealthy diets, high-fat and high-sugar diets and high-acid-loaded diets were pointed out. In the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities [ARIC] study of ~12,000 US participants with 23 years of follow-up, consumption of legumes was significantly associated with lower risks of CKD, with an HR of 0.83 [95% CI, 0.72; 0.95] for high versus low intakes [36]. Soy protein, which is representative of legumes, has been reported to suppress the progression of DN [37, 38]. The effects of soy protein on DN/CKD in clinical trials are summarized in Table 3 [39, 40, 41, 42, 43].
Study title
Design of study
Number of subjects
Duration of study
Outcome [significant difference]
Reference
Soy protein intake, cardiorenal indices, and c-reactive protein in type 2 diabetes with nephropathy.
Summary of clinical studies by soy protein for CKD.
Note: ↓ sign represents decrease, after supplement of soy protein. Fasting plasma glucose [FPG]; total-cholesterol (Total-C); low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C); C-reactive protein [CRP], blood urea nitrogen (BUN).
Kidney disease patients are carefully monitored for protein intake, and restricted protein intake according to the progression of their condition by doctors and nutritionists. However, there are some reports showing that mild protein restriction does not suppress the progression of kidney disease [44, 45, 46]. Therefore, it is necessary to consider not only the quantity but also the quality of protein. Legumes, including soy protein, can be regarded as very significant proteins to help treat nephropathy.
2.3 Anti-inflammatory roles of soy protein and peptides
Inflammation can occur when infectious microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi invade the body and circulate in the blood, and/or when they enter certain tissues [47, 48]. Inflammation can also occur during the course of pathologies such as tissue damage, cell death, cancer, ischemia, and degeneration [49, 50, 51].
There are reports of the anti-inflammatory effects of soy protein and its hydrolysate peptides [52]. Among them, lunasin is considered one of the most studied bioactive peptides. Since its discovery in soybean twenty years ago, many researchers around the world have focused their studies on demonstrating the chemo preventive and chemotherapeutic activity of lunasin [53, 54, 55]. Lunasin is a 44 amino acid peptide isolated from soy that has three domains implicated in anticancer activity: an RGD motif [Arg-Gly-Asp], a helical domain with a sequence conserved in chromatin binding proteins [Glu-Lys-His-Ile-Met-Glu-Lys-Ile], and a poly-aspartic acid tail [56]. Lunacin has been reported to have unique antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties, and to play an important role in the regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis in the body [57]. Lunacin has potential as a dietary supplement by its high bioavailability and thermal stability.
Trypsin digests of soy proteins revealed that the sequence MITLAIPVNKPGR was able to stimulate phagocytosis in leukocytes. This peptide derived from β-conglycinin was named “Soymetide”. The Met at its N-terminus was essential for its activity [58]. Four residues of the C-terminal residues of Soymetide-13 could be removed to form Soymetide-9 [MITLAIPVN], which had the highest activity. In these 9 residues [Soymetide-9], Soymetide-4 [MITL] is the minimal sequence required for its activity [58].
Soy protein with or without isoflavones was shown to reduce oxidative stress and have anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting nuclear factor-kappa B [NF-κB] and blocking the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in model rats and mouse. In clinical study by subjects with end-stage renal disease and healthy women over 70 years of age, their oxidative stress and inflammatory symptom were reduced [59]. The bioactive peptides RQRK and VIK were produced by digestion with pepsin and pancreatin from soy milk. These peptides inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in murine macrophages and the production of nitric oxide, interleukin [I])-1, nitric oxide synthase, and cyclooxygenase-2 [60].
Inflammatory bowel disease [IBD] is an intractable disease that causes inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract. Ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease are the two major pathologies of IBD [61]. Ulcerative colitis is a non-specific inflammatory disorder that causes ulcers and erosion, primarily in the colonic mucosa. Young et al. revealed that soy peptides were effective in preventing dextran sulphate sodium[(DSS)-induced colitis in pigs [62]. The soy-derived tripeptide Val-Pro-Tyr [VPY] has been reported that anti-inflammatory effects in Caco-2 and THP-1 macrophages and inhibition of the secretion of IL-8 and TNF-α in a DSS-induced colitis model mouse [63]. They suggested that tripeptide VPY from soy peptides may be promising for the treatment of IBD.
Insulin resistance and diabetes has revealed to relate closely between nutrient excess and activation of the innate immune system in most organs pertinent to energy homeostasis by the research for a mechanism linking the pathogenesis of obesity over the past two decades [64, 65, 66]. Inflammation has been revealed to occur as a consequence of obesity, and to play a causative role in generating insulin resistance, defective insulin secretion [i.e., MetS), and disruption of other aspects of energy homeostasis by recent many studies. It has been reported that the suppressive effect of soy protein on the progression of CKD/DN, which is highly related to MetS, is also exerted by the anti-inflammatory effect in renal tubules [67]. From such a close relationship between MetS and inflammation, it is easy to predict that the beneficial effect of soy protein on MetS may be due to its anti-inflammatory effect.
3. Complementary effects of soy protein/peptide in combination with drugs
3.1 Effect of combined use with anti-hyperlipidaemic drugs
The mechanism by which soy protein lowers cholesterol differs from that of statins and fibrates. Soy protein lowers serum cholesterol levels by acting as a bile acid sequestrant, which binds bile in the gastrointestinal tract to prevent its reabsorption by performing the same anion exchange reaction as the resin cholestyramine [68, 69].
Statins and fibrates are drugs developed to improve blood lipid levels. Statins are known as the most efficient agents for reducing plasma cholesterol. Statins target hepatocytes and inhibit 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A [HMG-CoA] reductase in cholesterol metabolism. Accordingly, statin and soy protein are expected to act additively or synergistically to decrease cholesterol levels. There are known serious side effects from statins, including muscle symptoms, rhabdomyolysis [secondary renal failure due to destruction of specific muscle tissue], peripheral neuropathy, myopathy, liver dysfunction, and thrombocytopenia [70, 71, 72, 73]. Rhabdomyolysis often induces sudden kidney failure [74]. Fibrates, which are antagonists of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α [PPARα], are used in adjunct therapy for hypertriglyceridemia and are usually used in combination with statins. As fibrate-related side effects, the slight gastric region discomfort and myopathy [myalgia with increased creatinine phosphokinase] have been reported. In addition, increasing of the gallstones risk has been known by fibrates because of increasing of cholesterol in the bile duct. Use in combination of statins and fibrates is reported to even more raise the risk of rhabdomyolysis. So, combination use of these two agents is contraindicated in principle.
Nabiki et al. examined the effects of SPI on weight loss, markers of diabetes, and parameters of dyslipidaemia in obese diabetic patients by treated with statins and/or fibrates because of high levels of LDL cholesterol and triglycerides [75]. As a result, body weights of these patients decreased significantly by approximately 1 kg and their waist circumferences got thinner significantly by approximately 2 cm. Total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein B, and glycated hemoglobin levels of these patients decreased significantly, and HDL cholesterol levels increased significantly. In addition, a lipid metabolism-improving effect was also observed in patients who did not decrease weight. Therefore, it was suggested that the improving effect of lipid metabolism-related factors in these patients was not only due to weight loss but also a direct effect of soy protein. Use of soy protein may help to reduce the drug dose for dyslipidaemia. SPI is recommended for patients with mild dyslipidaemia prior to drug therapy or for maladaptive disease patients, such as those who have side effects from medications.
Combination prescription of fibrates and statins for patients with renal dysfunction and dyslipidaemia is contraindicated. Thus, physicians are unable to adequately treat lipid abnormalities for chronic kidney disease patients. It has been reported that when chronic kidney disease patients with dyslipidaemia ingested β-conglycinin, a major component of soy protein, for 3 months, triglyceride and LDL cholesterol levels improved. Renal function during the consumption period of β-conglycinin showed a tendency to improve despite protein intake [76]. β-conglycinin may help improve lipid abnormalities in patients with renal dysfunction as a complementary medical food material without decreasing kidney function. Moreover, β-conglycinin may improve renal dysfunction as a direct and/or secondary effect of ameliorating lipid abnormalities.
3.2 Concomitant effect with rheumatoid arthritis drug
Rheumatoid arthritis is due to inflammation triggered by an immune response to autoantigens. Many of these patients have swelling and pain due to polyarticular arthritis. Their pain interferes with activities of daily living [ADLs], such as cleaning, washing, dressing, and undressing. These patients are anxious for more comfortable ADLs with reduced pain. The mechanisms of onset of rheumatoid arthritis have been reported in many studies. Based on these results, numerous new therapeutic agents have been developed.
As a specific case of improved inflammation, outpatients with rheumatoid arthritis consumed soy peptide with therapeutic drugs and the levels of IL-6 and IL-1β were significantly lower in the soy peptide group than the placebo group [77]. An increase in blood IL-6 levels is associated with extra-articular symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis, such as general malaise, loss of appetite, weight loss, and a slight fever. The Disease Activity Score 28 [DAS 28, objective assessment of rheumatoid arthritis disease activity by physicians] and the Clinical Disease Activity Index [CDAI, patient’s own subjective indicator of rheumatoid arthritis disease activity] were calculated from the degree of ADLs’ improvement, the severity of pain, and subjective symptoms recorded by visual analogue scale [VAS]. The DAS 28 score of the peptide group was markedly decreased, and the CDAI of the peptide group was significantly lower than that in the placebo group.
These effects on cytokines were also evident in a cell experiment using articular chondrocytes from patients with rheumatoid arthritis [78]. In this in vitro cell study, treatment with soy peptide significantly suppressed the mRNA levels of MMP-3 and ADAMTS-4 enhanced by IL-1β stimulation. This finding also suggests that soy peptides may prevent the degradation of articular cartilage.
4. Physiological effects of other legume proteins
Soy protein has excellent health benefits, but many soybeans grown in the world are genetically modified organisms [GMOs]. There is no problem with the safety of GMO soybeans. However, from the perspective of security, the use of soy protein in foods tends to be withheld. Recently, the use of pea and lupin proteins instead of soy protein has increased worldwide. Initially, pea protein was a substitute for soybean protein as an ingredient with physical characteristics functions, after that, its beneficial health function has been reported mainly in sports nutrition. Mung bean protein has a structure very similar to that of β-conglycinin. Mung bean protein has been reported to be responsible for the beneficial physiological functions reported for β-conglycinin.
4.1 Pea protein
Field pea [Pisum sativum L.] is grown in 84 different countries and constitutes the largest percentage [36%] of total pulse production worldwide [79]. Global pea production has continuously increased over the last 30 years. In 2008, field pea was cultivated on over 10 million hectares worldwide with a total world production of 12.13 million tons [80]. The top 5 countries for pea production are Canada, Russia, China, India and the USA. The global market for pea protein is expected to reach 34.8 million US dollars by 2020 [81]. The physical and chemical properties of pea protein can significantly influence its behaviors in food processing, storage and consumption [82, 83].
Life expectancy continues to increase worldwide. In the United States, adults 65 years of age and older are projected to more than double from 600 million to 1.6 billion worldwide between 2015 and 2050 [84]. Proper body composition, physical fitness, and a healthy appetite have been reported to lead to successful aging with higher performance [85, 86]. Skeletal muscle mass and strength begin to decline at age 30, and the rate of these losses accelerates at age 60 [87]. Protein ingestion strongly increases muscle protein synthesis rates [88]. Amino acids serve as precursors for de novo muscle protein synthesis and can act as strong signaling molecules activating translation initiation via the mechanistic/mammalian target of rapamycin complex-1 (mTORC1) pathway [89]. It was shown that BCAA ingestion increases myofibrillar protein synthesis rates during recovery from exercise only in young males [90]. Whey protein isolate [WPI] was used as the animal protein source because of its high concentration of BCAAs and its ability to increase satiety in response to a mixed meal [91]. While whey protein supplementation is known to enhance adaptations to resistance training, not all athletes are able or willing to consume whey or animal proteins. Vegetarian athletes who want to stick to a plant-based diet or those with restrictions on other animal foods often rely on other plant proteins as an equivalent alternative to whey protein [92]. Self-identify as vegetarian in just over 5% of U.S. adults aged 18–34 years and self-awareness as vegan in more than half of these respondents are reported in a 2016 Harris Poll conducted by the Vegetarian Resource Group [93]. Meat Free Mondays’ movement and an upsurge of plant-based protein food products in the marketplace strongly reflect the recent acceptance of these lifestyles [94].
Field pea contains a well-balanced amino acid profile [95]. Because of its availability, low cost, nutritional value and health benefits, pea protein has been widely used as a substitute for soybean or animal proteins in various functional applications [96, 97, 98, 99]. Pea protein can also be used as a nutritional supplement for sports and exercises. Pea protein is an excellent source of BCAAs and has high and balanced contents of leucine, isoleucine and valine. Indeed, there are reports that pea protein is as useful as whey protein in sports nutrition (Table 4) [100, 101, 102, 103].
Study title
Design of study
Number of subjects
Duration of study
Outcome [significant difference]
Reference
Pea proteins oral supplementation promotes muscle thickness gains during resistance training: a double-blind, randomized, Placebo-controlled clinical trial vs. Whey protein.
Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study
Clinical studies of pea protein for sports nutrition.
Note: ↓ and ↑ signs represent decrease and increase, respectively, after supplement of active compounds [pea protein only or, pea and whey proteins].
In the future, pea protein is expected to be widely used as a sports nutritional supplement as well as a physical and functional ingredient in place of soybean protein.
4.2 Lupin protein
Lupin (Lupinus L.) is an ancient pulse “bean” crop, and in the new genus of modern agriculture, the lupin seeds have great potential for high-protein food, animal feed, food potential, soil fertility improvement, plants as cover crops, crop residues as stable feed, and soil improvement [104, 105]. Lupin is well known for its ability to fix nitrogen and grow on infertile soils, and is further known to be valuable in terms of cropping rotations during the growing season in agriculture with cereals, hay, oilseeds, beans of other legumes, and disease break crops for pasture [104, 106]. Wild indigenous lupins have bitter alkaloids. All modern species of L. angustifolius have total alkaloid levels in seeds of up to 200 mg/kg [0.02%] or less, which is 100 times lower than the seed alkaloid levels of nearly wild types. Compared to almost all food crops, lupins have only recently become of interest in modern crop breeding.
There has been considerable interest in lupin seeds recently, and as a human health food, the seeds are very high in dietary fiber, gluten-free, and virtually starch-free, and therefore have a very low glycemic impact [107]. What makes lupins even more valuable is that there are no genetically modified (GM) bean varieties under commercial cultivation. World production of lupin seed increased quickly in the 1970s and is dominated by Australian production.
Lupin seeds are high in protein, with levels similar to soybeans. Their grains are also known to be high in total dietary fiber, ~40 g/100 g dry matter, making lupins unique among ancient grains and beans. The main category of protein in lupin grains is globulin, with albumin making up the remainder. The major globulin categories are α-conglutin [35–37 g/100 g total protein], β-conglutin [44–45 g/100 g total protein], γ-conglutin [4–5 g/100 g total protein], and δ-conglutin [10–12 g/100 g total protein] [108, 109, 110, 111]. Nutritionally, the limiting amino acids in lupin protein are the sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine [112]. Compared to soy protein, which have a more complete essential amino acid profile, the lupin protein was reported to be slightly below the required level of sulfur-containing amino acids needed by adults [113]. However, Singla et al. reported that the sulfur-containing amino acid levels of lupin protein were similar to those of soy [114]. This discrepancy is probably due to differences in lupin protein varieties and production environments. Carvajal-Larenas et al. reviewed in detail the amino acid composition of whole lupin seeds and concluded that it varies slightly among species. In vitro digestibility is ~98% high for uncooked lupin protein and is similar to soybean [115].
In vitro models of Lupinus albus γ-conglutin have shown the biological activity that enhances insulin and metformin activity on intracellular glucose consumption, indicating the potential for regulation on blood glucose by γ-conglutin [116]. As a possible improvement of lipid metabolism, an increase in LDL receptor activity has been demonstrated by HepG2 cells [117]. Furthermore, isolated lupin proteins of have been reported to have hyperlipidemic, anti-atherogenic, and hypocholesterolemic effects in rabbits, rats, and chickens [118, 119]. Several clinical human studies have shown that lupin protein decreases total and LDL cholesterol, as well as triglyceride and reduce the glycaemic response (Table 5) [120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127].
Title
Design of study
Number of total subjects
Outcome [significant difference]
Reference
Lupin protein compared to casein lowers the LDL cholesterol: HDL cholesterol-ratio of hypercholesterolemic adults
Lupin protein positively affects plasma LDL cholesterol and LDL:HDL cholesterol ratio in hypercholesterolemic adults after four weeks of supplementation: a randomized, controlled crossover study
Randomized, controlled, double-blind crossover study
Clinical studies of lupin protein on improving lipid and glucose metabolisms.
Note: ↓ and ↑ signs represent decrease and increase, respectively, after supplement of active compounds. Total-cholesterol (Total-C); low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C); triglyceride (TG); high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C).
In general, the anti-nutrient factor of lupins is considered to be low compared to other legumes such as soybeans. Specifically, protease inhibitors are present at very low levels and are of minor importance in lupin crops. Trypsin inhibitor activity is described as “negligible” in Lupinus species, “very strong” at 43–84 trypsin inhibitor units [TIU/mg] in soybeans, and high [17–51 TIU/mg] in common beans [128]. Bitter lupin seed varieties contain quinolizine alkaloids, which may be toxic to humans. These toxic effects were recently reviewed by Carvajal-Larenes et al. [115]. Therefore, its maximum legal level of 0.02 g/100 g lupine powder and food has been legislated in several countries. There were no differences in alkaloids in grains among commercial L. angustifolius cultivars from western Australia in the same region and season, and all samples were below the levels permitted for maximum human food use.
Lupin protein, a legume, is a plant protein with similar attributes to soybean protein [129] and can be a substitute for soybean in the food industry [130, 131]. Further extensive research is expected due to the need for alternatives to animal proteins.
4.3 Mung bean protein
The mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) is one of the most important edible legume crops, grown on more than 6 million ha worldwide (approximately 8.5% of the global pulse area) and consumed by most households in Asia [132]. For individuals who cannot afford animal proteins or those who are vegetarian, mung bean is comparatively low cost and is a good source of protein. Furthermore, mung bean protein is more easily digestible than protein in other legumes [133]. In addition to the nutritional properties of mung bean, it has been known that mung beans have various physical regulation functions from ancient times. In the Compendium of Materia Medica (the “Bencao Gangmu”), a well-known Chinese pharmacopeia, mung beans have recorded to be utilized as a traditional Chinese medicine for its detoxification activities, recuperation of mentality, ability to alleviate heat stroke, and regulation of gastrointestinal upset.
Mung bean protein isolate (MuPI) dose-dependently reduced plasma lipid levels, such as total cholesterol, triglycerides, and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [non-HDL-C] in hamsters [134, 135]. The mechanism underlying the cholesterol-lowering activity of mung bean protein was speculated to increase fecal bile acid and sterol excretion and decrease cholesterol absorption and synthesis. This mechanism is the same as that reported for SPI [68, 69]. In another study, MuPI was found to lower blood triglyceride levels in normal rats by inducing adiponectin and reducing triglyceride synthesis via insulin signaling [136]. This mechanism is the same as that reported for β-conglycinin [23]. From these findings, MuPI can be expected to be more effective in improving lipid metabolism. The main component of MuPI, accounting for over 80% of the protein, is 8S globulin. 8S globulin exhibited the highest degree of sequence identity [68%] and structural similarity with β-conglycinin [137, 138]. MuPI is expected to exhibit a four times stronger beneficial function on human health than SPI, in which β-conglycinin accounts for only 20% of the total protein.
The positive effects of MuPI on glucose metabolism in pre-diabetes patients was confirmed. In recent double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, the test group subjects were instructed to consume a total of 2.5 g of MuPI twice daily for 12 weeks, with pre-diabetes [fasting plasma glucose level of 110–125 mg/dL or 2-h plasma glucose level of 140–200 mg/dL by the 75-g glucose tolerance test]. In this study, MuPI was shown to suppress to increase fasting plasma glucose and insulin levels compared to the placebo group. Triglyceride levels significantly decreased in subjects with hyperlipidaemia [139]. Another double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of 44 healthy subjects showed that after consumption of 3.0 g/d MuPI for 8 weeks, insulin levels and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance values significantly decreased, and plasma glucose levels showed a downtrend, although it was not significant [140]. The lack of a beneficial effect of MuPI on blood glucose concentrations may be attributed to the exclusion of volunteers with abnormal blood glucose concentrations in this study. In this study, the body compositions of subjects were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. As a result, a decrease in body fat mass and an increase in lean body mass in the test group were revealed. Conversely, in the control group, body fat mass increased and lean body mass decreased. The differences in body fat mass and lean body mass within each group and between the test and control groups were not statistically significant. However, the adiponectin level in the test group significantly increased, and it decreased in the control group. There was a significant difference between the net changes in the test and control groups [140]. These findings indicate that MuPI might improve insulin sensitivity by decreasing the accumulation of visceral fat.
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease [NAFLD] represents a spectrum of liver diseases involving hepatocyte dysfunction caused by hepatic triglyceride accumulation in these cells. The prevalence of NAFLD has increased with the increased prevalence of obesity and metabolic syndrome. NAFLD is now a common disease, affecting 30% of the US population and 20% of Asian and European populations [141]. Rodent studies have shown that SPI intake reduces hepatic triglyceride accumulation [142, 143]. The detailed mechanism underlying the hepatic triglyceride-reducing effect of SPI remains to be elucidated, but β-conglycinin is likely to play an important role [135]. Indeed, the administration of purified β-conglycinin results in an even stronger reduction in hepatic triglycerides than SPI administration [18, 144]. From these results, it is expected that MuPI also has a preventive effect on NAFLD by preventing hepatic triglyceride accumulation. The effect of MuPI on hepatic triglyceride accumulation elucidated the potential ability of MuPI to prevent NAFLD onset and progression in experiments using an atherogenic diet-induced NASH mouse model in mice fed a normal-fat or high-fat diet [145]. In the abovementioned clinical trial [140], Alanine aminotransferase [ALT] levels increased slightly in the control group, whereas significantly decreased in the test group. Of the blood test items, ALT is one of important indicators of the degree of liver dysfunction.
The released peptides obtained from mung bean protein hydrolysate may exhibit bioactivity as angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, antioxidants, and anti-cancer Asiatic acid carriers due to their sequence characteristics [146, 147]. A peptide [<3 kDa], with a small molecular weight isolated from MuPI hydrolysates, was reported to show high ACE inhibitory and antioxidant activities, including DPPH radical scavenging activity, hydroxyl radical scavenging ability, and metal-chelating activity [146]. Three kinds of novel peptides exerting high ACE inhibitory activity were isolated from the alcalase hydrolysate of MuPI, and the amino acid sequences of these peptides were identified to be Lys-Asp-Tyr-Arg-Leu, Val-Thr-Pro-Ala-Leu-Arg, and Lys-Leu-Pro-Ala-Gly-Thr-Leu-Phe [148].
The relationships between MuPI intake, strength, and lean body mass (LBM) in underactive vegetarians were examined, and the impact of MuPI supplementation on these indices was recorded utilizing an eight-week, randomized, controlled feeding trial. LBM significantly correlated with grams of protein consumed daily and was also significantly correlated with grip strength and lower body strength [149]. Mung beans are inadequate in threonine, tryptophan, and the sulfur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine, but they contain high levels of essential amino acids, notably leucine, lysine, and phenylalanine [150]. Although it is necessary to consider the amino acid balance, it is expected that MuPI will be widely used in the field of sports nutrition in the future.
5. Conclusion
If the current pace of population growth continues, the global population is expected to surpass 9 billion by 2050. In addition to this increase in population, the change of dietary habits of emerging countries due to their increased GDP will require, in 2050, we will need twice as much protein as we had in 2005.
So far, we have been able to meet the increasing demand for protein by improving the productivity of agriculture. However, in the future, this growth alone will not be enough to absorb the increase, and the balance between supply and demand will begin to collapse as early as 2030. This prediction is called the “protein crisis,” and has recently begun to attract attention, especially in Europe and the United States. To solve this protein crisis, it is essential to use highly productive plant proteins as food ingredients instead of animal proteins, which are less efficient in production.
WHO has called for the need to address the double burden of malnutrition. This means that we need to look not only at nutrient deficiencies, but also at nutrient excesses. Obesity caused by over-nutrition and the resulting lifestyle-related diseases are spreading around the world. In this regard, consumer demand for plant protein-based products is high and expected to grow considerably in the next decade. A variety of soy and other plant-based functional foods have been recommended by many health organizations worldwide.
Currently, contributions to the SDGs (Sustainable Developing Goals) are being appealed around the world. There is widespread recognition that the replacement of animal protein with vegetable protein not only contributes to human health, but also to the earth health. Wider and prudent use of plant proteins in the diet can help to supply adequate high-quality protein for the population and may reduce the potential for adverse environmental consequences.
This chapter focused on the recently reported physiological functions of legumes-derived plant proteins, including soybeans. Further research is expected to lead to more widely use of the legumes introduced in this chapter and to the discovery and use of legumes with new functionalities.
Acknowledgments
Of the research results presented in this chapter, our own research results were achieved in the laboratory at Fuji Oil Co. Ltd. and/or Fuji Oil Holdings Inc. to which I belonged until March of this year from 1986. I believe that I could not have done this without the cooperation of the researchers who belonged to that laboratory. I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude.
\n',keywords:"soy protein, metabolic syndrome, chronic kidney disease, inflammatory disorder, pea protein, lupin protein, mung bean protein",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78557.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78557.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78557",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78557",totalDownloads:89,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 10th 2021",dateReviewed:"August 17th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 21st 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"September 12th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"There is currently a trend in Western countries to increase the intake of plant proteins. In this chapter, the author explains that this is due to the beneficial physiological functions of plant proteins, based on the latest literature review and our own research results. Among plant proteins, soy protein has been reported to have many beneficial effects on the improvement and prevention of metabolic syndrome. This chapter outlines the excellent effects of soy protein on renal function [improvement of early symptoms of diabetic nephropathy], which is closely related to metabolic syndrome, and the effects of combining these effects as complementary medicine. In addition, recent findings about the anti-inflammatory and immune activation effects of soy protein as hydrolyzed peptides are outlined. A brief introduction of the recent results of other legume-derived proteins that have replaced soy proteins are also explained. By further deepening our understanding of the superior physiological functions of plant proteins, it is hoped that their use expands even further.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78557",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78557",signatures:"Mitsutaka Kohno",book:{id:"12236",type:"book",title:"Legumes Research- Volume 2",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Legumes Research- Volume 2",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez and Dr. Alfonso Clemente",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12236.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-915-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-914-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-916-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Soy protein and peptides",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Soy protein for metabolic syndrome (MetS)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Soy protein for chronic kidney disease",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Anti-inflammatory roles of soy protein and peptides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Complementary effects of soy protein/peptide in combination with drugs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Effect of combined use with anti-hyperlipidaemic drugs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Concomitant effect with rheumatoid arthritis drug",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Physiological effects of other legume proteins",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Pea protein",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Lupin protein",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Mung bean protein",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. 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J Nutr. 2017:147:52-60'},{id:"B146",body:'Xie J, Du M, Shen M, Wu T, Lin L: Physico-chemical properties, antioxidant activities and angiotensin-I converting enzyme inhibitory of protein hydrolysates from mung bean (Vigna radiate). Food Chem. 2019:270:243-250'},{id:"B147",body:'Wongekalak L-o, Sakulsom P, Jirasripongpun K, Hongsprabhas P: Potential use of antioxidative mung bean protein hydrolysate as an anticancer asiatic acid carrier. Food Res Int. 2011:44:812-817'},{id:"B148",body:'Li GH, Wan JZ, Le G-W, Shi Y-H: Novel angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides isolated from alcalase hydrolysate of mung bean protein. J Pept Sci. 2006:12:509-514'},{id:"B149",body:'Bartholomae E, Incollingo A, Vizcaino M, Wharton C, Johnston CS: Mung bean protein supplement improves muscular strength in healthy, underactive vegetarian adults. Nutrients. 2019:11:2423'},{id:"B150",body:'Yi-Shen Z. Shuai S. 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The mouse model has been primarily used as the role model for a long time; however, it is severely hampered regarding its feasibility for translational outcomes, in particular, to preclinical and clinical studies. 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In particular, this work addresses the diversity of available atomizers, the drying kinetics and the importance of the configuration of the drying chamber, and the efficiency of the collection devices. The final properties of the dried products are influenced by a variety of factors, namely the spray dryer design, the feed characteristics and the processing parameters. The impact of those variables in optimizing both the spray-drying process and the synthesis of dried particles with desirable characteristics is discussed. 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In the case of nonbiodegradable inorganic compounds, bioremediation takes the form of bioaccumulation or conversion of one toxic species to a less toxic form for example Cr(VI) is converted to less toxic (III). Bioremediation is considered an environmentally friendly way for pollution clean-up. Microbial clean up can be applied in situ (in place of contamination) or ex situ (off the site of contamination). In situ remediation in the natural environment is deemed slow and often times difficult to control and optimize the different parameters affecting the bioremediation. To this end, use of engineered bioreactors is preferred. Engineered bioreactors providing for optimum conditions for microbial growth and biodegradation have been developed for use in bioremediation processes to achieve the different desired remediation goals. Bioreactors in use range in mode of operation from batch, continuous, and fed batch bioreactors and are designed to optimize microbial processes in relationship to contaminated media and nature of pollutant. Designed bioreactors for bioremediation range from packed, stirred tanks, airlift, slurry phase, and partitioning phase reactors amongst others.",book:{id:"7727",slug:"biotechnology-and-bioengineering",title:"Biotechnology and Bioengineering",fullTitle:"Biotechnology and Bioengineering"},signatures:"Memory Tekere",authors:[{id:"231753",title:"Prof.",name:"Memory",middleName:null,surname:"Tekere",slug:"memory-tekere",fullName:"Memory Tekere"}]},{id:"67432",title:"Microencapsulation and Its Uses in Food Science and Technology: A Review",slug:"microencapsulation-and-its-uses-in-food-science-and-technology-a-review",totalDownloads:1909,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Microencapsulation is a group of technologies aiming to produce small particles called microcapsules that can be released at a specific speed under certain conditions. 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In this review, we summarize current methodologies used for microencapsulation, with a focus on applications in the food industry.",book:{id:"6995",slug:"microencapsulation-processes-technologies-and-industrial-applications",title:"Microencapsulation",fullTitle:"Microencapsulation - Processes, Technologies and Industrial Applications"},signatures:"Pedro Henrique Rodrigues do Amaral, Patrícia Lopes Andrade and Leilane Costa de Conto",authors:[{id:"268220",title:"Dr.",name:"Leilane Costa De",middleName:null,surname:"Conto",slug:"leilane-costa-de-conto",fullName:"Leilane Costa De Conto"},{id:"274532",title:"Mr.",name:"Pedro Henrique Rodrigues Do",middleName:null,surname:"Amaral",slug:"pedro-henrique-rodrigues-do-amaral",fullName:"Pedro Henrique Rodrigues Do Amaral"},{id:"274534",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrícia Lopes",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade",slug:"patricia-lopes-andrade",fullName:"Patrícia Lopes Andrade"}]},{id:"64746",title:"HyStem®: A Unique Clinical Grade Hydrogel for Present and Future Medical Applications",slug:"hystem-a-unique-clinical-grade-hydrogel-for-present-and-future-medical-applications",totalDownloads:4468,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Medicine needs targeted, minimally-invasive delivery of protein-based and cell-based therapeutics to increase efficacy and reduce occurrence and severity of side effects. Local delivery requires a matrix to sequester and protect the medicine until its effect can be realized. The problem is, unlike stable small molecule drugs, proteins and cells cannot be co-packaged with a matrix in a prefilled syringe—they must be mixed with their matrix at the point of care. HyStem hydrogels fix this problem: They are arguably the first commercially available, GMP-qualified biodegradable hydrogels both with the ability to formulate with either proteins or cells in the hospital/surgical suite and with a history of safe use in humans. HyStem is designed to be protein, cell-friendly and in situ crosslinkable, permitting homogeneous mixing of therapeutics. One HyStem formulation is 510(k) cleared and another the subject of two European clinical trials. Key applications include localized delivery of therapeutic growth factors, antibodies, and cells. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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