Comparison of dimension of organizational culture.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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Nowadays, different techniques are based on observing the scattered intensity of an X-ray beam hitting a sample as a function of incident and scattered angle, polarization, and wavelength.\nThis book is intended to give overviews of the relevant X-ray scattering techniques, particularly about inelastic X-ray scattering, elastic scattering, grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering, small-angle X-ray scattering, and high-resolution X-ray diffraction, and, finally, applications of X-ray spectroscopy to study different biological systems.",isbn:"978-953-51-2888-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2887-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4120-4",doi:"10.5772/62609",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"x-ray-scattering",numberOfPages:228,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"af21d4ead14637fcfa5f919430ec45f5",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",publishedDate:"January 25th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5371.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14433,numberOfWosCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:49,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 9th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 30th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 4th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 2nd 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 1st 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/91095/images/system/91095.jpg",biography:"Alicia Esther Ares is a professor of Materials Science at the Chemical Engineering Department, School of Sciences (FCEQyN), National University of Misiones (UNaM), Posadas, Misiones, Argentina, since December 2013. She is also an independent researcher at the National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, since January 2015. Previously, she has been a research associate at CONICET (2008–2014) and an associate professor at UNaM (2007–2013). She has also been an assistant professor at UNaM (1989–2007). She graduated at the University of Misiones in 1992 and completed a PhD degree in Materials Science at the Institute of Technology 'Jorge Sabato,” UNSAM–CNEA, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Later, she made a postdoctoral stays at the following institutions: Faculdade de Engenharía Mecânica, Departamento de Engenharía de Materiais, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil (2001 and 2005–2006); Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States (2002–2003); and Faculty of Sciences, National University of Misiones, Posadas, Misiones, Argentina (2003–2004).\r\nShe has a 30-year teaching experience both at the undergraduate and at the graduate level. Her research interests lie in the following areas: Solidification thermal parameters, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance of different alloys and composite materials; Solidification structures and properties of alloys for hard tissue replacement; Metallic materials selection for the management of biofuels; Synthesis and characterization of nanostructured coatings, membranes, and templates of aluminum and zinc oxides; Fabrication and characterization of nanostructured titanium and iron oxide coatings for water treatment systems based on advanced oxidative and reductive processes; and Natural products as corrosion inhibitors of metallic materials. 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Ashraf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8268.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199287",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam Md",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"ghulam-md-ashraf",fullName:"Ghulam Md Ashraf"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"9536",leadTitle:null,title:"Education at the Intersection of Globalization and Technology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tOur rapidly shrinking, interconnected world is experiencing an unprecedented change in the face of digital innovation and emerging globalization. As the world’s population spirals beyond 7.7 billion, international economies are becoming more integrated and mutually dependent upon one other. These interconnected economies are subject to political, social, and cultural expectations unimagined in past decades. Employee skill sets that were in high demand only a few decades ago are now considered obsolete and unnecessary. New occupations are evolving in the face of digital advancement only to be quickly replaced by other emerging occupations more suitable to satisfying transitioning expectations. The changes are endless. Educational systems can no longer educate for today’s jobs. They must educate for tomorrow’s jobs. They must empower the future of their national economies while remaining mindful of the needs of tomorrow’s global economy. They stand at the intersection of globalization and technology. The only thing certain is change.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book is intended to examine the educational issues encountered in such an environment. The book aims to afford a fresh examination of theory, research, and practice into this field of study and to provide the reader with an insight into the challenges, successes, and opportunities encountered by today’s educational institutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-470-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-469-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-471-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0cf6891060eb438d975d250e8b127ed6",bookSignature:"Dr. Lee Waller, Dr. Sharon Waller, Dr. Vongai Mpofu and Dr. Mercy Kurebwa",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9536.jpg",keywords:"Global Skill Sets, Career Development, International Networking, Adult Education, World Education Culture, Modernization, International Standards, Educator Preparation, Educational Technology, Educational Impact, Curriculum Development, Sociocultural Issues",numberOfDownloads:613,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 10th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 1st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 30th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 18th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 17th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Lee Waller completed a Ph.D. in Higher Education Administration from the University of North Texas, he spent 17 years in the American community college system and served for 9 years at Texas A&M University-Commerce before joining the AURAK family.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr.Sharon Waller spent 13 years at a Sherman Independent School District where she served as an educational diagnostician, curriculum coordinator, and teacher, her teaching and research focus on special education, strategic educational leadership, and effective assessment of student learning.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/263301/images/system/263301.png",biography:"Prof. Lee Waller completed a Ph.D. in Higher Education Administration from the University of North Texas. He earned his BS in Education and MS in Mathematics from Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas. Prof. Lee spent 17 years in the American community college system and served for 9 years at Texas A&M University Commerce before joining the AURAK family. Prof. Waller’s teaching and research focus on digital learning, strategic educational leadership, and effective assessment of student learning. Prof. Waller was recently awarded (2014) the Effective Practice Award for Excellence in the Utilization of Emerging Technology by the Online Learning Consortium (formerly Sloan-C). He was also awarded (2012) the Excellence in Teaching Award by Sigma Alpha Pi, The National Society of Leadership and Success.",institutionString:"American University of Ras Al Khaimah",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"263302",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharon",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"sharon-waller",fullName:"Sharon Waller",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/263302/images/system/263302.png",biography:"Dr. Sharon Waller completed a Ph.D. in Special Education from the Texas Woman’s University in Denton, Texas. She earned her Master of Education in Special Education from the University of North Texas and her BBA from Texas Woman’s University. Both institutions are located in Denton, Texas. Dr. Sharon spent 13 years a Sherman Independent School District where she served as an educational diagnostician, curriculum coordinator, and teacher. She joined the AURAK family as Manager of Counseling, Testing, and Disability Services in 2105. Dr. Waller’s teaching and research focus on special education, strategic educational leadership, and effective assessment of student learning.",institutionString:"American University of Ras Al Khaimah",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"299343",title:"Dr.",name:"Vongai",middleName:null,surname:"Mpofu",slug:"vongai-mpofu",fullName:"Vongai Mpofu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/299343/images/system/299343.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vongai Mpofu is a seasoned Science teacher educator with a strong background in school leadership and science teaching. She holds a Ph. D. in Science Education from the University of Witswatersrand in South Africa and have twelve years of University teaching experience at Bindura University of Science Education (BUSE). She joined University service at BUSE with a wealth of experience of heading several high schools in Zimbabwe. She has been in university leadership as a chairperson of the Department of Science and Mathematics Education as well as the acting Dean of the Faculty of Science Education. Dr. Vongai has a good record for teaching, research, and community engagement as well as qualities of good leadership. She is also engaged in journal editorship and peer reviews. She is actively involved in research and leadership related events inclusive of presenting conference papers and facilitating in research and leadership events. Her school management experiences have been enhanced by several professional development courses in leadership she has attended.",institutionString:"Bindura University of Science Education",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bindura University of Science Education",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"324485",title:"Dr.",name:"Mercy",middleName:null,surname:"Kurebwa",slug:"mercy-kurebwa",fullName:"Mercy Kurebwa",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002x7lPRQAY/Profile_Picture_1592997052286",biography:"Mercy Kurebwa is a Full Professor in Education. She is a goal-getter, hardworking and committed individual who has worked as a teacher in the Primary schools and a Senior Assistant Registrar, Registrar and Lecturer in Universities. Her work experience spans over 34 years. Currently, she is working in the Zimbabwe Open University’s Faculty of Education and Department of Educational Studies teaching courses in Educational management at both Bachelors and Masters levels. Mercy Kurebwa holds a Certificate in Education (Morgenster Teachers College), Bachelor’s Degree in Educational Administration, Planning and Policy Studies and a Master’s Degree in Administration, Planning and Policy Studies (University of Zimbabwe) and a Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Education (Zimbabwe Open University). Mercy Kurebwa has published 53 journal articles and has also presented over 20 papers at local and international conferences. The focus of the publications and presentations was on Assessment, Open and Distance Learning (ODel), Early Childhood Education, issues in schools, leadership and a few social issues. Mercy supervises Doctorate candidates, participates in university committees; has written and reviewed modules, reviewed journal articles and is an internal and external examiner for Doctorate candidates. Her passion is in research and publication in an endeavor to find solutions to educational problems and bring awareness to the academic arena.",institutionString:"Zimbabwe Open University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Zimbabwe Open University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"73237",title:"Beyond Teaching: School Climate and Communication in the Educational Context",slug:"beyond-teaching-school-climate-and-communication-in-the-educational-context",totalDownloads:106,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73216",title:"Addressing Sustainability Planning in Higher Education Research",slug:"addressing-sustainability-planning-in-higher-education-research",totalDownloads:58,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73159",title:"Learning Is Visual: Why Teachers Need to Know about Vision",slug:"learning-is-visual-why-teachers-need-to-know-about-vision",totalDownloads:61,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74001",title:"Globalization, Technological Advancement and the Traditional Library System: Implications for Information Utilization and Learning",slug:"globalization-technological-advancement-and-the-traditional-library-system-implications-for-informat",totalDownloads:62,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73194",title:"Limitations and Proposals for Improvement of the Bilingual Program of the Community of Madrid in Public Primary Schools",slug:"limitations-and-proposals-for-improvement-of-the-bilingual-program-of-the-community-of-madrid-in-pub",totalDownloads:42,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73290",title:"Indian Education: Ancient, Medieval and Modern",slug:"indian-education-ancient-medieval-and-modern",totalDownloads:186,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74087",title:"Community Learning Centres as Podia for Technology Enhanced Ubiquitous Learning: A Botswana Case",slug:"community-learning-centres-as-podia-for-technology-enhanced-ubiquitous-learning-a-botswana-case",totalDownloads:56,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74356",title:"Online Career Guidance Systems for PK-12 School Students: Compliments to a Comprehensive School Counseling Program",slug:"online-career-guidance-systems-for-pk-12-school-students-compliments-to-a-comprehensive-school-couns",totalDownloads:39,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74808",title:"Development Strategies towards a Reputable International Program: Special Focus at International Program for Islamic Economics and Finance, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta",slug:"development-strategies-towards-a-reputable-international-program-special-focus-at-international-prog",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"316229",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimas",surname:"Wiranatakusuma",slug:"dimas-wiranatakusuma",fullName:"Dimas Wiranatakusuma"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"54890",title:"Introductory Chapter: Smart Antennas and Beam-formation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68452",slug:"introductory-chapter-smart-antennas-and-beam-formation",body:'\nRecently and over the last decade, the wireless and mobile technologies in addition to the new and improved services have grown rapidly at exponential and formidable rate. In the evolution of the modern telecommunication networks and multiple access systems, the employment of the spatial processing approaches and techniques becomes essential according to the related standards. The spatial processing is considered as the main idea behind the use of adaptive and smart antennas, antenna arrays, beamforming algorithms, interference cancelation, bandwidth-efficient signaling systems, and direction of arrival (DOA) estimation schemes (in the case of non-blind beamforming).
\nSmart antenna system basically consists of multiple antennas or antenna arrays and digital signal processing algorithms that are in charge of very important functions such as DOA estimation of the signals. In general, the wireless communication systems development stages can be classified based on the adopted technologies driven by the challenges of capacity demand and quality of service (QoS) requirements. These stages are summarized as follows [1]:\n
Omni-directional systems: with conventional cellular structure, frequency reuse (7 cells reuse patterns), Omni-directional antenna types in the base station at the center of each cell.
Cell splitting and sectorized systems: smaller cells (micro-cells), cell sectoring with several directional antennas in the base station.
Smart antenna systems: with dynamic cell sectorization, multiple antennas (antenna arrays), innovative signal processing algorithms, and beamforming techniques (user location based beam assignment).
The latest telecommunication trends such as Internet-of-things (IoT) confirm the humanity willing to extend the existed technologies and employ or develop new ones which create a lot of new requirements and push the connectivity standards beyond the current limitations. In fact, some countries (like South Korea and the Netherlands) already had nation-wide IoT completed networks. Thus, the implementation feasibility (or readiness) of the IoT projects for smart homes, smart cities, and vehicles is very high and can be included in the proposed studies about smart antenna systems. For example, the mobile operator SK Telecom in South Korea installed and completed long range wide area network (LoRaWAN) based on long-term evolution (LTE) infrastructure (4G or 5G networks). This IoT network allows the smart devices from public and private sectors to receive and process data for different and various purposes. Thus, these cases can promote and trigger more efforts and investments directed to improve the wireless connectivity of the devices in such networks.
The aforementioned smart antenna systems are widely implemented in two forms, namely, the switched beam approach where the system can choose one of many predefined antenna beam patterns (the antenna radiation or propagation pattern is defined as graphical representation of the power variation and radiation properties of the antenna as a function of the direction and space coordinates), and the adaptive array approach where the antenna adapts the radiation pattern beams in real time in accordance with the radio environment.
\nThe smart antennas systems achieve higher capacity increase in comparison with the switched beam systems especially in the case of densely populated coverage areas and reduce more effectively the negative impacts of the interference. Additionally, there are more advantages that can be counted in favor of adaptive array systems such as range increasing, security enhancement (more difficult to tap any connection) [2], and location-based services improvements especially for emergency situations (spatial detection characteristics).
\nAs in the case of any system or technology, some disadvantages or drawbacks of the smart antenna systems are found like the complexity of transmitters and receivers design, the high computation intensity with the need of powerful digital signal processors (DSPs), and the overall system employment cost.
\nAt this point, two fundamental objectives should be performed by the signal processing algorithms of the smart antenna systems, namely:\n
The DOA estimation for all incoming signals;
Adaptive real-time calculation of the weights or coefficients that are used to steer and change the directions of the antenna array radiation beams toward the signal-of-interest (SOI) and at the same time to place nulls toward the signal-non-of-interest (SNOI) that is considered as interfering signal.
Hence, the smart antennas systems relay on the adaptive signal processing techniques such as DOA estimation and adaptive beamforming under the use of multiple antenna configurations (antenna arrays). Here, it is very useful to make some comments about the importance of antenna arrays in the development of the previous concepts.
Transmit and receive diversity are effective methods for exploiting the significant benefits that are available in multiple antenna systems like multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) wireless systems [3]. These benefits include but not limited to diversity gain (independent fading paths, channel variability reduction), array gain (average signal-to-noise ratio increase, beamforming, the gain is proportional to the array dimensions), multiplexing gain (capacity or data rate linear increase), and interference gain (aggressive frequency reuse strategy, space-time signal processing to reduce the interference effects).
\nIt is well known that the radiation pattern generated by a single-antenna element is relatively wide with low values of directivity and gain and with less control capabilities over the important parameters. Enlarging the antenna dimensions by assembling several radiating antenna elements (array) in geometrical and electrical configurations leads to enhanced directive characteristics. The assembled antenna elements in any array can be identical (same type of antennas like dipole, micro-strip, reflector, aperture, waveguide, horn, etc.) or different. The total radiation pattern of the antenna array can be controlled and shaped using many methods such as [1]:\n
The geometrical configurations (linear, planner, spherical, etc.).
The relative distance between the elements (location and displacement).
The amplitude and phase of the feeding electrical current for each antenna element.
The relative radiation pattern of the individual antenna element.
The total radiation pattern of the antenna array with identical elements is obtained by pattern multiplication where the radiation pattern of a single element positioned at a reference point is multiplied by the array factor (AF). The last point can be well supported and explained by an example. Let us consider a linear antenna array with total number of identical elements equal to M with uniform spacing (d) positioned symmetrically along the same axis as shown inFigure 1 (spherical coordinates with radial distance r, azimuth angle φ, and elevation or polar angle θ).
Linear antenna array with M identical elements.
The AF of the linear antenna array presented in Figure 1 can be expressed using the following form [1]:
\nwhere ωn is the amplitude of the feeding electrical current (excitation) for each antenna element, and ψn is given by
\nwhere βn is the phase of the feeding electrical current of the individual element, and λ is the wavelength (that shows the frequency relation with the AF definition). Thus, the total radiation pattern Etotal presented by the amplitude of the electrical field of the linear antenna array in Figure 1 is presented as:
\nwhere Ese is the single element radiation pattern located at the array reference point. One important observation form the last discussion is that by changing the values of the AF coefficients ωn and βn, it is possible to control the shape of the radiation pattern plus the major to minor lobes level and the scanning capabilities of the antenna array, respectively. Obviously, any beamforming technique is able to use the previous control coefficients to shape and redirect the radiation lobes or beams in accordance with the user location. In the case of mobile communication, the planner arrays are preferred according to the three dimensions (3D space) scanning abilities.
The beam formation (BF) is a spatial signal processing technique coupled with multiple antennas (antenna array elements) that are adaptively phased to form, direct, and concentrate the beams of the radiation pattern [4]. The BF algorithms can be implemented at both transmitter side (transmit beamforming) and receiver side to provide significantly improved array gain, higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and considerable reduction in co-channel interference owing to the spatial selectivity of the directional antenna array elements.
\nFor the millimeter wave (mmWave) systems, almost all modern wireless communication networks, the antenna BF shows great benefits since highly directional adaptive antenna array elements can be designed with low profile and steering capabilities in various directions to meet and coherently align the SOIs and dampen the undesired or interfering signals (SNOIs). In Figure 2, a normalized radiation pattern of linear antenna array with eight identical elements (M = 8) and equal spacing is presented. It is shown that by employing BF technique, the major beam (main lobe) is directed toward the SOI (θ1 = 30°), and a null is placed toward the SNOI (θ2 ≈ 50°).
Antenna radiation pattern of linear antenna array with M = 8 identical elements and BF technique.
The next figure (Figure 3) presents a simple adaptive BF block diagram for two-element array with spacing d = λ/2 receiving the desired signal SOI at θ1 and the interfering signal SNOI at θ2. This example illustrates the basic concept of null formation to satisfy certain radiation pattern requirements by BF weights (w1, w2) computing.
Antenna BF block diagram.
The BF technique in Figure 3 should determine the complex weights w1, w2 to receive the desired signal S(t) and cancel the interfering signal I(t). Thus, the array output y(t) due to the beamforming process will ideally contain the desired signal only and totally reject the interference. Solving two complex equations, the optimum complex weights w1, w2 are defined to achieve the maximum signal-to-interference ratio (SIR). In practice, and under non-stationary signal condition and non-homogeneous noise, the BF complex weights are computed with adaptive algorithms.
\nSome kind of adaptive beamforming algorithms do not need the information supplied by the DOA estimation as in the case of DOA-based adaptive beamforming algorithms (non-blind beamforming). Instead, these algorithms (blind) uses reference signals or training sequences (codes) in order to adjust the amplitude and phase coefficients (ωn, βn) of the antenna array factor (AF) [5]. A common set of predefined BF codes can be found in the related standard (IEEE 802.15.3c).
\nIn wireless communication sector, the adaptive BF weights are chosen to maximize the quality of communication channel (or the quality of the received signal). Some commonly used adaptive BF approaches can be mentioned:\n
Minimum mean-square-error (MMSE) approach: the complex weights are defined in order to minimize the mean square error between the beamformer output and the expected signal (using Wiener filter) [6].
Least mean square (LMS) approach: very simple and effective algorithm that minimizes the mean squared error (MSE) cost function and computes the BF weights using iterative and bounded conditions.
Maximum SIR approach: the complex weights are determine to maximize the SIR value (desired signal and interference strengths are estimated by the receiver).
Minimum variance approach: the complex weights are computed to minimize the noise variance at the beamformer output (the signal waveform and DOA are known).
The beam-space adaptive beamforming (beam-space transformation) employed in communication systems uses fast Fourier transform (FFT) beamforming where a set of FFT outputs can be combined using complex weights and sums to form arbitrary radiation patterns (baseband signals are combined from different antenna elements) [7].
In some other references, the DOA estimation is called angle of arrival (AoA) or angle of departure (AoD) estimation. The ability to measure the DOA of a wireless signal with higher resolution in comparison with the antenna beam width is defined as super resolution. The type of beamformers that needs DOA estimation is called non-blind BF techniques. When the antenna array elements receive the incoming signals from all directions, the DOA technique estimates these directions based on the time delay and array geometry concepts. To understand these concepts, the two elements antenna array in Figure 4 can help to simplify and derive the DOA estimation.
DOA estimation main concept.
The arrival time difference Δt of the signal at the two antenna elements (assuming that the signal is direct from the source or we have a plan wave) can be given by
\nwhere c is the speed of light in the free space. Clearly, the DOA demonstrated by the angle θ can be determined knowing the spacing d between the array elements (by design) and the time delay Δt. This method is very sensitive to signal reflections (multipath problem) and to the existence of interfering signals.
\nThe DOA estimation algorithms are classified based on the data analysis into four different groups:\n
Conventional algorithms: the estimation process is based on beamforming and null steering without the exploiting of the received signal statistics such as delay-and-sum method and Capon’s minimum variance method.
Sub-space based algorithms: the method utilizes the received signal structure to improve the resolution such as multiple signal classification (MUSIC) and the estimation of signal parameters via rational invariance technique (ESPRIT) [1].
Maximum likelihood (ML) algorithms: the estimation is obviously optimal based on the maximum likelihood sense where the DOA algorithm maximizes the likelihood that the signal arrived from a particular direction [8]. The ML algorithm outperforms the sub-space–based techniques under low SNR and spatially correlated signal conditions, but it is computationally intensive.
Integrated algorithms: the property restoral method and the sub-space–based approach are combined in order to separate multiple signals and estimate their spatial signatures prior to the DOA estimation (mainly performed by sub-space based algorithm).
Since the DOA is a parameter estimated from received data, the Cramer-Rao lower bound (CRLB) can be used to define the minimum variance of this estimation [9]. The CRLB defines the best performance obtained after minimizing the residual noise in unbiased estimates (noisy data defiantly produce noisy estimates). Thus, the determination of the CRLB for any DOA algorithm is helpful to find the theoretical limits for performance evaluation.
Two-dimension linear antenna array pattern with 10 elements is demonstrated in Figure 5 in the case of LMS beamforming algorithm. In this scenario, the antenna array receives two SOIs at θ1 = 0°; 10° and two SNOIs at θ2 = 30°; − 40° where the SNR = 5[dB] and the interference-to-noise ratio is equal to INR = 10[dB] (the interference is more severe problem comparing with the noise).
2D antenna array pattern of 10 elements applying LMS-BF algorithm.
It is noticeable that the radiation pattern generated by the antenna array elements and LMS algorithm has its maximum toward the SOIs directions while the nulls (minimum power) are placed toward SNOIs directions.
\nThe time-varying multipath channel (fading channel) is a common model used for wireless communication networks. The spatial diversity techniques (replicate the transmitted information over independent channels using different antennas) form an effective solution to combat the negative influence, presented by performance degradation, of the fading channels. Any BF approach can be combined with spatial diversity to improve and enhance the performance of the wireless transmission. The performance simulations given in Figure 6 are made in the case of Rayleigh fading channel model and for transmit diversity scheme (two antennas) with and without BF. The bit error rate (BER) as a function of energy per bit Eb to noise spectral density N0 ratio (similar to SNR) is presented for binary phase shift keying (BPSK) modulation with hard decision receiver.
BER over Rayleigh fading channel with and without BF.
The results shown in Figure 6 indicate that the BER is less using BF (LMS algorithm) in comparison with the case when the BF is not employed over the whole Eb/N0 range. Thus, the BF technique could boost and improve the receiver performance by reducing the BER value.
\nThe appropriate utilization of the channel state information (CSI) sent over the feedback link to the transmitter side helps to achieve the highest performance from any MIMO or antenna array system. The beam training (alternative solution of the conventional feedback) is employed to configure transmit and receive BF vectors where the transmitter sends information over several beams and uses the feedback from the receiver to find the beast beam (IEEE 802.11ad) [4]. New approaches have been developed for closed-loop spatial multiplexing based on the beam training and feedback combination such as code-book BF, BF with weight optimization based on AoD estimation, and long-term BF [4].
\nThe basic concepts and the importance of smart antennas, BF, and DOA estimation are addressed in this chapter. The book focuses on the latest contributions made by researches and experts on smart antennas and beam-formation approaches in order to present the recent advances on the field.
This work is performed by Radio Physics Research Group (RPRG) at Polytechnic University of San Luis Potosi (UPSLP) and supported by the National Council of Science and Technology in Mexico (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología CONACYT, Mexico).
Culture in public sector organizations varies in its dimensions. Organizations comprise people. People are divided into nation-states and are variably exposed to different things such as events and information, which help form their own beliefs, values, and attitudes. These differences in beliefs, values, and attitudes result in different cultural practices, which in turn get a reflection in the organizations of their respective societies. Within a society, different subgroups exist with distinct beliefs and practices. The different generational cohorts within a society become exposed to things, technologies, and events that are particular to their own time. Therefore, subgroups within a society develop thinking and behaviors that may be considered distinct. The societal general culture and subcultures affect the cultural beliefs and practices of the organizations of society.
It is generally taken for granted that culture motivates the employees of an organization to behave in a particular way. Not much research is done on how culture affects the performance of organizations. The limited number of studies investigating the cultural influence on performance reports the linkage to be positive [1, 2]. In some other contexts, despite deliberate efforts, in the public sector, organizations have shown indifference to the adoption of the prescribed culture [3]. In spite of the influences from the new public management tools, public sector organizations tend to be internal-oriented rather than being external-oriented [4]. Organizations can develop the practice of subculture, which can be considered a management technique [2, 5].
This chapter focuses on the cultural practices of the frontline bureaucrats in Bangladesh. The few studies conducted on the bureaucratic culture in Bangladesh are different from the current one in their focuses and methodologies. Jamil [6] conducted a survey in December 1992 and January 1993 on 161 bureaucrats working in both the central level administration and the field level administration and found that the bureaucrats inculcate power distance, uncertainty avoidance tendency, and are less participatory in their decision-making process. Haque and Mohammad [7], analyzing the historical accounts, relevant literature, and their observations, concluded that the prevalence of pervasive corruption in the Bangladeshi bureaucracy could be explained in terms of the existence of some culture dimensions in the public administration. Conducting 40 qualitative semi-structured interviews with bureaucrats from the central and field administration, Rahman [8] found that the bureaucrats suffer from indecision over maintaining political neutrality and political responsiveness. Zafarullah [9] found in his study of bureaucratic culture in Bangladesh that the bureaucrats support clientelism and self-preservation and oppose change initiatives. Based on personal experience and review of literature, Rashid [10] concluded that bureaucrats had less engagement with members of the civil society and non-government organizations.
The above studies had a limitation in terms of their sample size and sampling process. This study covered a larger sample chosen from the field administration only. It investigated how four dimensions of organizational culture were practiced by the frontline bureaucrats. There are two broad types of bureaucrats in the public services of the country—cadre services and non-cadre services. Recruitment, training, and mobility of the bureaucrats of these two categories are different. Therefore, how the two groups of frontline bureaucrats differ in practicing culture dimensions of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, participation, and team orientation had remained unexplored, and this has been the main objective of this study. The second section discusses how organizational culture is understood, followed by a discussion on culture dimensions in the third section. The fourth section discusses the relevance of the four dimensions of organizational culture to frontline bureaucracies, followed by a short section introducing frontline bureaucrats in Bangladesh in the fifth section. The sixth and seventh sections discuss the methods followed and the findings of the study, respectively. The last two sections present a discussion on the findings and conclusion of the study.
Hofstede, Hofstede, and Minkov [11] described culture as a “mental programming” or “software of the mind.” It is shared patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting. Therefore, it is always a collective phenomenon. The patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting differentiate one group of people from others. Thus, culture is “the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others” ([11] p. 6). The patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting come from the unwritten rules of the social game. The understanding of culture given by Hofstede et al. [11] is similar to that of Pettigrew ([12], p. 574), who defined it as a “system of such publicly and collectively accepted meanings operating for a given group at a given time” and provides “a general sense of orientation” to the group.
O’Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell [13] have argued that organizational culture as a concept has a long history and goes back to early sociological studies of the early 1950s. It received prominence in the 1980s. Hofstede, Neuijen, Ohayv, and Sanders [14] found no consensus on the definition of the concept. However, they identified several characteristics of organizational culture. Organizational culture is: (1) holistic, (2) historically determined, (3) related to anthropological concepts, (4) socially constructed, (5) soft, and (6) difficult to change. Schein ([15], p. 111) published an article defining organizational culture as “(1) a pattern of basic assumptions, (2) invented, discovered, developed by a given group, (3) as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, (4) that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore (5) is to be taught to new members as the (6) correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to these problems.” Schein [15] identified three levels of organizational culture: (1) artifacts, (2) values, and (3) assumptions. However, Hofstede et al. [14], in their study, found that shared perceptions of daily practices rather than shared values represent the core of an organization’s culture.
Organizational culture has also been described as an administrative culture or bureaucratic culture or corporate culture. Jamil [6] argued that there is something additional in an administrative culture than can be found in organizational culture. This additional item is politics. Most culture studies focus on the private organization where politics is not an issue of interest. These studies look at the internal context of an organization. Any framework for understanding administrative culture has to incorporate politics, i.e. how bureaucrats interact with politics and society as a whole. Jamil’s [6] arguments obtain strength from the fact that the mission of public sector organizations significantly differs from that of private sector organizations. Most public sector organizations are not profit-making and do not rely on profits for their existence.
In contrast, private sector organizations are profit-oriented and rely on profits for their existence. Public sector organizations cannot avoid politics because they execute the government’s policies. There is a subtle nuance between the usages of the concepts of “bureaucratic culture” and “corporate culture.” The concept of bureaucratic culture refers to the values and practices in public sector organizations, while corporate culture usually refers to private sector organizations.
Whatever the characteristics or levels of organizational culture are, it is a “powerful force” in an organization [3] and immensely affects the well-being and success of an organization. It is described as the glue that holds the organization together [16]. The culture encourages the members in the organization to behave similarly. It impacts how well the organization will function. Rong and Hongwei [17] argue that organizational culture stems from the social culture and works as an “invisible hand” in public sector management. This hand is relatively stable but transforms itself in the long run in line with social change.
Lloyd [18] found that there are debates about what organizational culture is. Some believe it as what an organization “is” and others believe that it is what an organization “has.” However, both arguments converge in the belief that culture is something to be made up of such concepts as beliefs, assumptions, and values. Values have received prominence in the definitions of organizational culture. Values are defined as a criterion using which one tends to prefer certain states of affairs over others. Beliefs are something that one considers as truth. The learned linkage between beliefs and values becomes attitudes. When the values, beliefs, and attitudes become so entrenched in an organization that they are no longer doubted or debated, they become assumptions. These values, beliefs, and assumptions are shared among the members of the organizations. Hofstede et al. [14] in a cross-organization study of 20 organizations in two countries found that practices rather than values play a major role. Organizational cultures are acquired on the job and are exchangeable when one takes a new job. While social cultures reside in values, organizational cultures reside in practices. These practices are visible and consciously carried out.
Organizational culture is not a one-dimensional concept. Culture researchers have found different dimensions in organizational culture. Hofstede et al. [14] in their cross-organization study have identified six dimensions of organizational culture with respect to the practices where organizations differ. These dimensions are (1) process orientation vs. results orientation, (2) employee orientation vs. job orientation, (3) parochialism vs. professionalism, (4) open system vs. closed system, (5) loose control vs. tight control, and (6) normative vs. pragmatic. They argue that these dimensions may not be universally valid or sufficient. Organizational cultures in different contexts may require additional dimensions or some of the identified six dimensions may seem less useful. Along with these six practice dimensions of organizational culture, they also identified three value dimensions, which are (1) the need for security (uncertainty avoidance), (2) work centrality (job involvement), and (3) the need for authority (power distance).
The first practice dimension of organizational culture in Hofstede et al.’s [14] study opposes a concern for means to a concern for goals. They equate this contrast with the distinction made between the mechanistic and organic management systems of Burns and Stalker [19]. With a process or mechanistic orientation, an organization tends to focus on technical improvements of means rather than the accomplishment of ends. An organic system tends to focus on concern as a whole. The second practice dimension opposes concern for the employees to concern for the job to be done. In the third practice dimension, a contrast is made between the identification of the employees deriving from the organization (parochial) and the type of job (professionalism). The fourth dimension focuses on the tendency of the organization to respond to its environment. The fifth practice dimension shows the contrasts in the internal structuring of an organization. The sixth practice dimension shows how an organization is oriented toward its customers. A normative organization looks at its task toward its customers as the implementation of inviolable rules. A pragmatic organization tends to stay close to its customers. The authors distinguish results orientation from customer orientation in that “trying to serve the customer does not automatically imply a results orientation” ([14], p. 304).
Ghosh and Srivastava [20] noted that the concept of organizational culture has been interpreted differently and not all complement or converge. After reviewing a sample of the literature on the instruments used in survey studies of organizational culture, the authors concluded that no two instruments were alike, and no two instruments shared a common theoretical basis. These authors reported that Ashkanasy, Wilderom, and Peterson [21] and Wilderom, Glunk, and Maslowski [22] had studied 18 culture measure questionnaires published between 1975 and 1992 and 10 empirical culture research studies respectively. Both studies found great variation in the definition and operationalization of organizational culture and its dimensions.
Ghosh and Srivastava [20], based on Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s [23] model, identified seven dimensions of organizational culture: (1) participation, (2) respect for individual, (3) attitude to risk, (4) attention orientation, (5) trust, (6) openness, and (7) power distance. Schein [15] in attempting to understand the content of a culture identifies some of its dimensions and presents questions to be asked regarding each dimension. Answers to these questions will identify the content of that culture, but he cautions about the danger of over-generalizing the dimensions.
Harrison and Baird [3] compared the organizational culture of public sector organizations in Australia with that of private sector organizations using O’Reilly et al.’s [13] organizational culture profile (OCP) and by focusing on five dimensions: (1) outcome orientation, (2) respect for people, (3) attention to detail, (4) team orientation, and (5) innovation. O’Reilly et al. [13] developed the OCP in order to quantitatively assess organizational culture in their study examining the person-culture fit and its implications for work attitudes and behaviors. These researchers carried out two types of factor analyses—for the individual and as organizational profiles. The first analysis produced eight dimensions of an organization’s culture: (1) innovation and risk-taking, (2) attention to detail, (3) orientation toward outcome or results, (4) aggressiveness and competitiveness, (5) supportiveness, (6) emphasis on growth and rewards, (7) a collaborative and team orientation, and (8) decisiveness. The second analysis produced seven dimensions: (1) innovation, (2) stability, (3) respect for people, (4) outcome orientation, (5) attention to detail, (6) team orientation, and (7) aggressiveness. Denison and Mishra [1] used four organizational traits—involvement, adaptability, consistency, and mission—in their research to determine the relationship between organizational culture and organizational performance.
Jamil [6] studied bureaucratic culture in the context of Bangladesh in order to determine the dominant type of culture and its consequences and also to identify the bearers of administrative subcultures. He noted that most studies on organizational culture have dealt with private sector organizations. He argued that public sector organizations are different from the private sector ones in that politics play a major role in the public sector organizations. Any study about public sector organizational culture has to take into account its external context, that is, its relationship with politics and the society in general.
Jamil [6] argued that bureaucrats’ attitudes in the external context could be typified in terms of their relationships to politics and relationships to citizens and civil society. In the case of the first typology, Jamil [6] argued, borrowing from Putnam [24], that bureaucrats can be classified into classical or political. Classical bureaucrats are procedure-oriented or rule-oriented, whereas political bureaucrats are problem-oriented or program-oriented. In the case of the second typology, bureaucrats can be universal or clientelistic. Universal bureaucrats believe in impartial applications of rules, which in Weberian terms are called the rational-legal type. Clientelism, on the other hand, serves in return for patronage and a power base. A recent development in the bureaucrat-citizen relationship has revealed that citizens are considered as customers in Western nations and as subjects in developing countries.
In the internal context, bureaucrats’ attitudes, Jamil [6] continued, can vary in specific characteristics such as power distance, uncertainty avoidance, guiding decision-making, and preferred employees. Power distance is a character that affects the decision-making behavior of bureaucrats. Where power distance is high, top bureaucrats take decisions, and lower bureaucrats carry out them. Where power distance is low, superiors and subordinates make consultations to take decisions.
According to Jamil [6], uncertainty avoidance is another character that affects decision-making behavior as well. Bureaucrats with a high tendency toward uncertainty avoidance tend to follow the rules and regulations strictly and do not take risks. Contrarily, a low tendency toward uncertainty avoidance encourages them to take risks in terms of bending or breaking the rules.
Bureaucrats need information for making decisions. Jamil [6] argued that the nature of the decision-making structure affects information search behavior. A top-down or hierarchic type of decision-making structure leads bureaucrats to limit their information search within its boundaries, their superiors, colleagues, or juniors. However, a collegial structure of decision-making leads bureaucrats to search beyond its boundaries, that is, politicians; citizens; academic, economic, and voluntary organizations.
Another characteristic of bureaucratic decision-making, where bureaucrats differ in their attitudes, Jamil [6] argued, is preferred employees. The attribute of preferred employees argues that the employees for an organization should be chosen considering their social values and cultural characteristics. The social values and the cultural characteristics of the chosen employees should benefit the organization.
A comparison of the dimensions of the organizational culture identified by the different studies is presented in Table 1. It reveals that scholars do not agree in identifying common cultural dimensions. However, some of them agree with some of the dimensions. Some other dimensions are given different names by different authors.
Frontline bureaucracies—also known as street-level bureaucracies—are located at the bottom of the governmental pyramid. The citizens experience their government through the frontline bureaucracies because these are the service providing windows of the government. Therefore, the cultural practice of the frontline bureaucrats is of paramount importance to the government. Alom [26] identified four culture dimensions that affect transparency and accountability behaviors of the frontline bureaucrats. These culture dimensions are power distance, uncertainty avoidance tendency, participation, and team orientation. One of the critical features of good governance is accountability, which comes through transparency. In this sense, the four culture dimensions affect good governance the most.
Most frontline bureaucracies bear two common characteristics—they enjoy discretion but suffer from resources. The resource limitation characteristic may vary from context to context based on economic development of the countries, but discretion has been reported to exist irrespective of the level of economic development. Discretion is a structural feature, while resources are issues of an endowment. Therefore, these are not cultural factors. However, these factors in interaction with the cultural beliefs and practices—power distance, uncertainty avoidance, participation, and team orientation—may impact on the good governance practices of the frontline bureaucrats. A brief discussion of these four cultural beliefs and practices is given below.
Power Distance: Power distance is the tendency to accept inequality among ranks in the system [14]. Bureaucrats, in socially backward contexts such as Bangladesh, believe that they are socially superior, and they are not accountable to the service seekers. They protect this power position. Therefore, any reform initiatives that are directed to change this power position are not acceptable to them or at least will hinder the implementation of such initiatives [27, 28]. Redistribution of power in a social structure that has traditionally practiced a patron-client relationship among its members is particularly problematic. Bureaucrats that possess power distance in relation to their clients will also possess the same in their organizational structure. Rong and Hongwei [17] suggested that organizational culture stems from social cultures. Jamil’s [6] study supports this argument. He found that the traditions from the samaj (society as a whole) and the British colonial administration dominate bureaucratic culture in Bangladesh. The samaj and the colonial traditions maintain a hierarchical or patron-client social structure. The influence of these traditions is reflected in the bureaucracy in the form of high power distance. Therefore, high power distance supports a hierarchical power structure in the organization as well as in society.
Uncertainty Avoidance: Bureaucrats do not want to be in uncomfortable situations. In other words, they like to avoid situations or avoid anything that may create situations, putting them in trouble or discomfort. They want to be certain that any action committed by them will not bring them discomfort. According to Zafarullah ([9], p. 936), “The civil service in Bangladesh has shown an extraordinary predilection to hang on to the established rather than readily accepting change in its status, structure, functions, and norms of engagement with extra-bureaucratic instruments.” The bureaucrats are “more at ease operating in a familiar environment employing conventional practices than embracing anything new or different” ([9], p. 936).
Participation: Participation is allowing those in the decision-making process for whom decisions are being made. In other words, it refers to the quality, quantity, and diversity of input from the stakeholders in government decisions [29]. Organizations that are under stronger influence from external stakeholders are likely to exhibit a higher level of participation. In Jamil’s [6] language, this type of participation is guiding decisions, that is, how the decisions of the bureaucrats are guided. Do the frontline bureaucrats consult with their stakeholders, that is, politicians; citizens; and business and voluntary organizations? A bureaucrat’s attitude toward the level of interaction with its stakeholders regarding the decision-making process influences the practice of participation.
Team Orientation: Practice of teamwork increases productivity in organizations. A team is a group of individuals who share their responsibilities to accomplish their shared goals [30]. Group members have discretion in deciding how to carry out tasks and allocate tasks among themselves [31]. Team orientation is a dimension of organizational culture identified by Schein [15] and O’Reilly et al. [13] and has been used by Harrison and Baird [3] in their research. Hierarchical structures in public bureaucracies work as barriers to team building. A public sector organization is a “machine bureaucracy” that needs to change its hierarchically controlled managerial culture into “a coaching environment” where the individuals will appreciate “interpersonal needs and the benefits of intuition and creativity” (Lovell [32], p. 403).
The frontline public bureaucracy in Bangladesh represents the characteristics of the overall public service of the country. These characteristics descended from the British colonial administration and the post-colonial administration of Pakistan. Bangladesh was liberated from Pakistan through a liberation war in 1971. Considering the recruitment, training, and mobility of the bureaucrats, one characteristic of the public services in Bangladesh has been that they are divided into cadre and non-cadre services. The cadre services have distinct hierarchy and specified functions—specialized and generalized [33]. The members of these services belong to the Bangladesh Civil Service (BCS) who are recruited by the Public Service Commission (PSC) through highly competitive examinations. They are hired as Assistant Secretary or equivalent and can move to the Senior Secretary position through promotions. They can move from one department to another. On the other hand, members of the non-cadre services are recruited to particular departments and do not have a definite structure of mobility horizontally and vertically [34]. They need to serve within the department to which they are recruited. These bureaucrats have limited training opportunity throughout their service life. The frontline bureaucracy of Bangladesh has officials from both cadre and non-cadre services, but the size of the former category is smaller than the later.
Data for this study were collected from sub-district level frontline bureaucrats in Bangladesh using a survey questionnaire. Bangladesh had 488 sub-districts at the time of data collection. Twenty-nine sub-districts were chosen using a multistage sampling technique. From each of the selected sub-districts, 16 pre-decided office heads out of around 25 were given the questionnaire to fill out. The 16 office heads were chosen because they were perceived by practitioners as the frontline bureaucracies that had most interactions with citizens. Seven of these 16 offices are headed by cadre officials, and the rest nine offices are headed by non-cadre officials.
For data collection, the researcher traveled to the respondents. It was not possible to return with all filled-out questionnaires all the time. Therefore, questionnaires were left with the offices of those respondents where they were not available in their offices. It was not possible to contact each of these office heads before going to their offices. Instead, the chief executive officer (UNO) of the sub-district was contacted before going to that particular sub-district. The UNO office in a sub-district carries some importance because it plays a coordinating role among all the offices of the sub-district. After going to a sub-district, help from officials from the UNO office was obtained sometimes in distributing and collecting the questionnaires. Thus, the UNO office was used as the first contact point.
After going to a sub-district, this researcher went to each of the 16 selected offices in the sub-district. Where the office head was present, this researcher requested him or her to fill out the survey questionnaire. Where the office head was not present, his/her contact cell phone number was collected from the other officials of the office. Then the office head was contacted over the phone and requested to fill out the survey questionnaire when he/she was available in the office and was requested either to send the filled out questionnaire to the UNO office or the postal address of this researcher. In most cases, an envelope (with postage stamp) was left with the postal address of the researcher written on it.
Around 40% of the survey questionnaires, on average, were collected directly by the researcher. Some filled out questionnaires came directly from the respondents through the postal service. The remaining questionnaires were submitted to the UNO office, or the officials of the UNO office collected them from the other offices and then sent them together to the researcher through postal service. Altogether, 329 questionnaires were collected for the study out of the sample of 456. This constituted a response rate of 72.15%. However, three questionnaires were rejected because two of them had more than 50% items unanswered, and one was a duplicate. The duplication happened because one officer was in charge of two offices. That official filled out two questionnaires. Thus, one of these two questionnaires was rejected. Finally, data from 326 questionnaires were entered into the SPSS program. Demographic information of the respondents is presented in Table 2.
Demographic information of respondent (% in parenthesis).
The questionnaire had items taken from validated instruments to measure each of the cultural dimensions. Each item had a four-point scale which varied from “always” to “never” or “agree” to “disagree.” A five-item scale was constructed based on Jamil [6] to measure power distance. The items were: (1) I seek my subordinates’ opinions before making a decision; (2) My subordinates suggest me ideas about my office work; (3) Confident subordinates in my office disagree with my decisions; (4) I tell my subordinates what decisions are to be taken; and (5) When I am confident, I disagree with my higher authority. To measure uncertainty avoidance, a four-item scale was developed based on Jamil [6] which were: (1) I emphasize results more than following routines, procedures to the point; (2) I feel nervous about satisfying my higher authority with my work; (3) I look for the best alternative even if it goes beyond routines, and procedures; (4) I expect my higher authority to tell me if I am doing a good job. Participation was measured using a four-item scale developed following theoretical arguments. The items were: (1) My office should serve citizens according to their preferences; (2) Officers can learn nothing from service seekers; (3) My office should seek feedback from service recipients about their satisfaction; and (4) Service seekers should not advise us on what to do. Based on Harrison and Baird [3], a four-item scale was used to measure team orientation. The items were: (1) Working in teams can produce better results; (2) We should help each other in our office work; (3) Sometimes subordinates can give better opinions than superiors; (4) Subordinates should not disagree with the superior’s opinion.
Results of two independent samples t-tests and descriptive statistics of group differences in the means of the culture dimensions practiced by the cadre and non-cadre officials are presented in Table 3. Power distance in non-cadre officials is higher than in cadre officials. The difference is significant at 0.10 level of significance. Concerning uncertainty avoidance, the non-cadre officials again have a significantly higher tendency to avoid uncertainty compared to the cadre officials. The cadre officials’ mean score in the participation culture dimension is significantly higher than the mean score of the non-cadre officials. This finding is indicative of the cadre officials’ higher tendency to accommodate stakeholders in decision-making processes. With regard to team orientation, the mean score of cadre officials is also significantly higher than the non-cadre officials. Therefore, cadre officials possess a higher mentality of teamwork compared to non-cadre officials.
Results of t-test and descriptive statistics for culture dimensions by cadre.
The four culture dimensions influence the daily works of the frontline bureaucrats. Generally, power distance within an office context is an extension of the power distance that prevails in society. High power distance among the employees of an organization contributes to the fortification of its formal and rigid hierarchical structure. The cadre officials of the frontline bureaucracies inculcate this culture slightly less than the non-cadre officials and both scores are slightly lower than the average of the scale. Jamil [6] reported the existence of higher power distance in the cadre officials in general (central and frontline bureaucrats). Power distance in this study shows scores lower than the average (2.5 points on the scale of 4). Therefore, this culture has not changed much.
The culture of uncertainty avoidance tendency negatively affects the achievement of the targeted results of an organization. It bars officials from taking initiatives of innovation. Strict enforcement of bureaucratic procedures, in some contexts, may not fetch the desired results. Therefore, officials need to apply their discretion and take some risks, which might bring them some uncertainty. Generally, everyone wants to remain in his comfort zone. In public service delivery, when facing the complexity of local contexts, frontline bureaucrats need to come out of their comfort zones sometimes. This study found high uncertainty tendency in the frontline bureaucrats. The non-cadre officials have a greater tendency to avoid uncertainty than the cadre officials. High level of uncertainty avoidance tendency among the bureaucrats in Bangladesh was reported by Jamil [6], and the current scenario does not show any change.
Participation in this research was used to mean bureaucrats’ citizen-orientation, that is, their attitude toward feedback from citizens. The frontline bureaucrats directly deliver services to the citizens. Their understanding of the expectations of the citizens can equip them with appropriate services. The findings of this study show that the frontline bureaucrats have a very high tendency to get feedback from the citizens. Again the cadre officials are ahead of the non-cadre ones. This finding is also similar to that of Jamil [6].
The frontline bureaucrats show a positive attitude toward teamwork. The score of cadre officials is higher than the non-cadre officials. These frontline bureaucrats work in their offices with limited resources. They face huge workloads as well. These workloads happen because of two reasons. One reason is that the demand for services is very high. Bangladesh is a populous country. So these bureaucrats face more service seekers than the ideal size. The second reason is that many of the sanctioned positions in the frontline bureaucracies remain vacant. Therefore, the bureaucrats from within an organization need to cooperate among themselves through teamwork.
Organizational culture is difficult to change without a deliberate effort. In the public sector organizations, this change is even harder to bring. The bureaucrats are rule followers and change-resistant. They remain to be in their comfort zones. Bringing desired changes in the practice of culture will require conscious and deliberate efforts. These efforts may include education, training, and social campaign. The difference in the scores in the dimensions of culture practiced by the cadre and non-cadre bureaucrats can be attributed to the different outlook they develop through their participation in social events. Although both groups of bureaucrats come from the same social context, they become exposed to different social events. One obvious social event is training. The cadre bureaucrats take part in different long- and short-term training programs even at the very beginning of their services. The non-cadre bureaucrats hardly get any training. The second social factor is that the cadre bureaucrats, because of their mobility, attend various seminars and workshops on governance issues, which help them change their mindset. This scope is limited to the non-cadre bureaucrats.
This research had limitations. The items used to measure the culture dimensions in this research match the research context. The measurement tools might be different in other contexts. Future researchers can investigate why the cadre and non-cadre officials differ significantly in their organizational culture.
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
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\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
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\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
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\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
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\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
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\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
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\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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