\r\n\tEqually important are the consequences deriving from the extraordinary nature of the present times. The COVID-19 pandemic and the restrictive measures to contain the infection (lockdown and "physical distancing" in primis) have revolutionized the lives, and a distortion/modification of habits, rhythms, arrangements will continue to be necessary.
\r\n\tGovernments have implemented a series of actions to mitigate the spread of infections and alleviate the consequent pressure on the hospital system. On the other hand, the Covid-19 pandemic has caused a series of other cascading effects that will probably be much more difficult to mitigate and which expose to complex consequences. The past two years have brought many challenges, particularly for healthcare professionals, students, family members of COVID-19 patients, people with mental disorders, the frail, the elderly, and more generally those in disadvantaged socio-economic conditions, and workers whose livelihoods have been threatened. Indeed, the substantial economic impact of the pandemic may hinder progress towards economic growth as well as progress towards social inclusion and mental well-being.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tAlthough in all countries the knowledge on the impact of the pandemic on mental health is still limited and mostly derived from experiences only partially comparable to the current epidemic, such as those referring to the SARS or Ebola epidemics, it is likely that the demand for intervention it will increase significantly in the coming months and years. The extraordinary growth of scientific research in the field of neuroscience now offers the possibility of a new perspective on the relationship between mind and brain and generates new scenarios in understanding the long wave of the pandemic and in the prospects for treatment. Moreover, the pandemic also has led to opportunities to implement remote monitoring and management interventions.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tOverall this volume will address the complex relationship existing between COVID-19, mental health, acquired knowledge, and possible interventions taking a highly multidisciplinary approach; from physiological and psychobiological mechanisms, and neuromodulation through medical treatment, psychosocial interventions, and self-management.
In the 1950s Italian based company; Farmitalia research laboratory began a research program in finding the anticancer compounds from soil-based microbes. In the process of research collected a soil sample from the castle named as castle Del monte, which was built in the 13th century. The collected soil sample contains new strains of bacterial species and isolated from it. The separated microbe recognised with the name Streptomyces peucetius which is typically produces a significant red pigment. The antibiotic produced from this bacterium discovered to be efficient in treating the tumours especially solid tumours while researching on mice. Since a group of French scientists found the same compound about at the same time, they agreed to call the antibiotic daunorubicin, referring to the two nations. In which, Dauni refers to the pre-Roman tribe who inhabited the position in Italy where the species of bacteria were isolated and ruby represents the colour in Italy. The clinical trials of daunorubicin were began in 1960s and confirmed as successful in treating the lymphoma and acute leukaemia [1, 2]. After a short note of the time, in 1967 daunorubicin was discovered to be cause fatal cardiotoxicity. Then, by using nitroso-N-methyl urethane, the Italian research company mutated the strains of Streptomyces peucetius and developed a new strain of bacterial species that produces 14-hydroxylated daunorubicin, also known as Adriamycin (named after the Adriatic Sea), then changed its name to doxorubicin, which has a strong therapeutic index, but cardiac toxicity remains [3].
\nDoxorubicin (DOX) is an anthracycline antibiotic structurally similar to Daunorubicin as natural anti-cancer antibiotic used in cancer treatment. Its anticancer effect produced intercalating with DNA and this will inhibit DNA transcription and replication; and by binding to the topoisomerase II enzyme and inhibit the resealing of the DNA fragments. The presence of sugar moiety attached to the anthracycline ring further enhances the binding to phosphate and sugar moieties in to DNA. This led to stops the proliferation of cancer cells in the host [4]. Besides, the presence of quinone moiety apart from contributing the cytolytic ability by generating the intermediate radicals, which further react with the oxygen and forms superoxide ions and these ions also shows a high tendency towards the damaging the cell membranes causes a dose-dependent the cardiac myopathy [5, 6].
\n\n
The Doxorubicin is mainly used in case of patients suffering from Breast cancer, ovarian cancers, lung cancers, bladder cancers, leukaemia (acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, acute myeloid leukaemia) and AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma and various solid tumours. DOX also used in combination with other agents in case of bone sarcomas, soft tissue sarcomas, uterus cancer, endoblastoma cancer, cervix cancer, pancreatic cancer, Ewing’s sarcoma, mesothelioma, multiple myeloma, Wilms tumour and in neuroblastoma [7, 8].
\nLiver is one of the essential organs of the body; it plays a major role in metabolism and detoxification of several drugs. This can explains why liver is the primary body organ affected by chemotherapy. Despite being cytostatic and cytotoxic effects on cancer cells DOX documented to accumulate in the various tissues include liver cells. In humans, it is estimated as 50% of DOX eliminated in un-exchanged form, the remainder dose metabolised through hydroxylation, semiquinone formation [9]. The major pathway for biotransformation of DOX is catalysed by the NADPH-dependent carbonyl reductase, Nitric oxide synthase, cytochrome P-450 reductase, aldo-keto reductase enzymes. The hydroxylation occurs at C-13 carbon in group commonly reaction referred as electron reduction forms the secondary alcohol metabolites [10, 11, 12, 13]. The metabolized intermediates in the presence of oxygen converted to carbonyl moieties resulting in generation of Superoxide anions and hydrogen peroxides causes peroxidation of lipids in membranes of cell, aggregation of proteins (\nFigure 1\n) [13, 14, 15].
\nThe regenerative capacity of liver is more can cure the damage caused by various agents such as DOX, which causes damage and decreases the regeneration of liver cells by increasing the oxidative stress due to the radical generation by oxidation in hepatocytes. The generated radical causes decrease in GSH levels, damages in DNA and also act as secondary metabolites in in many metabolic pathways which includes in cell proliferation and cell death [16, 17, 18]. To overcome such situations liver employs the efflux mechanisms, the efflux of DOX is achieved through from liver by ATP dependent ABC proteins (P-glycoprotein) which increase the efflux of the intracellular DOX and maintain the homeostasis. The mechanism uses large quantity of energy but with the presence of the DOX in liver cells decreases the ATP production and increases the ADP and Pi within the cells [19, 20, 21]. Due to this effect sometimes liver cells can’t able to regenerate from DOX induced effects and causes hepatotoxicity.
\nDOX mediated effects on the liver.
Besides maintaining the homeostasis by regulating the body fluids, kidneys work to reabsorb the low concentrations general constituents in the body and also remove the foreign substances like drugs or other kinds of agents. For this kind of reasons kidneys considered as metastatic organs of human beings [22]. The regenerative capacity of the kidneys is low when compared to the liver and highly susceptible to epithelial degeneration occurs at renal glomerulus where the filtration occurs may lead to the glomerulosclerosis [23].
\nDOX interferes with the glandular podocytes of the kidney and cause nephropathy the most accepted mechanism behind the nephropathy is an accumulation of proteinuria in the kidney by the local passage of leaked proteins [23]. Increase in the structural changes in nephrons causes hypertension, steroid resistance, high incidents of renal failure and glomerular vacuolization, inflammation, tubular dilation, intestinal fibrosis, permeability differences in the glomerulus, and certain conditions like hypoalbuminemia, dyslipidemia, hypercoagulation, size differences in kidney most likely observed [24]. A study conducted on the DOX effect on the mitochondria by the Lebrecht suggested that DOX interfere the mitochondrial mtDNA in the kidney with ROS produced from it and accelerating the damaging of the nephron. Another study reports suggesting that DOX forming an iron-mediated anthracycline complex, which produces the ROS led to an increase in the oxidative lesions in the cells causing damage to the critical cellular components [25, 26].
\nThe decreasing the levels of the GSH (Glutathione), vitamin E levels and other natural oxidant levels production from the liver cells enhances the nephropathic conditions which may initially affect the Bowman’s capsule thickness and the glomerular tuft of the nephron. The study conducted by Rook et al. [26] Reported as Angiotensin-converting enzyme is said to be one of the responsible factors for tissue damage triggered by the DOX therapy. The ACE is causing the pro-inflammatory, pro-fibrotic effects which make interference in the kidney and nephrons to maintain the glomerular pressure and filtration rate of blood [27, 28]. The cases of nephropathy and proteinuria are rare in humans susceptibility towards such condition based on the genetic makeup of the individual.
\nThe brain is the largest and most complex organ in the human body contains about 100 billion neurons with 1 trillion established connections throughout the body. DOX is not able to transfer through the blood–brain barrier (BBB), therefore DOX effects against the brain via indirect way [29, 30]. These effects include: depression, anxiety, decrease in motor functions, haemoglobin levels, perception skills affected, and menopausal status, visuospatial skills are affected through cancer chemotherapy. The recovery of the cognitive functions may take up to a year [31]. The DOX mediate increase TNF-α level (inflammatory cytokines produced by the macrophages/monocytes during the acute inflammation involved in many signalling pathways) in the brain at cortex and hippocampus of mice [32, 33, 34]. The mitochondrial activity, glutathione-S-transferase, GSH levels, and MnSOD levels in the brain are decreased and increase in levels of 4-hydroxynoneal (HNA), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), malondialdehyde (MDA) and increase in levels of protein carbonyl groups [35, 36, 37, 38], which causes increase the oxidative stress in the brain cells and further led to cause cell damage.
\nThe MnSOD levels in the brain generally detoxify the oxygen free radicals, inactivated by the Nitric oxide (NO). The DOX indirectly increased the concentration of NO by overexpressing the Nitric oxide synthase enzyme [37]. A study conducted on the NOS dependent brain injury with DOC reinforcing the nitric oxide tissue damage [38]. The mitochondrial activity is very important in the brain because it is a powerhouse of cells (energy production) brain uses 20% of body glucose for energy production to conduct and maintain the regular activities [39]. The DOX induces generation of MDA, TBARS, and HNA which cause the decrease the mitochondrial activities. A study conducted on the DOX-induced toxicity on rats with 10 mg/kg dose, the rats died between 10 and 50 days with observed light microscopic studies reveals that specific changes in the ganglionic cells of the peripheral nervous system [40].
\nThis side effect found to be a dose-dependent on DOX. The DOX-induced cardiotoxicity occurs acutely and chronically. The acute effects occur within one week period the patient may experience arrhythmia, hypotension, and super ventricular tachycardia. These abnormalities are generally reversible in a noticeable period [41]. The chronic effects are shown in only 1.7% of patients with a 50% mortality rate [42, 43]. The chronic effect of DOX such as congestive heart failure reported in a study, when the patients are treated with dose 500–550 mg/m2 in more than 4% of patients when treated with the dose is 551–600 mg/m2 18% of patients cause the CHF, and almost 35% of patients observed with CHF when treated with >601 mg/m2 [44, 45].
\nA study conducted by the Zordosky and EI-kadi on DOX-induced toxicity reported as the induction of Brain natriuretic peptides, atrial natriuretic peptides genes, monooxygenases, cytochrome P genes and hypertrophy markers responsible for the xenobiotics and certain endogenous substances [46]. The inductions of these genes are cause cardiac hypertrophy leading to heart failure and altered the arachidonic acid mechanisms. A study reported the DOX effects based on the concentrations, at low concentrations DOX dose (o.5–1 μM) causes the alterations in structural proteins (includes sarcomeric myosin, nuclear lamina), plasma membrane blebbing (causes change in cell shape), and mitochondrial depolarization and fragmentation. At high concentration causes (5–50 μM) causes the cytoplasm vacuolization, swelling of mitochondrial cells, promote the cellular alterations (\nFigure 2\n) at the cellular and nuclear membranes [47]. The DOX reportedly binds to the cardiolipin (a mitochondrial inner membrane component), which raises the accumulation of the DOX inside the mycoplasma when compared to the other body cells. The high concentration existence of the NADPH dehydrogenase inside the mitochondria initiates the redox reaction in the complex and promotes the production of the Reactive oxygen species. Myocytes are generally having low levels of anti-oxidants when compared to the other tissue cells, considerably DOX shows enhanced effects on the heart and cause toxicity [48, 49, 50].
\nDOX-mediated effects on the Heart.
The antioxidant level differences were observed in rats under DOX treatment based on the age differences, younger Fischer rats contain more levels of antioxidants when compared to old Fischer rats. A recent study stated the involvement of the Toll-like receptor TLR-4 (a specific receptor in the immune system generally recognise the multiple bacterial antigens and plays a major role in the maturation of the phagosomes) [51]. The increase in TLR-4 expression in the DOX-induced Cardiomyocytes, when studied the cardiomyopathic cells in humans and animals. The deficiency of TLR shows decreased in lipid peroxidation and nitrotyrosine levels in cardiomyopathic cells. The other study on the glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPx) enzyme is present in both cytosol and mitochondria play a major role in the detoxification. The study conducted with the insertion of DOX on non-GPx and wild type mice, the results showed based on the study on myocytes of the non-GPx mice having the high concentration of the DOX deposits in cells, when compared to wild type mice [52, 53, 54].
\nThe oxidative stress is a major cause for the exhibiting the cardiotoxicity, involved the generation of higher amounts of ROS cause the cellar alterations and damage are referred to as oxidative stress. The ROS is countered by the anti-oxidant system in the body, in cancer patients under the DOX chemotherapy observed the decreased the levels of GSH, TRAP levels in the body. The ROS is generation is catalysed by NADPH oxidase enzyme [55, 56].
\nIn mitochondrial cells, the same reaction is mediated by NADH –ubiquinone oxidoreductase enzyme.
\nThe generated oxygen radical undergo dimutation with hydrohen molecules and forms hydrogen peroxide reaction is mediated by the SOD enzyme [55].
\nThe generated less active hydrogen peroxide is removed by the enzymes like catalase, glutathione peroxidase.
\nThe generated oxygen radicals combine with the H2O2 and form the highly active hydroxyl radicals. The H2O2 also reacted with the ferrous ions resulting in the formation of ferric ions and reactive hydroxyl radicals [55].
\nUnder stress conditions, oxygen radical facilitates the ferrous iron from the ferric ion. The iron, under normal conditions sequestered within the ferritin (a globular protein and forms the nanocage with the metal-protein complexes) but with regards to DOX when converted to its semi-quinone form complexes with iron-free radical and converted to DOX forms while generating the oxygen free radical. The generated complexes block the iron-free regulating proteins (IRP), and then these IRPs bound to the iron-responsive elements in mRNA ferritin. The tremendous amounts of free iron releases and gain complexes with the DOX. This specific condition magnifies the production of ROS in cells [57, 58, 59].
\nThe ROS acts as secondary signalling molecules shows direct effects on the lipids, proteins, DNA, and RNA in various pathways involved in cell proliferation, cell death and maintain the homeostasis. It is domineering to maintain the levels of ROS in the body, in case of the heart the effect is maximum by ROS due to lack of efficient levels of anti-oxidants in myocytes. The conditions such as cellular hypertrophy, alterations in the gene expressions, ventricular remodelling, the extracellular matrix of the mitochondria transformation, calcium transient perturbation and cell death activation such kinds of pathological changes may be observed in myocytes lead the death of cells.
\nA particular disorder marked by an increase in cell size and volume. The abnormality shows an improvement in the degree of protein synthesis, increased in the organisation of sarcomere (contractile muscle fibre unit). At molecular level induction of hypertrophy associated genes are triggered by the DOX treatment which are alpha myosin heavy chain, ventricular myosin light chain-2, and atrial natriuretic peptide genes [60]. The main signalling cascades of the hypertrophy are tyrosine kinases, PI3K/Akt [61], and NF-𝜅B [62, 63], protein kinase C (PKC), mitogen-activated protein kinases (AMPK [64]; ERK1/2 [65], p38 [66], and JNK) which are increased in DOX therapy induce cellular hypertrophic conditions [67].
\nExtra cellular matrix is a molecular network consisting of glycol conjugates, proteins, glycosaminoglycans and adhesive receptors that associate with each other and forms frame network, where cells reside on them [68]. The ECM frame work is present in all tissues it continuously shifts in quantitative and qualitative terms on a daily basis. In case of myocytes ECM is essential for attachment, alignment and orientation facilities the cellular contractions in myocytes. Changes in the ECM of the heart found in DOX treatments, the symptoms of DOX are related to the activation of the Membrane Metalloproteinase enzymes MMP-2 & 9 in 4 weeks of treatment [69]. Changes in MMP-2 activate the Akt channels; suppress the superoxide dismutase enzyme, which raises the amount of superoxide levels, and induce caspase-3 and all other agents together promote remodelling and apoptosis [70].
\nThe heart cells (cardiomyocytes) composed of myofibrils with typical contraction and relaxation. Pump and propel the blood to systemic circulation. Myofibrils contain multiple contractile units called sarcomere, which have actin and myosin filaments. In a calm state, actin is coated in tropomyosin and protects the myosin-binding sites. The troponin and tropomyosin are attached when the calcium enters into the cytosol from the sarcoplasmic reticulum; calcium binds to the troponin and the position of the tropomyosin and troponin changes resulting in shortening of the sarcomere. That specific condition termed as cardiac contraction controlled by calcium influx and myofilaments. DOX could affect the transcription and expression of the specific proteins [71]. Transcription factor-like GATA4 for the regulation of sarcomeric synthesis and cardiac differentiation and survival of myocytes. DOX-induced ROS decreases binding function, disrupts sarcomere structure, contractile reduction and myofibrillar deterioration [72]. DOX is believed to interact with calcium homeostasis by modifying the ion pump and modifying the ion channel movement, resulting in lipid peroxidation. ROS quickly targets the fatty acids of the membrane lipids and disrupts the mitochondrial calcium channels by increasing the activity of the voltage-sensitive L-type calcium channels on the cell membrane resulting in accumulation of calcium [73]. Calcium overload throughout cytosol, Causes the disruption in the contraction and relaxing of cardiomyocytes.
\nThe general apoptosis is a process where a cell commits to suicide, damage to genetic material, protein, cellular organelles that beyond the repair would trigger the suicide to save the energy and resources. Apoptosis firmly regulated process involves intrinsic mitochondrial apoptosis, extrinsic death receptor pathways [74]. The mitochondrial pathway relays on the Trans membrane potential is a key indicator of membrane permeability. It is assumed that permeability can be either permeability-dependent or independent of the pore transition [PT]. The PT pore consists of the adenine nucleotide translocator, matrix protein cyclophilin D, and voltage-dependent anion channel. The opening of the PT pore activates the dissipation of the proton gradient produced by electron transport, resulting in the uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation. The opening of the PT pore also allows water to penetrate the mitochondrial matrix, resulting in the swelling of the intermembrane space and the rupturing of the outer membrane allowing the release of apoptogenic proteins. Released proteins include cytochrome c, apoptosis-inducing factor and endonuclease G. Cytochrome c in conjunction with apoptosis protease activating factor (APAF-1) and pro-caspase 9 forms an apoptosome, which in turn activates effector caspases that collectively facilitate the execution of apoptosis. Due to decrease in the number of normal cardiomyocytes is significantly reduced, the heart failed to pump the blood sequentially ventricular remodelling and death of myocytes [75].
\nThe death receptor pathway involves the binding of death ligands such as FasL, TNF-α to their respective membrane-bound receptors. The bonded ligands signals to various proteins mediate the cascade, which leads to apoptosis of the cell [76]. In cancer therapy, DOX-induced ROS activates the p38, p53 and NF-kB pathways resulting in the differences in pro- and anti-apaptonic signalling imbalance, such imbalance cause release of cytochrome C from mitochondrial membrane proteins, subsequently lead to apoptosis of cell [77, 78].
\nAutophagy is a method of restoring or repairing the destroyed cells. It is a self-degrading mechanism (survival mechanism) to maintain a balance of life in response to dietary stress, energy depletion. Autophagy destroys malformed proteins, weakened organelles, and other cell infections, which can be unique or non-specific, but processes are not completely thought out. Under diseased environments, autophagy either facilitates cell death or induces cell death depending on the demands of different people [79, 80]. In DOX-based therapy toxicity mediated autophagy by suppressing GTAT4 expression and activating S6K1, this plays a direct and indirect role in autophagy control. Autophagy varies due to species differences; autophagy dependent on DOX is increased in mice but decreased in autophagy has been seen in mouse cases [81, 82, 83, 84]. The autophagy achieved in DOX therapy via several mechanisms, such as ATG 5 & 12 is the inhibitors of the Bcl-2 family, which regulate the cytochrome release from the mitochondria. Cytochrome C releases the caspase-9 lead to the autophagosome, can regulate the apoptosis. In some other studies, autophagy reduces the DOX-induced cardiotoxicity by decreasing mitochondrial ROS formation.
\nThe DOX-induced cardiomyopathy consists of a complete examination of the cardiovascular system for detecting the symptoms, such as S3 gallop and elevated jugular vapour pressure, T wave impairments; low voltage QRS complexes are measured.
Electrocardiography combined with Doopler studies used to study early diagnostic symptoms of the cardiac myopathy through the measure of latero-ventricular dysfunction.
Radionuclide ventriculography used to access the latero-ventricular systolic and diastolic function. Observes the cardiac adrenergic denervation occurs in case of doxorubicin induced cardiomyopathy.
Metaiodobenzylguanidine based nuclear imaging can be employed to assess cardiac adrenergic denervation occurred trough the DOX based cardiomyopathy.
The DOX treated patients are sensitive to the indium labelled monoclonal antimyosin antibodies (myosin an ATP dependent superfamily of motor proteins major role in muscle contraction and motility) used to detect the cardiac myopathy, myocarditis, chagas heart disease ischemic myocardium, and kawasaki heart disease [85].
The measurement of the cardiac enzymes and neurohormones are used for detecting the heart failure but not a characteristic feature of the DOX-induced cardiomyopathy [86].
The presence of endomyocardial biopsy is the best route for detecting the DOX-induced diseases, according to the grade of biopsy severity of the disease is measured [87, 88]. It is invasive and requires experience for recognising the results become a disadvantage for this technique.
The DOX has an extreme side effect like cardiotoxicity, but is still in use because of its efficacy in the treatment of cancers. Toxicity can be avoided in several ways. Many studies have shown that cardioprotective agents can achieve a reduction in cardiotoxicity. A recent research on HSP-20 (heat-shock protein) has shown that the protection of Akt activity prevents the cardiotoxic effect caused by DOX [89, 90, 91, 92]. Different kind of agents is used to control the DOX effects such as Dexrazoxane (DZR); it contains bisdioxopiperazine rings falling under alpha-amino acid and the derivative compound also known as cardioxane or Totect or Zincard. A promising compound that activates after hydrolysis and resembles the EDTA structure after conversion makes complexes with Iron and reduces the incidence of anthracycline-iron complexes, thus preventing ROS generation in myocytes. Dexrazoxane has also been known to contain the Topoisomerase II enzyme function and inhibit the tumour cell growth. Used mainly for the activities of iron-chelating agent, cardiac protection, anti-neoplastic activities, and chemo protection. Indirectly active in chromatin remodelling complexes by activating vitamin D receptors. DZR is often known to provide up-regulation of the ERK and Akt pathways to guard against cardiomyopathy [93, 94, 95, 96] but DZR is not approved for routine use in patients with metastatic cancer and other forms of cancer, as stated by the American Clinical Oncology Society [97, 98]. DOX was analysed in association with DZR for 10 years in women with breast cancer [99]. No, people suffer from heart disease over the time and there are no records of adverse effects with respect to the heart.
\nDiuretics are used to avoid signs of systemic and pulmonary ventricular obstruction, and medications dependent on β-adrenergic receptors are used depending on the type of systolic heart problem [100]. Metoprolol is safe and effective in the treatment of cardiac myopathy [97], angiotensin II is also recommended for advanced heart disease cases, and low-dose isosorbide dinitrate substituted angiotensin inhibitor medication is favoured and hydralazine is favoured for cardiomyopathic myopathy.
\nThe successful release of DOX at a particular site of operation is another form of preventive step. Like liposomal dosage formulations, the specified delivery mechanism passively decreases the impact caused by non-cancerous cells. For liposomes drug interaction with blood and cancer cells, structural characteristics such as vesicle size, pharmacokinetic characteristics such as stability and pharmacodynamic characteristics such as plasma clearance are important. Tumour cells have conditions that favour high-level depositions, because newly developed cells have microvasculature-permeable vessels, which contain poor lymphatic drainage, low levels of lipase enzymes and other oxidising agents. Due to these features of cancer cells shows aggregation. Once liposomes enter the tumour cells the differences in the intestinal pH favours the release of drugs constituents. The pH of cancer cells is differ from other normal cells because of this the drug is preferentially released in tumour cells and avoid the toxicity in non-cancer cells. The recently reported formulation of polyethylene glycol-coated liposomal doxorubicin (PLD) shows better pharmacokinetics relative to general formulations and has fewer side effects [101]. A phase clinical trial of 50 mg/m2 PLD administration in patients with carcinoma with a demonstrated history of platinum-based chemotherapy at intervals of 4 weeks reported low toxicity. The other formulation like poly (ethylene oxide)-b-poly (e-caprolactone-DOX) [PEO-b- P(CL-DOX)] prevents the premature release outside of the tumor cells [102].
\nThe development of analogues is another possible strategy for reducing the toxicity [96], in the case of anthracyclines nuclear targeted and Non-nuclear targeted are two kinds of strategies concerned in the development of non-toxic chemotherapeutic agents. Analogues such as Methoxymorpholinyl doxorubicin (MMDX), sabarubicin and
Even DOX used for treating several types of cancers as a result of its wide range of pharmacological activities, but at the same time it causes a wide range of side effects. The major side effects caused by DOX are: carditoxicity, neuropathy, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, alopecia, typhlitis, myelosuppression, neutropenia, anaemia, and thrombocytopenia. DOX increasing the oxidative stress, decrease the GSH, vitamin E levels, and activates the NF-kB levels causes’ hepatotoxicity. Besides, it interferes with the glandular podocytes of the kidney and cause nephropathy. Also, it induces generation of MDA, TBARS, and HNA which decrease the mitochondrial activities and increase in ROS generation causes cell necrosis. Moreover, it causes induction of brain natriuretic peptides, atrial natriuretic peptides genes, mono oxygenases, cytochrome P genes; binds to the cardiolipin, the increase in TLR-4 expression, generation of ROS led to several pathological changes in myocytes causes cardiomyopathy. Several strategies are made to manage and decrease DOX’s cardiotoxicity effects, includes a change in the dosage forms for efficacious delivery systems, administration along with anti-oxidants, DZR, diuretics and β-adrenergic agents, and development of different analogues for increasing the efficiency of DOX.
\nThe author is grateful to Prof. M. Sarangapani, Principal of University College of pharmaceutical sciences, Kakatiya University, Warangal.
\nThe author declares no conflict of interest.
Edited by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, ISBN 978-953-51-3020-8, Print ISBN 978-953-51-3019-2, 336 pages,
\nPublisher: IntechOpen
\nChapters published March 22, 2017 under CC BY 3.0 license
\nDOI: 10.5772/61430
\nEdited Volume
This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\\n\\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\\n\\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\\n\\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\\n\\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\\n\\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\\n\\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\\n\\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\\n\\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\n\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\n\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\n\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\n\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\n\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\n\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\n\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\n\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
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His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:49,paginationItems:[{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"13",type:"subseries",title:"Plant Physiology",keywords:"Plant Nutrition, Plant Hormone, Photosynthesis, Respiration, Plant Stress, Multi-omics, High-throughput Technology, Genome Editing",scope:"Plant Physiology explores fundamental processes in plants, and it includes subtopics such as plant nutrition, plant hormone, photosynthesis, respiration, and plant stress. In recent years, emerging technologies such as multi-omics, high-throughput technologies, and genome editing tools could assist plant physiologists in unraveling molecular mechanisms in specific critical pathways. The global picture of physiological processes in plants needs to be investigated continually to increase our knowledge, and the resulting technologies will benefit sustainable agriculture.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11409,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. 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