Average values of aircraft engine emission factor recalculation into actual ambient temperature.
\r\n\tIn recent decades, numerous studies have been carried out on eukaryotic microorganisms viz., fungi, protozoa and algae to unravel the disease mechanisms caused by them and also their potential use in genetic engineering. The current book will accumulate the latest findings related to eukaryotic microorganisms in order to guide the future research and to uplift this area of microbiology for potential applications in medical and agricultural sciences.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"111dd972fdc98d1968c9f854910f7188",bookSignature:"Dr. Asghar Ali Kamboh",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8963.jpg",keywords:"Mycology, Protozoology, Phycology, Gut eukaryotic microbiota, Antifungal / Antiprotozoal agents, Manipulating the Genes of Eukaryotes, Use of Eukaryotes in genetic engineering",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 27th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 17th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 4th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 4th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"225390",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghar Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kamboh",slug:"asghar-ali-kamboh",fullName:"Asghar Ali Kamboh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225390/images/system/225390.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Asghar Ali Kamboh was born in Mehrabpur, Sindh, Pakistan in 1979. He completed his studies in Veterinary Medicine and Masters in Veterinary Microbiology in 2003 and 2007 respectively, with distinguished grades. In 2009, he was awarded an oversees scholarship by the Government of Pakistan and proceeded to China for doctoral studies. Currently, he is working as an Associate Professor and Chairperson of the Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam. He has published more than 80 research and review articles in national and international peer reviewed journals. He has supervised/co-supervised more than 30 M.Phil students. He is also the author of many books and book chapters. In addition, he is an editor/editorial board member of many scholarly journals in the area of animal health and production.",institutionString:"Sindh Agriculture University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Sindh Agriculture University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"13",title:"Immunology and Microbiology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"305835",firstName:"Ketrin",lastName:"Polesak",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/305835/images/9351_n.png",email:"ketrin@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The advent of tumescent microcannula suction-assisted lipoplasty (SAL) technique, Power-assisted lipoplasty (PAL), ultrasound-assisted lipoplasty (UAL or Vaser), water-assisted lipoplasty (WAL), laser-assisted lipoplasty (LAL, or SmartLipo) have all been energy assisted innovations to the liposuction technique that have contributed to making liposuction less traumatic, faster, optimize the extraction technique with stem cell preservation (UAL) or offer moderate dermal contraction (LAL) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Despite these advances in the basic liposuction technique, one of the major challenges facing liposuction surgeons is optimizing and ensuring soft tissue contraction and body contouring outcomes after removal of adipose tissue [7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. Worsening of skin laxity and suboptimal soft tissue contraction following adipose aspiration is common [1].
\nThe Introduction of BodyTite® Radiofrequency Assisted Liposuction 10 years ago and the evolution of the various RFAL applicators and technology since that time has led to an era of optimal control of soft tissue contraction and more consistency in quality body contouring results [12, 13, 14]. This chapter outlines the peer reviewed articles and basic science of BodyTite® and reviews the authors use of RFAL in over 1000 cases in his body contouring and facial rejuvenation practice.
\nThe BodyTite® device is comprised of a workstation, or platform, which houses the RF Generator, software and circuit boards of the system. Into this workstation attach the various clinic hand pieces (Figure 1). The hand pieces come in different sizes and configurations and are designed for specific clinical procedures and anatomical locations.
\nThe BodyTite® RFAL workstation. The various hand pieces in the BodyTite® RFAL family plug into the workstation.
Each BodyTite® hand piece is in a bipolar configuration, where the internal electrode is a silicon coated cannula that is RF emitting in its distal uncoated region and has a sophisticated bullet shaped tip to aid is soft tissue dissection and movement, while minimizing the risk of end dermal hits and thermal injury.
\nThe external electrode, which is attached to the same hand piece, slides along the surface of the skin in tandem with the internal electrode (Figure 2).
\nThe BodyTite® bipolar RFAL hand piece.
The internal electrode emits positively charged RF current, which flows back and forth from the positively charged internal electrode to the negatively charged external electrode. The RF is strongly ablative and coagulative within 1–2 cm of the internal electrode and dissipates at is flows and diffuses up to the external electrode. Soft tissue within 1–2 cm of the internal electrode will undergo a necrotic, ablative tissue thermal effect, while the dermis will experience a sub-necrotic, non- ablative dermal, thermal stimulation.
\nThe Radiofrequency energy within 1–2 cm of the internal electrode provides a coagulative, ablative issue on local tissue, adipose, vascular and the fibroseptal network (FSN). As RF flows up, ever more diffusely, to the external electrode moving in parallel and in tandem with the internal electrode, RF will be more diffuse and is flowing to a much broader, bigger surface area electrode and the thermal effect on the dermal structures will be non-ablative heating (Figure 3).
\nThe RF energy flows from the internal electrode, where it is ablative in nature, to the external electrode, where the RF has a gentle non-ablative thermal effect on the dermis.
The Soft tissue tightening concept of BodyTite® is to provide and 3-dimensional contraction of the soft tissue through internal RF stimulation and contraction of the Fibroseptal network, together with dermal enhancement through non-ablative thermal stimulation and neo-collagenases [15].
\nThe Following features have been built into the hardware and software of the BodyTite® to optimize soft tissue contraction and minimize the risk of a thermal injury.
\nThe proximal internal electrode is silicone coated along its length to minimize the risk of a thermal injury to the access port and soft tissue that is not in direct proximity to the tip. There is a small, distal section of the internal electrode that is not silicon coated and this portion emits the positive charged radiofrequency energy. The distal aspect of the internal electrode has a silastic, bullet shaped cap, which facilitates dissection through the adipose tissue and minimizes the risk of an end dermal hit, or thermal injury to the underside of the dermis or deeper, delicate soft tissue structures.
\nThe RF energy is high frequency electrical current that travels in a wave form and oscillates between the internal and external electrode at a frequency of 1 million cycles per second. The RF energy oscillates molecular structures in its path 1 million time per second, generating intermolecular kinetic energy and heat. The heat can be necrotic and ablative in nature (near the tip) or sub necrotic, non-ablative tissue heating (the external electrode). The RF flows from the small, internal electrode with a smaller, more focused tip and high power density to the larger, lower power density external electrode providing “thermal containment”, or heating energy between the two electrodes, with very little heating below the internal electrode, which is a safety feature when performing RFAL around delicate structures like the face and neck where there is a the Facial nerve that is under the investing fascia of the facial muscles and is sensitive to thermal stimulation if there were significant heat flowing below the internal electrode.
\nThere are a number of high-tech sensors built into the BodyTite® hand pieces that communicate with the software algorithm on the workstation (Figure 4). Contact
The GUI screen o the BodyTite® RFAL workstation. On the left hand side, he external (skin) electrode and internal electrode (adipose) cut off temperatures are set by the physician. Increments of 120 s of RF energy are dispended and when the 120 s are up, double clicking on the foot pedal gives another 120 s. On the right-hand side are the real time temperatures of the external skin and internal fat temperatures as measured by the external electrode and internal electrode thermistors. As the user gets within 2°C of the cut off temperature, the audible beep that is emitted when RF energy is on, increases in tempo and when the cut off temperature is reached, either internal or external, the and audible will sound that is characteristic for the external and one for the internal cut-off and the RF energy delivered is terminated to the hand piece and tissue heating stops. When the external and internal temperature is 0.1°C below the cut-off RF energy flow begins again. The automated feedback loop allows heating of the adipose and skin to occur together or independently and not exceed the pre-set amounts.
The treatment time and amount of energy delivered in seconds and KJ is measured.
\nThere are a number of well-designed studies that have confirmed significant soft tissue contraction following BodyTite® and RFAL. Kreindel and Mulholland were able to show the vertical, horizontal and oblique fibers of FSN (Figure 5) as the major vehicle for significant three-dimensional soft tissue contraction at the time of surgery [15]. Further, this paper showed that 69° was the optimal temperature for thermal contraction and shortening of the FSN network. Duncan and others [16], were able to confirm upwards of 25% soft tissue area contraction after BodyTite® and RFAL at 6 months, which increased to 34% at 12 months. There have been numerous clinical papers outlining the soft tissue contraction advantages of the RFAL applicators in the face, neck, arms, inner thighs and body [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22].
\nThe FSN are shown above connecting the anterior rectus sheet below to the overlying abdominal adipose tissue. The vertical, horizontal and oblique Fibroseptal bands will shorten and contract when the RFAL thermal temperature and stimulation reaches 69°C pulling the overlying soft tissue envelope in tighter association with the underlying muscle and delivering soft tissue contraction.
The basic RFAL approach of the author has been to deploy BodyTite® applicators just before aspiration to ensure optimal soft tissue contraction, liquefy the adipose tissue for more gentle aspiration forces and coagulate the small venules and arterioles to lessen post aspiration extravasation and ecchymosis. Some physicians choose to aspirate first and perform the RFAL after debulking and they have reported good results with this technique, but theoretically aspirating first may compromise and traumatize some of the FSN, perhaps limiting the amount of contraction that could occur and would injure the small vessels before thermal coagulation increasing the risk of bruising.
\nThe BodyTite® applicators come with a dial on the hand piece that can control the distance between the internal and external electrodes, facilitating delivering thermal coagulation and different depths and levels. In general, Level 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 correspond to 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 cm inter-electrode distance and, remember, the effective coagulation is within 1–2 cm of the tip of the internal electrode (Figure 6).
\nThe various BodyTite® applicators are bipolar RF electrodes, with the internal, positively charged electrode being inserted into the adipose tissue and the external, negatively charged electrode sliding along the surface of the skin in tandem with the internal. RF flows from the internal, uncoated electrode with the RF energy is ablative close to the electrode, up through the adipose to the dermis, skin and large diameter electrode where the RF is then more diffuse and non-ablative in nature. The physician can control the distance between the electrodes by setting the inter-electrode distance on the proximal end of the hand piece. Each setting, 1–6 on the dial corresponds approximately to the number of centimeters between the electrodes.
\n
Shorten the vertical, oblique and horizontal FSN for optimal contraction.
The stamping technique. Stay in each spot until the internal thermal cut-off of 69–70 is reached, then move to the next spot.
Other physicians will withdraw very, very slowly, allowing the temperate to rise to therapeutic cut off while withdrawing. GOAL of this step is to ensure as much of the FSN experiences 69°C for optimal contraction. This process is performed at each vertical levels determined by the “skin pinch” and 2 cm formula. Multiple, sequential vertical FSN thermal stimulation and contraction is then achieved, optimizing the 3D soft tissue skin and adipose contraction and body contouring results (Figure 8).
\nVertical sequential thermal stimulation to 69–70° cut-off is achieved, which is the temperature that optimizes the FSN contraction and remodeling, resulting in the 35% or greater skin and soft tissue contraction.
Zig zag the applicator through the adipose tissue to avoid coming the same peri-port location each time, which will help avoid a peri-port thermal injury.
Once I have stamped retrograde on the way back, or using a slow moving technique, I will keep my foot on the pedal and perform several back and forth passes, slow moving technique, at that depth to ensure optimal thermal coverage of the FSN, as well as more complete lipocoagulation and liquification (easier aspiration, perhaps less trauma to the FSN, edema and pain) and coagulation of small venules and arterioles prior to aspiration (less ecchymosis). Again, it is important to zigzag your back stroke to avoid a peri-port burn (Figure 9).
When you have covered the 8 × 15 cm zone at one depth, stamping and slow moving, withdraw the internal electrode/cannula from the port and set the dial, 2 cm more superficial and repeat the stamping or slow withdrawing technique at the next, more superficial level. In the BodyTite® devices in the USA, the internal temperature before you move up to the next most superficial level must be 69 or 70° to get optimal FSN contraction (internal cut offs will not go higher the 70°). International BodyTite® users will find the external temperature will rise 4–5°C at each successive, more superficial level and there is no internal thermal cut-off control.
The skin temperature will continue to rise at each successive more superficial level until you approach the end point of 38–40°C. Both International and USA BodyTite® users would set their external skin cut off temperatures to 38–40°.
Like any liposuction or Body Shaping procedure, RFAL patients need have realistic expectations, no uncontrolled medical conditions and appropriate skin tone and focal or multifocal lipodystrophy concerns. The BodyTite® family of applicators allow physicians to selection the right-hand piece for the job. International Physicians have a slightly different array of hand pieces and thermal controls than American physicians (FDA requirements) but both parameters are outlined below. In general, BodyTite® RFAL treatment can deliver up 35% area contraction over 12 months and, as such, does allow the physician to extend the indications for liposuction to patients with more skin laxity than they might have in the past. Those older patients, or those with larger BMI’s, weight loss and weight gain, multiple parity may be BodyTite® candidates. The optimal RFAL soft tissue contraction means that physicians may be able to offer more minimal excisions: mini tummy tucks, axillary arm-lift, anterior inner thigh lifts and mini facelift in combination with BodyTite® RFAL treatment.
\nOnce you have selected a good BodyTite® candidate, then the appropriate port is selected to access the targeted lipocoagulation areas. Both RFAL BodyTite® and final aspiration contouring will be performed through the same port. Generally, this author prefers a single, well concealed port. The authors most favored zonal access ports are outlined in Figure 10.
\nSome of the standard BodyTite RFAL and aspiration ports.
Vertical sequential multi-level thermal coagulation, both stamping and/or slow moving to the deep (USA) and skin (International and USA) end points. Aspiration generally follows the heating (Figure 8).
\nThe thermal endpoints are thermal, 69–70° internal (USA) and 38–40° external cut off (USA and International). The final contour endpoints remain the art of the physician and are the aspiration endpoints.
\nPostoperative BodyTite® care is similar to non-thermal liposuction and the author favors 6 weeks of compression garmenting. The first week is with silicone coated foam compression and the next 5 weeks the garment alone. For Abdominal RFAL BodyTite® cases, a small #7 JP drain is used, as seromas are much more common than with SAL, with an incidence approaching 8–10%. Presumably post RFAL seroma are more common resulting from temporary thermal damage of the lymphatics that takes some time to normalize. The drain is removed when there are three consecutive days with less than 20 cc of drainage each day. The first 3 weeks of garmenting are 22 h per day, which is reduced to 12 h a day (day or night time) for the next 3 weeks. Full ambulation is encouraged immediately, but return to low impact activities, such as an elliptical, stair climber, exercise bike at the end of 3 weeks and high impact exercise, running, spinning, etc. at the end of 6 weeks.
\nNoninvasive bulk heating devices, to achieve even better skin tightening can be deployed when the skin is less sensitive at 8–12 weeks. Shock wave devices can be used on any areas of lumps and areas of firmness.
\nBodyTite® leaves the skin very stiff, indurated and firmer for longer than non-thermal SAL/PAL or UAL and there is strong sense of tightness and contraction on the part of the patient for the first 6–9 months, which is the contraction process. At 3–6 months, for any areas of slight contour excess, noninvasive, localized fat destruction technologies, like SculpSure®, BodyFx®, EMSculpt®, CoolSculpting® and Ultrashape®, can be used to try to improve the contour non-surgically.
\nInternationally there are 3 BodyTite® hand piece options, a 3.7 mm diameter × 25 cm or 17 cm long and a 2.4 mm × 17 cm long, also called the NeckTite®. The BodyTite® USA workstation comes in 20 W and 40 W configurations, the 40 W being more powerful and faster to endpoints and is called the BodyTite PRO (Figure 11). Both versions of the USA BodyTite® workstations automatically give as much power in watts as the treatment and hand piece needs to achieve the thermal velocity during the treatment of 20°C/cm2/s and when this thermal velocity is exceeded (20–25°C/cm2/s) will adjust down the energy until it is under 20°C/cm3/s and if the rate of rise is >35°C/cm2/s will shut off the energy flow and the foot pedal must be tapped again to being. The only BodyTite® hand piece currently available in the USA is the 2.4 mm × 17 cm hand piece.
\nThe RFAL family of applicators, starting with the FaceTite® on the left, the BodyTite®/NeckTite® 2.4 mm, the CelluTite and the larger BodyTite® 3.7 mm × 25 cm (not all are available in the USA, but are internationally).
Following the protocols and parameters outlined above, excellent results using RFAL thermal coagulation can be achieved. The areas that may benefit from BodyTite® and RFAL are outline in Figures 12, 13.
\nCommon areas where RFAL BodyTite®, FaceTite® and AccuTite® treatments can be effective.
BodyTite® before and after result at 12 months. Top panel RFAL was performed on the inner and outer tight of a 45-year-old and the middle and bottom panel BodyTite® was performed on the abdomen and hips in 68-year-old patient.
The NeckTite® is available internationally and is 2.4 mm × 17 cm and was originally designed for large necks, but has become the smaller BodyTite hand piece for smaller adipose zones in the non USA markets, while the 3.7 mm diameter hand piece is used for the larger body zones. With the introduction of the FaceTite Internationally and in the USA, the FaceTite(R) has become the RFAL applicator used most commonly for jawline, necks and very small body zones.
\nFor International physicians, the external electrode of the 2.4 mm × 17 cm NeckTite® hand piece is much smaller in diameter than the BodyTite® 3.7 mm external electrode and, as such, has a much higher power density, is more efficient and heats tissue much more quickly and with less energy.
\nUsing the protocol and parameters outlined above, excellent small zone Body contouring results can be achieved with the 2.4 mm × 17 cm hand piece and is most commonly used on the inner thighs, bra line, arms and smaller abdominal convexities (Figure 12).
\nThe FaceTite® is a very small RFAL applicator, designed for the neck, jawline, face and very small body contouring areas and is great for small secondary liposuction enhancements where fibrofatty tissue, which is like cement, can be anticipated (Figures 14, 15).
\nAreas of the face and neck that can be treated with the FaceTite® and AccuTite®.
In both the USA and Internationally, the FaceTite® hand piece is 1.2 mm in diameter × 10 cm long and is a solid, non-aspirating electrode (even internationally). The distance between the internal and external electrode is controlled by pinching the electrodes together to create the desired interelectrode distance, rather than a fixed dial, prior to entering the subcutaneous fat. Again, super-wet tumescent fluid is infiltrated prior to treatment (Figure 15).
\nThe FaceTite® applicator.
Using the protocols and parameters listed below, excellent results can be achieved tightening along the jawline and neck and small body contouring areas. The treatment of the jawline, submentum and neck can be performed using a three port approach, with a single submental port accessing the submentum and neck for RFAL and aspiration. Two more lateral ports are used to thermocoagulate and tighten each jowls and jawline. These Jawline and jowl ports can be either at the inferior border of the mandible at the lateral aspects of the submental crease on either side, or, through a sub-lobular port (Figure 16).
\nThe FaceTite® RFAL approach to the submentum, neck and jawline.
When working over the jawline, the FaceTite® physician must ensure that the internal electrode is above the SMAS and platysma, in the subcutaneous space to minimize the risk to the facial nerve. Because the RF flow is from the internal electrode up to the external electrode, there is a “thermal containment” which is not present in other mono-probe systems, minimizing a thermal neuropraxia of the marginal mandibular branch of the facial nerve (Figure 17).
\nKeep the internal electrode of the FaceTite® above the SMAS and platysma, working in the very superficial fat, to protect injury to the marginal mandibular branch of the facial nerve.
When performing RFAL along the jawline, the FaceTite RFAL lipocoagulation is executed using a slow moving and/or stamping technique within the superficial fat, just under the dermis (Figure 18). Always leave 3–5 mm of fat between the internal electrode and the dermis. The thermal endpoints are 69° in the superficial fat (US systems), a popping sound (International) and a skin cut off temperature of 38–40°. The FaceTite® can be performed just under the skin of the jawline and jowl to create significant skin tightening and firming of the jawline with reduction of the Jowl. Minimal or even no suction may be used in this region.
\nFor skin tightening and contraction, the FaceTite is passed with the superficial fat just under the dermis. Always leave 3–6 mm of fat between the internal electrode and the dermis. Adipose coagulation and dermal remodeling lead to tightening of the skin. Aspiration may or may not be performed depending upon the area.
When using the FaceTite in the submentum and neck, the internal electrode is passed through the submental fat pad, coagulating the adipose and delivering soft tissue contraction with deep endpoints being 69° (USA) or popping (International) and the skin temperature is brought to 38–40° (Figure 19). In the submentum and neck, suction aspiration is performed after the heating if there is a fatty deposit.
\nThe FaceTite® can be used superficially to deliver skin tightening without aspiration (jawline) or within the jowl, submental and neck fat and modest aspiration performed after for contour.
The FaceTite® and the newer AccuTite® can provide the liposuction surgeon with a procedure that “bridges the gap” between non-invasive face and skin tightening and the more invasive excisional procedures like a facelift (Figures 20, 21).
\nThe FaceTite® and AccuTite® can fill the gap in therapeutic options between more aggressive excisional procedures, like a facelift and the completely noninvasive external energy-based device (EBD) treatments and injectables.
Top panel is FaceTite® of the jawline and jowl, with FaceTite® and Morpheus of the neck. Bottom panel is FaceTite® and liposuction of the submentum and neck.
The FaceTite ®can also be used for small, focal liposuction body zones with little fat, to ensure soft tissue contraction prior to aspiration. Zones such as the upper arms, inner thighs, upper abdomen, as well as the jawline and neck as easily treated with the FaceTite®.
\nThe CelluTite hand piece has a V-dissector shape plastic tip, rather than bullet shaped and is used to treat advanced, grade 3 nodulo-pitted cellulite of the buttock and thighs. The hand piece is 2.4 mm × 17 cm long (Figure 22).
\nThe CelluTite® has a V-shaped tip, making the CelluTite® a thermal V dissector. The V-tip, traps the vertical, shortened, fibroseptal band that pulls down the dermis causing the deep skin pits. The band undergoes a thermolysis, release the pit and smoothening the skin.
The CelluTite® is designed to treat the three anatomic pathologies of Cellulite
nodules,
pits, and
dermal thinning with adipose herniation.
Cellulite patients tend to have a more vertically oriented FSN anatomy and, over many years there is a contraction of many of the vertically oriented fibroseptal bands and edema of the superficial fat which leads to the pits and nodules characteristic of more advance cellulite (Figure 23).
\nThe anatomy of cellulite: the FSN tends to be more vertically oriented. The pits are caused by shortened fibroseptal bands. Nodules result from edematous, swelling of superficial fat from the microcirculatory compromise. The dermis is thin, leading to fat herniating into the reticular dermis.
The CelluTite® patient is marked out in the standing position and all deep pits are marked for release, while the nodules are marked using a different color and are targeted for stamping and popping to reduce the nodules. The thinned dermis, that allows superficial fat herniation is then heated, thickened and minimizes the ability of superficial fat to herniate into the dermis.
\nOnly superficial tumescent anesthesia is required (first 4–6 cm of soft tissue) and a tense tumescent infiltration is instilled. The entire treatment is performed at level 2 on the CelluTite® depth setting. The procedure is divided into releasing the pits, followed by coagulation and reduction of the nodules. To release the pits, CelluTite tip is advanced the slowly at several levels across each pit. The thermal V-dissector captures the contracted FSN which is causing the dimple at the apex of the V (Figure 24) and bends the FSN over the RF emitting internal electrode, result in a thermoseptolysis and release, which allows the pitted skin to “pop back up” and smoothen the pitted appearance to the skin.
\nThe thermal V dissector captures the shortened vertical fibroseptal band(s) in the apex of the V and bends the band over the thermal electrode causing a thermoseptolysis and band division. This slow back and forth release is repeated a several vertical depth, providing a thorough release. This allows the pitted skin to “pop’ back up smoothening the overlying skin.
Additional smoothening is then achieved by moving the internal electrode up under a pre-marked nodule and performing a stationary stamping technique under each nodule and heating until the cutoff of 69° is achieved (USA) or, for International physicians, for 2 s, until there is a “popping” sound, both of which coagulate the edematous herniated fat, flattening the area and smoothening the contour (Figure 25).
\nThe CelluTite® applicator is placed under a nodule and a stationary stamping technique is performed causing coagulation of the nodule (70° cut off in the USA BodyTite® platforms and popping after 2 s in international BodyTite® systems). This coagulates the edematous fat and flattens the nodular skin.
Once all the pits and nodules have been successful performed, slow back and forth passes are made under the soft tissue until there is no FSN resistance with each pass and the external skin temperature reaches the pre-set cut off of 38–40°C. This will provide additional dermal thickening, minimizing herniated dermal fat (Figure 26).
\nThe skin and dermis are then heated to 38–40°C superficially and the subdermal space to 69° (US systems), thickening the dermis and reducing fat herniating into the dermis.
Excellent long term CelluTite® results can be achieved with a single treatment, often 50–70% reduction (Figure 27) which can last for many years (22). Recurrent nodulo-pitted irregularity is prevented by the creation of more multi-directional FSN, than the vertically oriented anatomy that contributed to the deformity and this multi-directional, remodeled FSN is resistant to any single fibroseptal band to shortening and causing a deep pit (Figure 28).
\nLong term, 36 month results of CelluTite of the buttock.
With release of the pits, flattening of the nodules and thickening of the skin, the remodeling process leads to a more multi-directional FSN network, which is resistant to shortening of individual bands and nodular swelling of the fat.
CelluTite® can be performed at the same time as BodyTite® and aspiration liposuction. Generally, in combination cases, CelluTite® of the buttock, posteriorly and laterally is performed superficially first, follow immediately by BodyTite® RFAL liposuction of the outer and inner thighs second.
\nNon-invasive suction coupled RF devices such as the BodyFX®, Velashap. 3®, Venus Legacy® and others can be used after 6 weeks of garmenting to maintain the outcome and protect the patient’s improvement.
\nThe AccuTite® is the newest and smallest of the BodyTite® RFAL applicators and can be deployed on any of the BodyTite® workstations (the 20 W and the 40 W BodyTite® Pro as well as the new Embrace RF workstation). The AccuTite® has all the thermal, impedance and contact automated monitoring and feedback as the BodyTite®, FaceTite® and CelluTite® applicators, but it is very versatile by nature of its tiny size. The internal solid, silicone coated electrode is only 0.9 mm in diameter and is 8 cm long. The entire Bipolar RFAL applicator can fit easily into the palm of your hand (Figures 29, 30). The AccuTite® is smaller than most of the conventional microcannulas being used to inject soft tissue fillers in the deep subcutaneous and supra-periosteal space (Figures 29, 30). The AccuTite® appeals to virtually every physician, both the surgeon and non-surgeon users who are looking for safe, predictable, non-excisional methods of coagulating fat and tightening skin. Physician users can think of AccuTite® as
The AccuTite® is the smallest of the RFAL hand pieces. It is 0.9 mm in diameter and can fit into the palm of your hand. The internal electrode is inserted under the skin to remodel the deep reticular dermis to 70°, while the external electrode will move along the surface of the skin and heat to 40–42°. The AccuTite® is shown above, next to a commonly used 22 gauge microcannula and the internal AccuTite® electrode is actually smaller. A 21-gauge needle is used to create an insertion port for the AccuTite®, which is then inserted under the skin and RF is injected under the dermis, resulting in skin and soft tissue tightening, hence, the
The AccuTite ®is small and easy to control. Above it is being used to tighten the para-nasiolabial smile line tissue and, following that, Juvederm is being injected through the same plane at a deeper level. The AccuTite® can be used under local anesthesia together with your soft tissue fillers and at the same time, often using many of the same tactics and skill sets.
The small size of the AccuTite® allows the physician us use a small #21-gauge port creation needle anywhere on the face, neck and body where skin needs to be tightened, with or without lipoaspiration. Once under the skin, the stamping and moving techniques for thermal coagulation are deployed, with the cut off temperatures of 69° internal and 38–40° external being deployed. When used subdermally for skin tightening, no aspiration is required.
\nThe AccuTite® can be used to coagulate fat and tighten the FSN prior to liposuction and aspiration in very small zones. The #21-gauge port needle site need not be closed with a suture and the physician can simply “pop in and out” of lax skin zones all over the body, including the upper and lower lid and perioral, jawline and neck (Figure 31).
\nThe small, compact size of AccuTite® and the small size of the internal and external electrode, allows this versatile RFAL applicator to gain access to areas of loose skin all over the face, neck and body. Despite its small size, the sub-dermal space is heated quickly and effectively to the same thermal endpoints as are used by BodyTite ® and FaceTite®, with the thermal endpoint of the subdermal space being 70° and the skin cut-off of 40°C. Skin tightening is significant and the small port access means a suture is not even needed for an access port.
The Morpheus is an externally applied fractional radiofrequency assisted lipocoagulation (RFAL) device that has been developed to help tighten and contract soft tissue, and contour superficial fat and skin texture at the time of liposuction, or as a stand-alone procedure. For the liposuction surgeon, once the BodyTite®, FaceTite®, AccuTite® or CelluTite® device has been deployed and the aspiration of the fat completed, a final step of lipocoagulation can be performed using the Morpheus, from
The Morpheus is an external applied micro bipolar RFAL device, that emits a 24 pin, positively charged array into the adipose tissue under the skin. Each needle, like RFAL, is a positively charged electrode that penetrates the fat and then releases ablative RF energy that flows up to a negative electrode on top of the skin.
Like BodyTite®, the Morpheus emits RF energy is ablative and coagulative near the uncoated tip of the pin and then, the RF energy flows strongly up the coated pin to a triangular shaped negative electrode. The RF pulse creates a zone of ablation several hundred microns in diameter that coagulates the fat and tightens the FSN (Figures 33, 34). The RF current then flows up the pin to the negatively charged, triangular electrodes located at pin exit sites on the tip to provide a bipolar, non-ablative thermal stimulation effect on the reticular and papillary dermis (Figures 33, 34). RF also flows form the positively charged, mono polar pin tip to the widely space negatively charge rails on the sides of the tip for a gentle sub-necrotic heating and the entire zone (Figures 33, 34).
\nThe tiny, coated, positive charged electrodes are inserted into the superficial fat, and, when the RF energy is released, a zone of ablation and adipose coagulation is created with each pulse, leading to FSN contraction and soft tissue contouring and tightening. The RF flows up to the negatively charged triangular shaped electrodes which creates a strong, non-ablative dermal remodeling effect of the each of the.
The zone of ablation and adipose coagulation contracts the FSN and contracts the soft tissue. The flow of RF up to the negative electrodes creates a more gentler, sub-necrotic, non-ablative heating and tightening of the dermis.
Basically, each of the 24 needles acts like a mini-BodyTite® internal electrode. Because the needle is silicon coated, there is no thermal epidermal-dermal effect and the ablation occurs around the positively charted, uncoated tip and is within the superficial fat using the FSN as the main vehicle for soft tissue contouring and tightening (Figures 33, 34).
\nThe physician can set the pin penetration depth to periocular (approx. 2 mm), face (3 mm) and body (4 mm) and treat at multiple sequential depths to create a vertical and horizontal fractional thermal stimulation and optimal contraction. The Morpheus is an excellent final step in BodyTite®, FaceTite®, AccuTite® and CelluTite® treatment to obtain superficial liporeduction, lipocoagulation and soft tissue tightening.
\nLike with BodyTite®, multiple passes of the Morpheus will allow the physician to create a vertical thermal lipocoagulation with skin tightening and remodeling. This horizontal and vertical thermal lipocoagulation leads to excellent skin tightening and can be done in contraction (Figure 35, 36).
\nMultiple pass and variable depth Morpheus will lead to vertical sequential FSN contraction, contouring and skin tightening.
The Morpheus can be offered on the face, or body, and after a treatment with a BodyTite® liposuction procedure for enhanced contraction and skin tightening after liposuction (Figures 36, 37).
\nMultiple pass, sequential vertical and horizontal Morpheus RFAL will lead to 3D soft tissue contraction and tightening.
When Morpheus is used on the face, multiple pass, multiple depth approach is used. The deep pass is ablative and coagulative in the deep layer, often the frontalis, orbicularis, SMAS and platysmal. The next pass coagulated the subdermal fat and the final pass into the fat of the subdermal space (Figure 37).
\nThe Morpheus can afford the liposuction surgeon, an external mini RFAL device that delivers 24 tiny mini BodyTite RFAL thermal injury injuries and can result in significant skin contraction. This can provide a nonexcisional face and necklift like result.
The Morpheus can be combined with BodyTite RFAL liposuction to improve overall soft tissue contraction and skin tightening (Figure 38).
\nCelluTite® or BodyTite®, FaceTite® and AccuTite® can be combined with Morpheus to enhance the overall soft tissue contraction and skin tightening with an “inside out” and “outside in” thermal sandwich approach.
The ability to achieve significant BodyTite® RFAL contraction has opened a more minimal excisional opportunity for surgeons in achieving optimal contouring results with less invasive procedures. Mini intra-pubic skin pinch tummy tucks, removing infra-umbilical skin excess with BodyTite® RFAL upper and lower abdominal lipocoagulation and aspiration can achieve results of a full abdominoplasty, with less scarring when the rectus abdominus diastasis is not significant. Axillary mini-brachioplasty with BodyTite® lipocoagulation and aspiration of the arm, limited incision, inguinal Anterior thigh lifting with BodyTite® liposuction to the inner thigh and lateral post or periauricular lateral face and neck-lifting with anterior compartment FaceTite® RFAL and lipoaspiration are all examples of combining BodyTite® RFAL applicators in combination with more minimal excisional approaches to achieve excellent results in selected patients.
\nBy combining the contraction power of RFAL with more minimal limited excisional approach, a less invasive option between totally non excisional energy based device treatments and full excisional, more standard lifting is created that gives patients the option for a better outcome than an EBD without the excisional scars, or recovery of a typical open surgery. Often these BodyTite® assisted procedures can be performed as an outpatient, under oral and tumescent anesthesia and nitrous oxide inhalational, avoiding a full general anesthetic. This BodyTite® RFAL together with the mini-lift, give physician an
BodyTite® RFAL is an industry leading lipocoagulation skin tightening technology and technique, with documented 35% soft tissue and skin area contraction. The physician still needs to perform final aspiration and contouring. Small, microcannula SAL, PAL (MicroAire, Vaser PAL or Tickle Lipo) are the most common aspiration options. UAL, Ultrasound assisted may be deployed prior to BodyTite®, particularly if fat grafting is being performed, as UAL will facilitate fat cell decohesion, separation and then aspiration and collection of the adipose tissue, BUT these adipocytes and adipocyte derived stem cells
SmartLipo®, or laser assisted liposuction (LAL) is another viable thermocoagulation soft tissue tightening system, with documented 17% area contraction. LAL is not as efficient as RFAL with inferior published skin contraction data, but, is a very strong brand and can be easily marketed. Occasionally, the physicians with both SmartLipo® and BodyTite®, may use the laser lipolysis for a small, and often subdermal component of the procedure and then deploy the BodyTite® applicator for the majority of the thermal coagulation process. Propulsive water assisted liposuction (WAL), is gentle, with less bruising, but does not lead to enhanced soft tissue contraction, so is not a common technology in most regions of the world. Plasma assisted liposuction is relatively new and can deliver soft tissue contraction, but lacks internal thermal control, is relatively slow and plasma may be better suited and relegated to external skin resurfacing.
\nBodyTite® is usually the stand along soft tissue contraction system and can be performed before the final aspiration contouring or, after aspiration and contouring has been performed. There are no studies confirming which, RFAL before or after aspiration, delivers the best contraction and results. The author does prefer to perform BodyTite® RFAL first, not just to optimize the number of FSN architecture that can be shortened prior to aspiration, BUT, also to ensure, small venule and arterioles undergo a thermal coagulation and then, when aspiration is performed last, there is less injury and bleeding into the subcutaneous space with less patient ecchymosis. The coagulation and liquification of fat, means more gentle aspiration forces are required, which likely translates into less edema, swelling and pain.
\nThe use of body tight RFAL applicators has evolved into a very safe and efficacious tool. Over 10,000 procedures have been performed worldwide with a very low complication rate. However, like any surgical tool untoward outcomes can occur and the risk of complication is often proportionate to the therapeutic index of safety of the device and the experience of the surgeon. Fortunately, over the past 10 years of BodyTite® innovation in the thermal lipocoagulation, there has been a tremendous evolution in the onboard sensing of soft tissue thermal profiles and automated modulation of the radiofrequency output around those variables.
\nContact sensor, high and low impedance sensors, external and internal electrothermal cutoffs, audible warnings as temperature rises, automated cut off temperatures, and energy output linked to the rate of rise of temperature with temperature surge protection are all part of myriad of onboard thermal control systems. Despite these safety features there is a small risk of a thermal injury. Because the heating from the subcutaneous level up through the, any thermal excess, any thermal excess will result in a full thickness burn. The vast majority these thermal injuries are small and limited nature and heal by secondary intent and occasional required excision once the scar has softened and remodeled (Figure 39).
\nA small full thickness BodyTite® burn during abdominal RFAL treatment. Secondary intent healing and remodeling, with dilute triamcinolone (Kenalog 2) injections will result is a very cosmetically acceptable result.
This risk a thermal injury far less than 0.25% (1 in 400 cases) and diminishes with the experience of the physician. To minimize the risk of a burner thermal injury conservative settings and parameters as outlined in this chapter and advanced training environments and experience, together with an adequate amount of tumescent anesthesia, and avoid peri-port injuries will make out the risk of the thermal excess very uncommon. When a peri-port burn occurs in a esthetically sensitive region, like the face or neck, the author will perform an epidermal closure over the injury, rather allow secondary intent healing and perform fractional RF or CO2 treatment once this is healed or, perform a secondary scar revision if necessary (Figure 40).
\nA small peri-port FaceTite® burn at the entrance of the nasolabial port. Simple epidermal 6–0 nylon closure over the injury will allow subdermal secondary intent healing without an obvious scab. Subsequent fractional RF or laser treatments or, even delayed excision will minimize the risk of any deleterious visible scar.
In the past BodyTite® and its RFL applicators lacked the sophisticated internal thermal monitoring and overheating of the adipose tissue occurred that often led to fibrous lumps and deep subcutaneous scar tissue. These internal areas of firmness and hardening are now extremely uncommon with sophisticated internal and external thermal monitoring the parameters are adhered to.
\nThe risk of significant bruising following RFAL assisted liposuction bruising is lessened with RFAL mediated thermal coagulation of small venules and arterioles and the resulting hemosiderin induced PIH is hence far less than lipocontouring with more ecchymosis.
\nThe risk of a seroma is higher using RFAL thermal coagulation is higher, most probably due to a temporary, but reversible injury to the subcutaneous and sub- dermal lymphatic system and so, an internal close drain is used by the author on all abdominal BodyTite® and RFAL cases. BodyTite® and RFAL to other anatomic regions does not increase the risk of seroma, so closed drainage is not deployed.
\nSensory anesthesia and, to some extent, dysaesthesia is more common with thermal lipocoagulation that non thermal lipoplasty and the during of recovery is longer (more like flap elevation). The reason for the more significant anesthesia is the effect of thermal coagulation resulting in a demyelinating effect of the sensory nerves, but generally 95% of patients get 95% return of sensation.
\nA good working knowledge of the anatomy of the region treated with the BodyTite® applicators will minimize deep internal thermal coagulation of sensitive vascular or neural structures. The most common reported injuries following BodyTite® when looking the worldwide literature would be damage to the antebrachial nerve of the upper arm and typically there’s a normal return of sensation, but occasionally permanent anesthesia can occur. Damage to motor nerves should not occur if one performs the RFAL in the correct subcutaneous plane. After 10 years of FaceTite® and AccuTite® to the face and neck, the author does not have a single case of permanent weakness of the marginal mandibular branch of the facial nerve. Because of the thermal containment of the bipolar RFAL, there is little to no heat below the internal electrode, which, when passed above the SMAS, platysma, orbicularis oculi and other facial muscles, the facial nerve is safe. Temporary neuropraxia of the marginal mandibular branch can occur, but this is typically from traction following aspiration and not a thermal injury.
\nBodyTite® and the RFAL applicators do lead to a more significant soft tissue contraction than any other liposuction assisted device. However, the thermal stimulus stimulation can result in a prolonged thickness and brawny edema of the skin that may take many months to settle. It is been the authors experience that this is uncommon when the focus is deep subcutaneous FSN mediated stimulation, rather than excessive dermal heating. Conservative superficial temperature and end points of 38–40°C are deployed. Because most of the contraction in the body zones relies on the deep FSN and three-dimensional contraction of this FSN, the author generally does not heat closer to the reticular dermis that 1–2 cm. However, when treating in the neck, face and the upper arm, more focus on dermal stimulation is required to gain the contraction and combination with the Morpheus, or RFAL from the “outside in” is safer.
\nWith appropriate patient selection, the risk of excessive skin laxity should be minimal. Most RFAL patients will achieve up to 35% area contraction and reasonable patient selection should result in a significantly high proportion of happy patients that would not have otherwise been liposuction candidates. Perry port burns.
\nBodyTite® RFAL is a highly sophisticated thermal coagulation system with a multitude of onboard automated, thermally monitored safety systems. It is to a testament to the safety of the system that the tens of thousands of treatments over the past 10 years have resulted in very few serious complications and has made BodyTite® the most effective and safest thermal coagulation body contour tool and in the esthetic space.
\nThe BodyTite® workstation has become one of the world’s most commonly used thermal coagulation liposuction system. The advantages and opportunities afforded the BodyTite® RFAL physician include:
Optimal soft tissue contraction using both the FSN mediated 3D contraction and dermal remodeling.
Studies show upwards of 35% areas contraction after 12 months.
An elegant array of automated feedback thermal control features that minimize over heating of adipose tissue and thermal complications that can ensue.
The ability perform liposuction more effectively on patients with more skin laxity and larger BMI’s.
The ability to offer outpatient, local anesthesia procedures that combine RFAL and more mini lifts with excellent result, less scarring and downtime.
Dr. Mulholland teaches physician workshops on the RFAL technology and is a paid consultant of InMode® and a patent contributor.
Despite significant economic and social benefits the aviation brings, its activities also contribute to local air quality impact and correspondingly affect the health and quality life of people living near the airports. The number of flights has increased by 80% between 1990 and 2014 and is forecasted to grow by a further 45% between 2014 and 2035. Consequently, the future growth in the European aviation sector will be inextricably linked to its environmental sustainability [1].
\nDuring the last decade, a lot of studies have also focused on the aircraft emissions impact on local and regional air quality in the vicinity of airport [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. The basic objects of attention are extremely high concentration of toxic compounds (including nitrogen oxides (NOx), particle matter (PM with various sizes: PM10, PM2.5, and ultrafine), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC), and carbon monoxide (CO)) due to airport-related emissions and their significant impact on the environment [2, 8] and health of the people living near the airport [3, 4].
\nGround-level emissions associated with the airport have the biggest impact on local air quality, whereas elevated aircraft emissions have less impact because they take place at increasing height. Figure 1 shows aircraft produce approximately 54% of ground-level emissions, whereas airport-related traffic is estimated to emit a further 28% [5].
\nEstimated ground-level airport-related emissions from Heathrow Airport.
Analysis of inventory emission results at major European (Frankfurt am Main, Heathrow, Zurich, etc.) and Ukrainian airports highlighted that aircrafts (during approach, landing, taxi, takeoff and initial climb of the aircraft, engine run-ups, etc.) are the dominant source of air pollution in most cases under consideration [6, 9, 10], Figures 2 and 3. More than 50% of total NOx emissions inventory inside airport area is released by aircraft engines. As shown in Figures 2(b) and 3(b), the contribution of aircraft emission to total airport PM emissions is sufficiently high.
\nThe emissions inventory of NOx [(a) annual emissions: 3.284 tons/year] and PM10 [(b) total emissions: 25 tons/year] within the Frankfurt International Airport for 2005 with an intensity of takeoffs and landings, 1300 per day.
The emissions inventory of NOx (a) and PM10 (b) within Boryspil International Airport with an intensity oftakeoffs and landings 50,000 per year.
Considered problems are intensified in connection with rising tensions of expansion of airports and growing cities closer and closer each other (the most urgent is for Ukrainian airports, such as Zhulyany, Boryspil, Lviv, Odessa, and Zaporizhzhia) and accordingly growing public concern with air quality around the airport.
\nAircrafts are a special source of air pollution due to some features.
\nJet structure for jet transport model. ΔhA, XA are the height and longitudinal coordinate of jet axis rise due to buoyancy effect, m; hEN is the height of engine installation, m; RB is the radius of jet expansion, m; X1 is the longitudinal coordinate of first contact point of jet with ground, m; and X2 is the longitudinal coordinate of a point of jet lift-off from the ground due to buoyancy effect, m.
So, to evaluate the aircraft contribution in Local Air Quality assessment of the airports accurately, it is important to take in mind few features of the aircraft during their landing-takeoff cycle (LTO), which define emission and dispersion parameters of the considered source.
\nModeling of airport air pollution includes two parts: emission inventory and dispersion calculation.
\nICAO Doc 9889 [12] recommends few tools for air quality analysis—to model emission inventory from every character groups of the spatially distributed sources as well as atmospheric concentrations resulting from emission dispersion: EDMS is based on Gaussian plume model (AERMOD) [13], LASPORT is based on Lagrangian particle model (LASAT) [14], and ALAQS–AV provides to use both Gaussian and Lagrangian approaches for dispersion calculations [12].
\nA complex model Pollution and Emission Calculation (PolEmiCa) for assessment of air pollution and emission inventory analysis, produced within the airport boundaries, has been developed at National Aviation University (Kyiv, Ukraine) [15]. It consists of the following basic components:
The emission inventory of aircraft emissions are usually calculated on the basis of certificated emission indexes, which are provided by the engine manufacturers and reported in the database of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) [16].
\nThe emission indices rely on well-defined measurement procedure and conditions during aircraft engine certification. Under real circumstances, however, these conditions may vary and deviations from the certificated emission indices may occur due to the impact factors such as
the life expectancy (age) of an aircraft—emission of an aircraft engine might vary significantly over the years (the average period is 30 years); usually aging aircraft/engine provides higher emission indices in comparison with same type but new ones;
the type of an engine (or its specific modification, for example with different combustion chambers) installed on an aircraft, which can be different from an engine operated in an engine test bed (during certification); and
meteorological conditions—temperature, humidity, and pressure of ambient air, which can be different for certification conditions.
So, the analysis of several measurement campaigns for idling aircraft at different European airports (London-Heathrow in 1999 and 2000, Frankfurt/Main in 2000, Vienna in 2001, and Zurich in 2003) [7] concludes that the largest difference between emission indices’ measurement data and the ICAO data for CO for the RB211-524D4 engine was caused due to quite long life expectancy of B747-236 (aging aircraft and engines) (Figure 5). The oldest aircraft with an emission index of 52.9 g/kg was 25 years old; the other two were built in 1987 and 1983. Mean values of the measured emission indices for three engine types (CFM56-5B1, CFM-5B4/2P, and CFM56-5B3/P) are nearly identical although the ICAO data of the CFM56-5B family differ by a factor of 2 (Figure 6
Comparison measured EICO by FTIR emission and absorption spectrometry during measurement campaign for idling aircraft at the European airports.
Comparison EICO determined for CFM-5Bx engines with ICAO values for idling aircraft at European airports.
The dependences of engine thermodynamic parameters and EE index for NOx (assessed in g/kgfuel) and factor Q (assessed in g/sec) for the aircraft engine D-36 (installed on Yakovlev-42 and on Antonov-74, -148, and -158 aircrafts) are shown in Figure 7 as the functions from ambient temperature ТА (basic engine control law for D-36 provides the constant value of compressor pressure ratio π∑* in a broad range of ambient temperatures). Values of an emission index ЕINOx vary up to 50% in relation to value at International standard atmosphere conditions inside the range of ambient temperatures between −30 and + 30°C [17, 18].
\nDependences of EE index EI [gemission/kgfuel], factor Q [g/s] for NOx, and temperature behind the compressor Tc for D-36 engine from ambient temperature.
A gradient of change of the factor
So, under operating conditions, engine emission characteristics are subject to changes as a result of influence of the meteorological factors.
\nBased on the obtained research outcomes of aircraft engine emission derivation, due to meteorological factor influences, the model was developed to recalculate the emission indices for ISA conditions
For emission factor (in g/s or kg/hour), the recalculation into actual meteorological conditions are determined under the formula:
\nIn Table 1, the correction coefficients for NOx emission factor KQnox and for products of incomplete fuel combustion KQco for average parameters of the engines while in operation are adduced.
\nTemperature, °C | \n−20 | \n−10 | \n0 | \n+ 10 | \n+ 20 | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factor KQnox\n | \n0,74 | \n0,81 | \n0,88 | \n0,96 | \n1,0 | \n
Factor KQco\n | \n1,3 | \n1,2 | \n1,1 | \n1,04 | \n1,0 | \n
Average values of aircraft engine emission factor recalculation into actual ambient temperature.
Current calculation method, realized in software PolEmiCa, also implemented the recommendations of ICAO Doc9889 [12] for emission factor assessment, including the recommendations for aircraft engine emission.
\nThe efficiency of the temperature (seasonal) factor account for pollution inventory produced by aircraft in airport area is shown in Table 2 by matching the outcomes of calculation from previous and new calculation techniques [19].
\nTechniques | \nCO | \nHC | \nNOx\n | \nPM | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Previous | \n307,000.1 | \n104,200. | \n16,700.0 | \n3400.0 | \n
ICAO LTO | \n282,754.6 | \n97,139.2 | \n18,621.1 | \n2859.4 | \n
Actual LTO for considered airport | \n185,055.1 | \n59,556.4 | \n16,869.1 | \n2207.3 | \n
Actual LTO for considered airport + temperature factor | \n190,246.1 | \n61,254.1 | \n15,984.1 | \n2207.3 | \n
Calculated aircraft engine pollution, kg.
There are different types of engines installed on civilian aircraft currently: turbojet (TJE), turbofan (TFE), turboprop (TPE), and piston (PE). The process of contaminant transport by engine jet is described by the theory of turbulent jets [20]. The restrictions on the use of this theory are satisfied completely in the current task [21]: efflux from a jet engine is a very complex fast flow of hot gas, it is nonuniform, turbulent, and has various velocity scales and chemical reactions; the gas flow in jet is usually isobaric process, the pressure in the jet flow is equal to the atmospheric pressure, which is corresponding to the nature of incompressible flow; the Mach number of jet flow at outlet nozzle of the engine does not exceed 1; and the Reynolds number for the flow is rather large U0D0/ν > 105, and the initial turbulence in the jet flow is quite moderate. For majority of the calculations, the simplifying preconditions were formulated and used: radial velocity profile has a self-preserving pattern; mechanisms of boundary layer formation near ground surface are not taken into account in this calculation; the external borders of a jet represent linear dependencies; the structure of shear layer is similar to free jet [11].
\nThe conditions of jet outflow define the type of its physical model and appropriate algorithm of its parameters calculation. The choice of the model depends on the direction of the jet at exhaust nozzle relative to the direction of the wind and/or airplane motion and from the speeds of the jet, airplane, and wind. The initial parameters for jet calculations are: slipstream flow parameter m = UH/U0, where U0 is the velocity of the jet at engine nozzle, m·s−1 and UH is the speed of an external air flow, m·s−1; UH = UW + UPL, where UW is the wind speed, m·s−1 and UPL is the airplane speed, m·s−1; Nen – number of the engines in operation, angle between vectors of wind and jet speeds ψ, grad. For ground stages of LTO cycle in airport area, the slipstream parameter m < < 1; therefore, in most cases, it is possible to take advantage of semiempirical modeling of the nonisothermal-free jets.
\nTurbulent-free jet can be divided into three stages: initial (potential core), transitive (flow development region), and developed (fully developed flow) [20]. Their boundaries along the length of jet axis
\n
\n
where \n
The stage of a jet, which is defined by boundary
At point (
where
For an estimation of the buoyancy characteristics, the Archimedes number is introduced:
\nThe height of the jet is given by the empirical relationship [23]:
\nwhere \n
The concentration is changed along the length of jet in dependence with its type. Taking into account that flow parameter
where C0 is the concentration at the exhaust nozzle of the engine, μg·m−3; KC = 9.5 for the free jet, KC = 6.5—for an opposite jet; and KE takes into account influence of a reflecting surface on straightline characteristics of a jet: ĥEN < 20 KE = 1–0.025hEN, at ĥEN ≥ 20, KE = 1, where ĥ = h/R0.
\nConsidered version of complex model PolEmiCa is based on a semiempirical model of turbulent jets and not taking into account ground surface impact on jet structure and its behavior [11]. It was argued that development of three-dimensional model of exhaust gases jet from aircraft engine near the ground is an important research topic for airport LAQ [24, 25, 26].
\nA three-dimensional model of a jet was generated in Fluent 6.3 by using large Eddy simulation (LES) method to reveal the unsteady ground vortices and turbulence characteristics of fluid flow, to investigate transient parameters of hot gases in jet and their dispersion.
\nThe jet from aircraft engine exhaust near ground surface is corresponding to a wall jet if an aircraft is moving on this surface. Numerical simulation of wall jets was performed in Fluent 6.3 for engine NK-8-2 U of the aircraft Tupolev-154 for different operational conditions.
\nFor the considered task, a computational domain was built to simplify the problem and optimize the mesh distribution where it is needed mostly (i.e., near the engine exhaust and ground surface) (Figure 8).
\nGeometry model and computational mesh visualization in vertical plane.
The zone of ground vortices formation—between ground surface and aircraft engine exhaust nozzle—is characterized by structured mesh with higher resolution, with an aim to investigate the ground vortices generation processes and basic mechanisms of boundary layer formation, ground surface impact on fluid flow mechanics, and particularly Coanda effect occurrence. Zone of engine nozzle exhaust is discretized using a very fine structured mesh to capture the jet development pattern and its vortices structure [24, 25].
\nFor considered task, the boundary conditions were specified to the boundaries of the computational domain of jet flow field (Figure 9).
\nBoundary conditions for CFD simulations of exhaust gases of jet from aircraft engine near ground.
LES provides an approach inside which large eddies are explicitly resolved in time-dependent simulation using low-pass-filtered Navier-Stokes equations [25]. Smagorinsky’s subgrid model was set to model the smaller eddies (fluctuation component of instantaneous velocity of modeling fluid flow) that are not resolved in the LES. All the calculations were made with a second-order discretization.
\nComparison of results from numerical simulations of free and wall jets for engine idle operation (U0 = 50 m·s−1; T0 = 343 K) revealed some differences in their structures and properties.
\nAxial velocity profiles based on Fluent 6.3 results show (Figure 10) a substantial difference between the wall and free jet. First, the decay rate is 40–50% higher for free jet than for the wall jet. In the case of wall jet, the maximum velocity is high and equal to 50% of initial velocity at a distance of 90 diameters of the jet penetration, whereas the free jet is relatively slow and equal only to 10% of the velocity at exhaust nozzle of the engine, Figure 10. Second, the wall jet penetrates deeper (SBwall ≈ 150 m) than the free jet (SBfree ≈ 100 m) (Figure 11). As shown in Figure 12, jet arises over the ground surface due to buoyancy effect much faster (longitudinal coordinate, XA = 65 m) and higher for free jet (height of plume rise, ΔhA = 17.8 m), than in case of wall jet (XA = 135 m, ΔhA = 14 m).
\nMaximum velocity decay along the axis of the free and wall jets.
Mean velocity contours for (a) free jet and (b) wall jet in streamwise direction after 10 s.
Buoyancy effect of free and wall jets: longitudinal and vertical coordinates of jet axis.
The same differences in the structure and properties of free and wall jets were revealed for different operational conditions (U0 = 100 m·s−1; T0 = 343 ÷ 673 K).
\nThe ground surface sufficiently impacts on jet’s structure and behavior. Numerical simulations of wall jet by Fluent 6.3 defined a decrease of buoyancy effect of height rise, which is 3–5 times less (Figure 13a) and an increase of longitudinal coordinate of jet penetration by 30%, (Figure 13b).
\nComparison of buoyancy effect parameters calculated by Fluent 6.3 and complex model PolEmiCa: longitudinal coordinate (a) and height of jet rise (b).
Comparison of the calculated parameters of the jet (height and longitudinal coordinate of jet axis arise due to buoyancy effect, length of the jet penetration) by Fluent 6.3 and semiempirical model for aircraft engine jets implemented in complex model PolEmiCa proves the found trend of the jet behavior. Thus, the including the ground impact on the jet structure and its behavior by Fluent 6.3, provides longitudinal coordinate increase and height reduction of buoyancy effect.
\nThe basic model equation for definition of instantaneous concentration
where
where
According to considered formula (11), a dispersion model integrates engine emission model and jet transport model via including the following parameters:
\n\n
\n
In other words, engine emission model and jet transport model provide input data to calculate concentration values by the dispersion model.
\nThe development of three-dimensional model of wall jet by using CFD tool (Fluent 6.3) allows to include the ground impact on basic parameters of the exhaust gases jet (i.e., plume buoyancy effect, length, and dispersion characteristics) for further dispersion modeling (11). It may be concluded that using the CFD tool allows us to improve the PolEmiCa model by taking into account the impact of ground surface on the jet structure and its behavior. So, it means that the improvement is achieved with input parameters for further dispersion calculation.
\nThe verification of the PolEmiCa model with measurement data was done initiatively for trials made in airports of Athens (Greece, 2007) [27] and Boryspil (Ukraine, 2012) [28]. In both cases, the comparisons were quite good, showing appropriate correspondence of the model to subject of assessment.
\nComparison between calculated and measured NOx concentrations (averaged for 1 min) in aircraft engine plume under real operation conditions (aircraft accelerating on the runway during takeoff stage of flight) at Athens airport is shown in Table 3 and Figure 14.
\n№ | \nAircraft | \nEngine | \nCalculated concentration | \nMeasured concentration | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NOx (delta), μg/m3\n | \nNOx (delta), μg/m3\n | \n|||||
With jet | \nWithout jet | \nValue | \nError | \n|||
1 | \nB737-3YO | \nCFM56-3C1 | \n27,43 | \n30,01 | \n31,8 | \n3,2 | \n
2 | \nB737-3Q8 | \nCFM56-3B2 | \n30,7 | \n33,50 | \n28,0 | \n2,8 | \n
3 | \nВ737-45S | \nCFM56-3B2 | \n29,76 | \n27,95 | \n23,6 | \n2,4 | \n
4 | \nB737-4Q8 | \nCFM56-3B2 | \n31,28 | \n34,93 | \n56,9 | \n5,7 | \n
5 | \nA-310 | \nCF6-80C2A8 | \n88,86 | \n122,12 | \n86,1 | \n8,6 | \n
6 | \nA-319 | \nCFM56-5B5 | \n29,85 | \n32,27 | \n26,9 | \n2,7 | \n
7 | \nB747–230 | \nCF6-50E2 | \n163,63 | \n205,37 | \n82,5 | \n8,2 | \n
8 | \nA-321-211 | \nCFM56-5B-3 | \n81,78 | \n89,74 | \n43,3 | \n4,3 | \n
9 | \nA320–214 | \nCFM56-5B-4 | \n49,99 | \n52,29 | \n16,4 | \n1,6 | \n
10 | \nB737-33A | \nCFM56-3B1 | \n25,5 | \n27,95 | \n11,5 | \n1,1 | \n
Measurement results by TE42C-TL96 system and calculation results by PolEmiCa model of NOx concentration in plume from aircraft engine emission for maximum operation mode.
Comparison of measured and modeled averaged concentrations of NOx (for a period of 1 min) under takeoff conditions (maximum operation mode of aircraft engine).
Besides, results were defined for the cases with and without jets from the engines to show that with jets, they are more equal (by 17%) to measured data, because impact of jet basic parameters (buoyancy effect and dispersion characteristics) on concentration distribution was estimated by complex model PolEmiCa (Table 3 and Figure 14). Comparison between measurements and the PolEmiCa/Fluent 6.3 model is significantly better (by 20%), because lateral wind and ground impact on jet parameters (height of buoyancy effect, jet length penetration, and plume dispersions) were included in the model.
\nThe better agreement was obtained between the calculated and measured instantaneous concentration (averaged for 3 s) in aircraft engine jet under real operation conditions (aircraft accelerating on the runway and takeoff) at Boryspil airport.
\nAs shown from Table 4 and Figure 15, the modeling results for each engine are in good agreement with the results of measurements by the AC3 2 M system due to taking into account the jet- and plume regime during experimental investigation at Boryspil airport. Also, using CFD code (Fluent 6.3) allows to improve results by 30% (coefficient of correlation, r = 0.76) by taking into account lateral wind and ground impact on jet parameters.
\nAircraft | \nAircraft engine | \nELAN | \nAC3 2 M | \nPolEmiCa CFD (Fluent 6.3) | \nPolEmiCa | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Peak 1 | \nPeak 1 | \nBackground | \n3 м | \n6 м | \n1 engine | \nAll engines | \n1 engine | \nAll engines | \n||
NOx | \nNOx | \nNOx | \nNOx | \nNOx | \nNOx | \nNOx | \nNOx | \nNOx | \n||
BAE147 | \nLY LF507-1H | \n38 | \n35 | \n1,70 | \n22,067 | \n33,9 | \n35,1 | \n70,46 | \n48,9 | \n202,3 | \n
A321 | \nCFM56-5B3/P | \n39 | \n39 | \n0,72 | \n44,00 | \n54,2 | \n90,85 | \n182,90 | \n184,2 | \n371,2 | \n
B735 | \nCFM-563C1 | \n40 | \n45 | \n0,77 | \n94,095 | \n76,57 | \n60,03 | \n120,91 | \n35,3 | \n71,10 | \n
B735 | \nCFM56-3B1 | \n45 | \n41 | \n1,74 | \n29,20 | \n23,4 | \n42,34 | \n85,30 | \n33,7 | \n67,76 | \n
Comparison measured (AC3 2 M, ELAN) and calculated concentration (averaged for 3 s) of NOx produced by aircraft engine emissions at accelerating stage on the runway.
Comparison of the PolEmiCa and PolEmiCa/CFD model results with the measured NOx concentration at different heights for selected aircraft engines under maximum operation mode.
Analysis of inventory emission results at the major European and Ukrainian airports highlighted that aircrafts (during approach, landing, taxi, takeoff and initial climb of the aircraft, engine run-ups, etc.) are the dominant source of air pollution in most cases under consideration. The aircraft is a special source of air pollution. Thus, the method for LAQ assessment of the airports has to take in mind few features of the aircraft during their landing-takeoff cycle (LTO), which defines emission and dispersion parameters of the considered source.
\nCFD numerical simulations of aircraft engine exhaust jet near to ground surface show that structures, properties, and fluid mechanics of jets are influenced by the ground surfaces, providing longer penetration, less rise, and appropriate dispersion parameters of the jets, and accordingly little bit higher concentrations of air pollution. So, using results obtained from CFD simulations (Fluent 6.3) of aircraft engine jet dynamics allow us to improve LAQ modeling systems (improved version of PolEmiCa).
\nComparison of measured and modeled NOx concentrations in the plumes from aircraft engines was significantly improved (by 20%—at Athens and by 30%—at Boryspil airports) by taking into account lateral wind and ground impact on jet parameters (height of buoyancy effect, jet length penetration, and plume dispersions).
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