Quantity of meat and fish products that were irradiated in some countries.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-930-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-929-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-931-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f159c09dab49a9bc6239b42660d8e8ec",bookSignature:"Dr. Yongxia Zhou",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10310.jpg",keywords:"Brain Science, Brain-Computer Interface, Imaging of Neural Networks, Brain Networks, Brain Function, Molecular Imaging, Brain and Mind, Functional Imaging, Multimodal Imaging, Neuroplasticity Enhancement, Learning, Memory",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 25th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Yongxia Zhou had completed her Ph.D. from the University of Southern California in Biomedical imaging (2004) and had been trained and worked as a neuroimaging scientist in several prestigious institutes including Columbia University, New York University, University of Pennsylvania. Her research interest is focused on neuroimaging and neuroscience applications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259308/images/system/259308.jpeg",biography:"Yongxia Zhou obtained a PhD from the University of Southern California in Biomedical Imaging in 2004. Her main research interest is in radiology and neuroscience applications. She had been trained and worked as a medical imaging scientist at several prestigious institutes including Columbia University, University of Pennsylvania, and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Her research focuses on multimodal neuroimaging integration including MRI/PET and EEG/MEG instrumentation that makes the best use of multiple modalities to help interpret underlying disease mechanisms. She has authored six monograph books, and edited several books for well-known publishers including IntechOpen and Nova Science. She has published more than 100 papers and presentations in many reputed international journals and conferences, and served as reviewer and editor for several well-known associations.",institutionString:"University of Southern California",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9347",title:"Neuroimaging",subtitle:"Neurobiology, Multimodal and Network Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3479e76c6ac538aac76409c9efb7e41",slug:"neuroimaging-neurobiology-multimodal-and-network-applications",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9347.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8125",title:"Medical Imaging",subtitle:"Principles and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e0fa3875d6f66d5ccd8cd3f1444c3fb9",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8125.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7862",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",subtitle:"Neurobiology, Diagnosis and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"247618f9fcfd8e9054e1202968e3387b",slug:"traumatic-brain-injury-neurobiology-diagnosis-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7862.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"René Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"rene-mauricio-barria",fullName:"René Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"69428",title:"Gamma Irradiation and High Hydrostatic Pressure Applied to Hamburger Conservation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88874",slug:"gamma-irradiation-and-high-hydrostatic-pressure-applied-to-hamburger-conservation",body:'The nutrition is an essential process for humans as they provide the essential nutrients. Meat and meat products have a prominent position among foods in the human diet, since it is rich in high-quality protein, essential amino acids, B vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients [1, 2] . These nutrients are important in the formation of enzymes, hormones, antibodies, structural proteins, and transporters as well as in the construction and maintenance of tissues [3].
Meats are defined as muscle tissues, without or not include their bone base, and can come from different animal species as long as they are fit for consumption. Meat products are those obtained from meat, edible parts of different animal species in which the properties of the raw materials are modified by means of physical, chemical, or biological treatment techniques or a combination of these methods [4]. These techniques in general may involve the addition of ingredients or co-adjuvants of technology for the production of industrialized meat.
The nutritional composition of meat and meat products favors the possibility microorganism’s proliferation [5]. Contamination of meat products may occur during processing and handling of food such as slaughtering, deboning, cutting, fragmentation, processing, packaging, storage, and so forth. This may occur due to extrinsic and/or intrinsic factors such as water, air, soil, temperature, and pH [6, 7].
To improve food safety and quality, various technologies have been used and developed to preserve and protect food against microbial contamination and deterioration. These technologies include nonthermal, thermal, biological, and chemical treatments. Thermal treatments are efficient in inactivation of microorganisms but have the disadvantage of generating unwanted biochemical reactions, since temperature-altered treatment favors changes in food quality. Texture, color, vitamin amounts, and development of unpleasant flavors are included in this change [8].
As an alternative to thermal treatments, the nonthermal treatments were developed. Among them, we can list gamma, electron, X-ray irradiation, high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), and the addition of natural antimicrobials [5]. These processes do not use temperature as a way to inactivate microorganisms and enzymes [8], and further generally, the nonthermal treatments do not affect their nutritional and sensory characteristics [8]. The use of nonthermal treatments in meats and derivatives for industrial productions is shown in several studies that among them, the irradiation and HHP are the ones that offer practical possibilities of application [9].
The production of meat industrialized is a strategy for total or partial use of less noble meat. In this class of derivates, sausages, cured meat, ham, hamburger, meatball, and others are included.
The hamburger originated in the city of Hamburg, located in Germany, and this product was consumed raw. In the 1920s, it emerged in the United States. In Brazil, it arrived in the 1950s and became known after it was produced and distributed by fast food chain [10]. It is defined as a meat product, obtained from ground beef of different animal species, with or without the addition of ingredients, molded as a disc or an oval, and subjected to a specific technological process [4, 11]. Also, according to the US Federal Code of Regulation [12], the hamburger is defined as “fresh or frozen ground beef steak, with or without added fat and/or condiments, which should not contain more than 30% fat and should not contain added water.”
In relation to world beef production, the United States produces about 19%, followed by Brazil with 17%, the European Union and China with 13% each, and India with 7% [13]. Brazil exports approximately US$ 500 million/month, being considered the largest exporter of beef [14]. In the year 2018, from January to September, 23.47 million heads of cattle were slaughtered [15]. Research conducted by the US Department of Agriculture is estimated that in 2019, there will be a 3% increase in production and a 5% increase in beef exports in Brazil [16].
The quality, safety, and nutritional profile of beef depend on several factors, such as genetic characteristics and animal feeding, slaughter, processing, handling, and others [13].
This chapter discusses the use of emerging nonthermal technologies in meats and derivatives for industrial production, in highlighting among them the irradiation and HHP, to ensure their sage consumption.
A discussion of the most representative nonthermal treatments is shown in this section. Further to the application of natural antioxidants among nonthermal treatments, irradiation and HHP are the ones that offer practical application possibilities in meats and derivatives for industrial production [9]. Despite the efficiency of these nonthermal treatments in food conservation, they may favor lipid oxidation of meat products. To avoid this, there is a tendency to combine these treatments with the use of natural antioxidants to reduce the sensory changes that are caused by oxidation [17].
Irradiation is a physical treatment in which the food is exposed to a defined ionizing radiation dose. The purpose of this treatment is to control insect infestation, reduce the number of pathogenic microorganisms or deterioration, delay, or eliminate natural biological processes (ripening, germination, or sprouting in fresh foods) [18].
According to [19], irradiated foods were evaluated by several surveys and tests over several years, thus ensuring a safe food for consumption, in relation to nutritional adequacy and toxicological and microbiological safety.
Before 1997, the use of irradiation was limited. However, after Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was approved of the use of irradiation in refrigerated or frozen meats and derivatives to control food-borne pathogens, the consumers began to check the benefits of irradiated food [20, 21].
Irradiation can be applied to any kind food. The Codex Alimentarius Commission [22] regulates that the maximum safe dosage for food in general is 10 kGy, where the minimum dosage absorbed by the food must be sufficient to achieve the technological purpose and the maximum dosage absorbed must not compromise the consumer’s health or cause the food to be disposed of [22].
According to Codex Alimentarius Commission [22], there is no minimum dosage to be used in meats, but the corresponding maximum dosages of 4.5 kGy for refrigerated beefs, 7 kGy for frozen meats, and 3 kGy for poultry meats have been defined. In Brazilian legislation [23], it is defined for any food that the minimum dose should be sufficient to achieve the purpose, and the maximum should be lower than that which would compromise the functional and sensorial characteristics of the food.
According to Codex Alimentarius Commission [22] for irradiated foods, the radiation sources that can be used are gamma rays, the radionuclides 60Co, or 137Cs; X-rays generated with a maximum level of 5 MeV; and electrons generated with a maximum level of 10 MeV. These sources have high energy that changes the position of the electrons of the atoms and molecules, converting them into electrically charged particles (ions). It should be noted that these energies are not capable of inducing radioactivity in any material [18].
Irradiation is considered one of the best emerging technologies to guarantee microbiological safety, in which any food can be irradiated, including meats and derivatives [18]. It is effective in eliminating or reducing pathogenic microorganisms, such as Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus [24].
Although the numerous advantages of the use of the irradiation in the foods, the use this process in the meat products may favor physicochemical and biochemical alterations, as for example the lipid oxidation increase. This oxidation is characterized by the formation of free radicals, that is, it is initiated in the unsaturated fraction of fatty acids by the uptake of a hydrogen atom and propagated as a radical-mediated chain reaction. This process depends on the chemical composition of the meat and access to light, oxygen, and storage temperature. As it causes the increase of oxidation, there are changes in taste, aroma, and nutritional value changes that affect the quality of the food [25, 26, 27]. The addition of antioxidants may contribute to the reduction of this process [28].
Regarding the label of the irradiated food, according to the Codex, food that goes through the irradiation process must include on the label a statement indicating that the treatment has taken place and may optionally use the international symbol available [29]. However, under US law, the symbol must be used and must be declared: “Treated with radiation” or “Treated by irradiation.” The Brazilian regulation should include in the main panel the words “FOOD TREATED BY IRRADIATION PROCESS” [23].
Table 1 shows data from the study by Kume et al. [30] that reported the quantity of meat and fish products that were irradiated in the listed countries.
Country | Irradiated meat and fish (tons) |
---|---|
The United States | 8000 |
Belgium | 5530 |
France | 2789 |
The Netherlands | 944 |
Indonesia | 1008 |
Vietnam | 14,200 |
Total | 32,471 |
Quantity of meat and fish products that were irradiated in some countries.
In a research conducted by Chirinos et al. [31], samples of industrialized hamburger inoculated with Escherichia coli O157: H7 were subjected to the irradiation process. It was found that at low doses (1.08 kGy), it was sufficient to reduce the microorganism, without rejection by the trained tasters.
It was evaluated by Moura [32], the oxidation of cholesterol in beef burgers and chicken burgers submitted to irradiation and stored under freezing conditions. It was found that there was an 11% increase in cholesterol oxide levels in frozen burgers.
Frozen chicken hamburger was inoculated with Salmonella sp. and irradiated in a study conducted by Vieira [33], and it was found that dosages of 5 and 7 kGy would be sufficient to reduce the population of Salmonella sp. Sensory evaluation did not change significantly, and shelf life was 120 days the same as the conventional product.
The effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) processing was first reported in 1899 by Hite [34]. This process uses an isostatic pressure at room temperature between 100 and 600 MPa. The pressure in the closed and degassed chamber is transmitted by pumps through a liquid (usually uses water) uniformly and instantaneously, which causes the molecular volume to change. The physical effect of the process occurs in the molecules, in which bonds that are weaker, such as those of hydrogen and hydrophobic, are modified [9].
The behavior of food under pressure is determined by three principles: Le Chatelier principle (any reaction that is accompanied by the decrease in volume and increased by pressure); principle of microscopic ordering (increasing pressure increases the order of molecules at constant temperature); and isostatic principle (foods are subjected to uniform pressure from all directions and return to their original shape after release of pressure) [35].
High hydrostatic pressure processing has been used in the industries for the processing and preservation of meats and meat products. Its application can inactivate pathogenic microorganisms and enzymes, increase shelf life, and maintain sensory quality [8, 35]. When compared to thermal treatments, the main advantage of this process is the maintenance of the sensorial and nutritional characteristics of the treated foods. With the wide application of this process, it is possible to develop value-added foods with better quality and shelf life compared to those produced in a conventional way [35].
Some of the important achievements in the treatment of meat product as chicken, pork, and beef processed by using HHP were presented in the works of [36, 37, 38], respectively.
The work of [36] applied HHP with control parameters 300 MPa for 5 min, at 20°C on fresh chicken breast fillets, and indicated that modified atmosphere packaging maintained their sensory attributes, color, tenderness, and microbiological quality. High hydrostatic pressure processing applied by Grossi et al. [37] indicated that treatment with 600 MPa for 6 min in pork affected the myofibrillar protein degradation pattern due to the increase of cathepsin activity. It was reported by Sanchez-Basurto et al. [38] that the HHP preserved raw meat over a longer-time period without significant difference of texture, tenderness, and color using the control parameters 172–620 MPa and 1–5 min in treatment.
In general, nonthermal technologies are not stand-alone techniques, and in order to improve the inactivation rates, several authors have proposed that HHP treatments are applied in combination with natural bioactive compounds, of which many originate from distinct natural sources [17].
In the work of Kalchayanand et al. [39], HHP treatment was used in roast beef samples inoculated with a mixture of clostridial spores that could be stored for 42 days at 4°C. It was observed that combined treatment of HHP and vacteriocin controlled the growth clostridium spores and extended the shelf life of roast beef for 84 days and can be stored at the same condition.
Different conditions for cooked ham were considered in the works of [40, 41, 42]. These studies compare samples submitted only to HHP treatment and in combination with some antimicrobials. The results reported by the authors generally show control of pathogen growth and increased shelf life.
A wide range of studies have been conducted to determine and enhance the efficacy in the combination of antimicrobial compounds with HHP treatments in the inactivation induced by pressure of pathogenic microorganisms. More details of the main recent results can be found in the work of [17].
Lipid oxidation is the main cause for loss of sensory quality in meat products [28]. It is a chemical process that generates unpleasant odors, deterioration of the color, texture, and nutritive value of meat and meat products, which diminishes consumer acceptance, since the main attribute for evaluation of the food by the consumer is their appearance [1].
Meat proteins are also susceptible to oxidative reactions during heating and storage, and these reactions damage membranes and cellular functions, altering water retention, color, and reducing essential amino acids [1, 2].
To avoid the development of oxidative reactions, the industries use synthetic and natural antioxidants. Antioxidants have the functions of delaying or preventing oxidation processes, for example, in the elimination of free radicals. In this way, it will increase the shelf life and maintenance of food quality and safety [26, 43].
There are laws that regulate the use of antioxidants in food products. Sodium isocyanurate, butylhydroxyanisole (BHA), and butylhydroxytoluene (BHT) have been used in meat products. There are studies that show that synthetic antioxidants have the potential to cause toxicological effects, so it may be desirable to replace conventional antioxidants with natural antioxidants [25, 27, 43, 44].
These natural antioxidants are extracted in the form of extracts from different sources such as fruits (grapes and pomegranate), vegetables (broccoli and potatoes), herbs, and spices (tea, rosemary, oregano, cinnamon, sage, thyme, mint, ginger, and clove) [27]. The antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antifungal properties of these spices and extracts are mainly related to their bioactive components, such as phenolic compounds, flavonoids, vitamins, minerals, carotenoids, and phytoestrogens [1, 25].
Table 2 lists some studies that used natural extracts in meat and meat products.
Source of antioxidant | Products | Main results | References |
---|---|---|---|
Plum | Irradiated turkey breast | Reduced lipid oxidation | [45] |
Precooked roast beef | [46] | ||
Grape seed extract | Precooked sausages | Kept the odor of fresh meat cooked and longer flavor | [47] |
Pomegranate | Chicken patties (hamburgers) | Reduced TBARS | [48] |
Cooled chicken meat | [49] | ||
Rosemary | Frozen beef hamburgers | Red color stability during storage | [50] |
Irradiated frozen beef hamburgers | Reduced lipid oxidation | [25] | |
Oregano | Irradiated frozen beef hamburgers | Decreased lipid oxidation, but not as efficient when compared to rosemary extract | [25] |
Natural extract used in meat and meat products.
In meat and poultry products, rosemary extract (Rosmarinus officinalis) is one of the most studied natural antioxidants, and its efficiency in turkey meat, ground beef, and pork has been reported [43].
The antioxidant activity of rosemary extract has been associated with the presence of several phenolics, such as carnosic acid, carnosol, rosmanol, and rosmaridiphenol, which has the function of breaking free-radical chains by electron and metal ion donation [25]. However, rosemary extract can be extracted from leaves and branches [27].
The use of synthetic and natural antioxidants helps to preserve the desirable characteristics of food. It is important to emphasize that when using a natural antioxidant, it is important to evaluate its impact on the sensorial analysis and quality of the final product [2, 43].
Consumers want to purchase quality meat products that are safe, nutritious, and natural, with appropriate appearance and flavor. To ensure the innocuity of products to consumers, various technologies and treatments can be used to achieve this result, such as nonthermal treatments, which ensure a safe and better quality product. In addition to these, treatments can use natural antioxidants to ensure a food with its natural characteristics. However, further studies are necessary to check the advantages and disadvantages of the beef hamburger irradiation process as well as in the use of combined processes may be involving the freezing, addition of natural antioxidants and irradiation.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
BHA | butylhydroxyanisole |
BHT | butylhydroxytoluene |
FDA | Food and Drug Administration |
HHP | high hydrostatic pressure |
kGy | kiloGrays |
TBARS | thiobarbituric acid reactive substances |
Research into compaction technologies and the development of compacting machine construction have been undertaken by the Institute of Production Systems, Environmental Technology and Quality Management of the Mechanical Engineering Faculty at the Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava (ÚSETM SjF STU) for more than 18 years. In its scientific research activity, the definition of equations describing the dynamic process of compaction, experimental tests of the compaction process, and the analysis of existing legislation in the area of solid enriched biofuels were undertaken. Over the stated period, the ÚSETM SjF STU has designed and developed several machines that are today in serial production. Chief among these is the BL 55–280 briquetting press, the DZ 240 disintegrating machine, the KUDO 2009 mobile unit making use of wood waste, the TR 200 solid material separator, the PLG 150 round pelleting press, the ZBL-2-860 double-screw briquetting press and others. In this area, members of the institute have submitted over 55 patents and industrial models. The workplace has carried out some 64 national and 48 international projects in this area. Over 50 pelleting and briquetting production lines have been designed and subsequently implemented here, of which projects over 10 were carried out abroad.
When designing a new machine, we used a standard process customary in our department (Figure 1).
Project management and coordination design of a new machine [1].
The production of enriched biofuels is a fitting direction for the recovery of biomass and other energy wastes. Fuel in the twenty-first century must, in addition to the environmental and economic criteria, fulfil the criterion of high comfort and safety in its combustion. Modern energy carriers must have uniform size, density, moisture and shape. One of the most progressive means of waste recovery is the compaction of particulate matter into moulds with different shapes. The press technologies of transforming biomass into biofuels with the required properties are compacting, briquetting and pelleting. A common mark of these technologies is the pressing of raw materials under a certain pressure so that the mouldings achieve the required strength and shape. Compaction has several advantages:
Higher calorific value when incinerating high-quality mouldings compared to combustion of the same material in an uncompressed state.
A more uniform and longer process of burning of the mouldings than the material in an uncompressed state.
Sufficient strength of mouldings guarantees high biofuel comfort during transport.
High density of mouldings minimalizes costs for transport and storage.
The high temperature and pressure during press process of the biofuel prevent the onset of biodegrading processes.
The processing of otherwise hard-to-use waste into the form of enriched biofuel and others.
Immense progress in the usage of compacting technologies for the production of solid enriched biofuels has been recorded throughout the world. For instance, in Germany, Denmark and Austria, the demand for such biofuels exceeds domestic production. On the other hand, a certain limit in the energy usage of solid enriched biofuels from biomass has been reached at present, since many times their price is not commercially comparable with using fossil fuels [2]. The price of enriched biofuels is increased directly by high transport and in particular energy costs for their production. A reduction of such expenses is only possible by the application of new advanced progressive technologies and new constructions of the machinery necessary for production. These machines must be more economically effective with long working part lifetimes. Among the dominant problems for the producers of solid enriched biofuels are:
Varying, often low-quality, mouldings (density, abrasion, strength) due to insufficient familiarity with the process.
Excessive wearing of active parts of the compacting machines and devices.
Inexact mathematic models, by which the compacting machines are designed.
Mould shapes are not optimal, as mouldings are now produced as cuboid, e-angled (briquettes) or cylindrical (briquettes and pellets). These shapes are not optimal from the viewpoint of automatic supply in the combustion process.
A lack of pure wooden biomass forces producers to search for new materials suitable for the production of enriched biofuels. These include agricultural raw materials or fitting industrial or separated municipal waste.
Compaction machines often are not constructed or designed for these materials, and therefore overloading, breakdowns and shortened operational life occur, as well as higher costs per unit of production and under- or over-dimensioning since the machines do not have optimised drive power. These all lead to increased energy demand which forces up the prices for such biofuels.
At present, it is necessary to develop and introduce into practice the highly effective press machines with extended lifetimes of their functioning parts and devices, optimised on the basis of precise mathematical models derived from experiments, and machinery with low energy and operation expenses per unit of compacted material. By such increases in effectiveness and reductions of production costs, it will be possible to produce biofuel at low prices that will make its use more widely applicable and its cost competitive with fossil fuels. This is a tool for achieving one of the primary goals of the European Union—increasing the implementation of renewable energy resources.
The contemporaneity of the project’s intentions confirms the ever-increasing interest in producing energy carriers, increases in the number of users of biomass furnace for producing heat and also the continuing growth of production and consumption of solid enriched biofuels in Europe and around the world, not to mention in Slovakia.
At the present time, we know three basic principles for operating briquetting presses: mechanical, hydraulic and screw (Figure 2).
Different principles of briquetting presses. (a) Mechanical, (b) hydraulic and (c) screw.
Briquettes are suitable for kitchen stoves, brick ovens, level and central heating and fireplaces. Burning time of briquettes is from 30 to 60 min, depending on their shape and size. The moulds produced are generally in the form of cylinders, blocks or n-angles (Figure 3). In conformity with DIN 51731, the characteristic size is greater than 30 millimetres. Larger pressed fuels catch fire less easily and burn worse, and their combustion tends to be less ideal. Briquettes with larger diameters are also made with holes.
Actual shapes of briquettes. (a) Cylindrical briquettes, (b) octagonal briquettes with holes and (c) block briquettes.
The highest quality and strength of briquettes are achieved on screw briquette presses. But with this method, there is greater wear on the working equipment—the screw press. Screw briquetting presses (Figure 2c) clearly produce the best-quality briquettes (Figure 3b). The advantage of this sort of briquetting is that, as opposed to the other technologies, the moulds are produced continuously. The use of screw presses has a whole range of positive attributes. The briquettes are accordingly compact, with high densities, and can be produced in a number of shapes and sizes. The machinery is not noisy and do not create vibration comparable to other mechanical presses.
Despite the stated and undeniable benefits of this technology and the desirability of its moulds on the mark, such machines are almost non-existent. The primary reason is the very low service life of the tool and the lifetime of its axial bearings. The greater the expansion of screw briquetting presses, the shorter the lifespan of the work machine. The average life of screw and tools for such a press machine produced by today’s manufacturers is from 50 to 120 hours, depending on the pressed material. This low durability and the consequent high cost for repair of screw or purchasing new tools outweigh the undisputed advantages of briquettes produced by this technology. Current designs of screw briquetting presses have several structural drawbacks. Among them are:
High wear of the end of the screw
Low axial bearing durability
Heating of the rotating screw during start-up and cooling during operation
Exerting high torque through the small diameter of the screwed shaft
Research into screw briquetting presses has also been intensively addressed. We have had successful cooperation with the Austrian company, Pini Kay. The result of the research is apart from other things a mathematical model for the design and optimization of the geometry of screw presses (Figure 4a), the design of a suitable abrasion-resistant material or the design of a rapidly replaceable screw head (Figure 4b).
Results of research on the screw press. (a) The course of pressures and (b) replaceable end (SK 288206) [3].
The result of this research has been a solution for removing faults in the existing constructions of screw presses, not removing the reasons. With regard to the above, there emerged the original idea of designing a totally new conception of the construction and kinematics of the screw compactor. In order to eliminate the high axial load of bearings, we designed the original design (UV 6045) [4]—the backward arrangement of the screws (Figure 5). A real outcome of this research is the prototype of a double-chamber screw press with a backscrew arrangement (Figure 6).
Bicameral press of pressures. (a) Schema of press and (b) real design.
Results of research on the screw press. (a) Prototype and (b) press in the production line.
Constructional development mechanical briquetting press can be divided into development of an overall modular conception of a briquetting device and research into original design nodes. The basic requirement in the design of the modular conception was to achieve maximum universality of the individual construction elements and, with respect to the number of pressing chambers, the range of manufactured production offered. Research into original design nodes is focused on a significant expansion of the basic functions and technical parameters of the compaction machine as well as the possibilities of compacting waste with increased moisture and the production of briquettes and pellets on a single compacting machine.
The BZ 50–300 briquetting press is a mechanical briquetting press with an open pressing chamber (Figure 7) [5]. The press is driven by an electric motor, a pulley and a flywheel. The transformation of rotational movement to rectilinear is performed by the crank mechanism. The cylindrical piston tool performs direct rectilinear motion. The advantage of the press is its simple and reliable construction. The diameter of the briquettes produced is from 50 to 60 mm, the total press input power is 17.5 kW, and the hourly press performance is 250–350 kg of briquettes. Up to the present, more than 80 units have been produced, not only for the Slovakia market but also for export to the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary and Austria. The press is manufactured by Konštrukta Industry Trenčín, and at this time its production is also being prepared at the Vural Žilina company.
Briquetting mechanical press BZ 50-300. (a) Press construction and (b) actual look.
In cooperation with the Vural Žilina company, work on a dual-chamber briquetting press for the BZ 2-55-600 (Figure 8) is in preparation [6]. The advantage of the new resolution is lower machine input per unit of output. The hourly output is doubled while the press input power is less than twice. Accordingly, costs for the press are reduced because up to 83% of the pieces are not dependent on the diameters of the briquettes produced nor on the number of pressing chambers.
Briquetting press. (a) Two single-chamber presses BL 55-300 and (b) dual-chamber press BL 2-50-600.
The individual parts as well as the entire machine are verified for strength according to the required diameter of the product and the type of material processed. In the design and dimensioning of the construction of the dual-chamber press, we needed to know, just like with the single-chamber press, the course of power during lifting and its maximum value so that we would be able to correctly dimension the amount of drive, the flywheels, the balance of the crank mechanism and the strength of the individual components. This strength changes quite dramatically in dependence on the type and current state of the material to be compressed. From the standpoint of dimensioning and of the production itself, the new crankshaft (Figure 9a) was critical. A completely new part of the press was the construction design and the dimensioning of the crankcase, for example, the crankshaft (Figure 9b).
Simulation of burdening of press parts [6]. (a) Control of crankshaft for bending and (b) pressure course.
The final goal of this task was to rework the existing construction of the briquetting press to a modular state with varying dimensions of the briquettes or pellets produced, in single- or dual-chamber versions. According to the requirements of the client, we are able to design a machine tailor-made from the viewpoint of the type of processed material and the diameter of the produced mouldings and from the standpoint of the required output of mouldings hourly production.
For design optimization “Modullis” application software was created [7]. The software also includes an analytic part containing mathematical models for dimensioning and control of the individual parts of the press. The combinatorics of the design allows for a rapid choice of the suitable parts according to the selected press version (single-chamber or dual-chamber) and the diameters of the produced briquettes (∅ 50, 55, 60, 65, 70 mm) or pellets (∅ 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 24 mm). The advantage of the designed module make-up is that the parts are made separately from the final assembly, which greatly reduces the manufacturing costs. The optimization result is the choice of a final set of parts for assembly and guaranteed machine output for compression of the required material.
In Table 1 all variants of the briquetting press (briquette diameters ∅50–70 mm, single-chamber or dual-chamber versions) are shown; for each variant a list of the optional parts is written. The idea of this sketch can be transformed into a computer program on the basis of briquette diameter requirement. The number of pressing chambers determines how many new parts will have to be used for the refitting of the existing briquetting press whose construction forms our starting point, as well as the hourly output of the selected briquetting press. The parts of the single-chamber press are identical, for easy fitting into the single-chamber press. The universality of usage of the individual parts is clear from Table 1 and the graphs in Figure 10.
Dual-chamber briquetting press | ||
---|---|---|
Subgroup | New | Adapted from BL 50-250 |
Frame | x | |
Main drive (electric motor) | x | |
Flywheel | X | |
Pulley | X | |
Crusader | x | |
Pressing chamber | x | |
Screw feeder | x | |
Spring collet | x | |
Fan belts | x | |
Feeding socket | x | |
Crank box | x | |
Crank shaft | x | |
Crank shaft roller bearing | x | |
Crank shaft sleeve bearing | x |
Unification nodes.
Selection of parts for modular conception of a press. (a) Crank gear of single-chamber briquetting press BZ 50–250, (b) crank gear of dual-chamber briquetting press 2BZ 50–500. (c) Crank shaft of single-chamber briquetting press BZ 50–250, (d) crank shaft of dual-chamber briquetting press 2BZ 50–500, (e) counterweight of single-chamber briquetting press BZ 50–250, (f) counterweight of dual-chamber briquetting press 2BZ 50–500, (g) crusader – usable in both versions and (h) connecting rod.
Part of the development of compacting machines is the research of the original construction nodes focusing on the significant expansion of the basic functions and the raising of the technical parameters of produced machines. Here the “breathing hood”, the “pelleting insert” or the “folded piston” of the machine belong primarily.
All of the compaction technologies analysed up to the present allow compaction of only materials with relative moisture lower than 18%. At the same time, drying is demanding in both an energy and an investment sense. This problem can be solved in two ways.
The first method is the replacement of the technology of drying by a new, less energy-demanding, technology. This refers to centrifuging, pressure, drainage and chemical technologies and their mutual combinations.
The second method is managing the technological compacting process with a higher value of relative moisture than the limit (18%). For this purpose we developed in our workplace a so-called breathing press hood [8], which allows for the draining of water from the hood of the press (Figure 11). In this way it becomes possible to achieve quality mouldings with input raw materials with 22% relative moisture.
Sketch of a breathing hood, 1 – hood body, 2– pressing segments, [8].
On the stated hood, we briquetted wood waste with input moisture of 22%, with the mouldings showing sufficient quality. Relative moisture wr is defined by the ratio of the weight of the water and the total weight of the pressed raw material. Due to the high pressure in the pressing process, the water is in a liquid state. After the exiting of the briquette from the pressing chamber, the pressure falls, and the water changes into vapour and escapes from the briquette, while tearing it. The essence of the idea is to allow the escape of the vapour directly from the pressing chamber during the reverse movement of the piston and a drop in pressure. Adjustments to the piston or drilling holes in the hood were not successful because their rapid shutdown resulted. The centre point of the proposed hood is that the formed vapour can escape through slots between the individual press segments. The slots close completely during the reverse movement and the drop in pressure.
The original result of the research into the construction of a briquetting press is the multi-technological construction of a press hood for a compacting machine [9]. Our attempt is to also produce pellets through a simple change of the compacting machine’s press hood. The principle of the change is clear from Figure 12. In Figure 12a, we can see the briquetting hood of a crank briquetting press, which standardly produces briquettes with the required diameter. By adding (inserting) a pelleting insert (Figure 12b) to the briquetting hood, on that same press, we can make pellets with the required diameter (Figure 12c). In the two-dimensional range, we have designs of inserts that allow producing pellets with diameters of 8–20 mm. An example of a four-holed insert with a pellet diameter of 20 millimetres is seen in Figure 12.
Briquetting press pelleting Hood [9]. (a) Briquetting hood, (b) hood with pelleting insert and (c) production of pellets.
Verification functioning tests were performed on straw and wood at the OPS company in Lehota pod Vtáčnikom. The positive result expanded the usage of the already existing briquetting press in producing economical pellets.
A very quick wearing part of a briquetting press is the pressing piston, its front part in particular (Figure 13a). This problem can be solved through the use of quality materials and their thermal chemical treatment [10]. Another approach to the effective resolution of this problem is the construction design of a folded piston (Figure 13b).
Press piston. (a) Wearing of a press instrument and (b) stacked piston.
The common feature of all press technologies, which include pelleting, is the compression of materials under high pressure [11].
A screw extruder is known, in which the screw feeder is also the tool of this press (Figure 14a). The disadvantage of this machine is the need for a cooling system and its low hourly rate of output during the moulding production. Another one is a horizontal pelletising machine with cylindrical rollers and a cylindrical die (Figure 14b). The disadvantage of this machine is the uneven supply of materials under both rollers. A horizontal pelletising machine with cylindrical die and compression rotor is also similarly designed. The disadvantage of this design is the increased friction between the tool and die and the resulting faster rotor wear. The construction of a horizontal pelletising machine with gears is also known (Figure 14c). Such a pelleting machine comprises a pair of hollow cylinders with gearing around their perimeter. There are holes drilled in the gearing through which the material is extruded into the interior of the cylinders. Cutters located in the interior of the cylinders cut the compressed pellets. The disadvantage of this machine is the small number of teeth on the cylinders, as a result of which it achieves a low hourly rate of output. There is also a vertical pelleting machine with conical rollers and a flat die (Figure 14d). The disadvantage of the machine is the high and uneven wear on the rollers.
Pelleting machine. (a) Horizontal screw, (b) cylindrical rollers and cylindrical die, (c) horizontal with gears and (d) vertical with conical rollers and a flat die.
The percent share of pellets on the refined fuels market is increasing dramatically. Currently, pellets are made in a cylindrical shape, with diameters of 6–25 millimetres and lengths of pellets equal to two to five times the diameter (Figure 15).
Pellets.
Greater sized pellets are used only for combustion in large furnaces and cement-making. The greatest advantage of pellets is that, due to the size and homogeneity of the fuel, a fully automated combustion process is possible. The disadvantages of pellets are the high ratio of the fuel’s surface and its volume. With this the burning of volatile materials even at low temperatures (above 200°C), the very rapid burning process (10–20 min) and also the high wear of the functioning parts (die, roller.) of the pelleting mills are related. Another disadvantage is the high demand associated with the production technology. The material must be of high quality, homogeneous, able to disintegrate into very small particles and have optimal humidity. The high investment costs associated with the manufacture of the fuel and with its usage are also disadvantageous. The input power for a unit of volume output “Pj,W” [W/(kg h−1)] is lower for pellet presses than for briquettes. This has to do with the fact that the ratio of the area of the press openings to the total area of the die on which the press pressure acts is less than 1. Only in special furnaces is it energy effective to recover pellets. The very high demands on investments also apply to the user of the fuel.
As a consequence of the persistent problems with pelleting methods and with the design of pellet mills, there is an opening for the design of a pellet mill which would offer reduced energy costs and reduced wear of machine components [12]. The result of this effort is the pellet mill described further in the submitted invention. The first principle of the pellet mill was described in Slovak patent SK 286877 [13], titled as the “Method of pressing pellets of particulate organic and/or inorganic materials or raw mix and pellet press” (Figure 16).
Cut of the pelletizer PLG2010 [13]. 1 – Wedge body, 2 – first flange, 3 – second flange, 4 – first drive disk, 5 – second drive disk, 6 – the kinematics of the drive mechanism, 7 – ball tool, 8 – die, 9 – hopper, 10 – axial bearing, 11 – axial bearing, 12 – die, 13 – sliding sleeve, 14 – sliding sleeve.
Pellets compression is realised when the raw material with a required fraction and of maximum water content of 18% continues in to the open-work pressing chamber in the shape of the spatial effect of the V-ring.
The raw material is pulled in the work pressing chamber from the rotating screw and/or rotating balls. The rotating circular parts touch at the bottom. Open-work pressing chamber partially encloses a rotating spherical shape. After that the raw material is injected from the pressing chamber into the extrusion orifices or a whole die, from which mouldings emerge. Pellet mill consists of a hollow wedge-shaped body (1) with circular recesses for the wedge-shaped surface, wherein the wedge surface has a first and a second flange (2, 3). In the first flange (2) the first drive plate is concentrically and rotatable mounted (4), which extends its face into a solid circle of the wedge surface of the wedge hollow body (1). The inner faces of the first drive plate (4) and the second disc (5) have a spherical recess which is fitted with a ball (7), the radius of which is equal to the radius of the spherical recesses. The second roll (5) comprises a concentric circle on the through-holes (8) by its width; the axial deflection of the first drive plate (5), together with a hollow wedge-shaped body (1) and the ball (7), is working in the pressing chamber of the spatial shape of the V-ring.
The main advantage of this idea is that press tool has got spherical shapes and contact between tool and die is theoretical in the point. Due to the small contact area (point), we obtained a small force-requiring pressing power, and we do not need the big motor power. For the construction of the mill, it is characteristic that the die is powered and its drive comes from the drive body. The spherical tool is hollow, and the kinetics of the drive mechanism for the die passes through the spherical tool. This can be achieved by coupling the die with a drive through the cardan joint or pivot joint. An important parameter of the mill is an axial shift of the drive’s face from the die’s face. In this design, the peripheral speed of the spherical tool during each revolution is not constant. This results in the uneven wear of the working tools, reducing the output efficiency of the mill and increasing the cost of the mill’s repair due to the need of replacing the damaged parts.
To achieve a synchronised generating pressing space, it was considered appropriate to use the principle of cardan. The concept of the machine consists of two cylinders with axial and rotary roller with independent various axes of rotation, between which one ball was placed. These three members create the press chamber by the relative motion, in which the material is entrained and compressed on the principle of continuous changes in the geometry of the press jacket and thus its volume (Figure 17).
The first concept of the pressing principle. (a) View of the 3D model, (b) view of the pressing chamber, (c) functional model and (d) view of the die.
The first functional model was prepared at our institute in 2010 [13]. This machine was used to verify the proposed principles. The device has a ball diameter of 71.6 mm, a motor of 1 kW, an output per hour of 40–50 kg/h and a number of holes in a die of 21 x Ø 7 mm and belongs to the group of small pelleting presses. The production of individual parts of the pellet press is not technologically and financially very demanding, which can be an affordable solution of the pellet press with a high degree of financial recovery of biomass waste. The accuracy of the proposed structure was verified by testing the functional and technical parameters such as verification of pull material into the pressing chamber, the ability of pelleting, the performance verification and the validation of the quality of compression mouldings. The tests included pressed materials such as wood waste, MDF waste, straw, cecina, peat, black alluvial areas, wastewater treatment plant waste - sludge, rape, California earthworm humus, rat poisoning, cocoa waste. This principle was patented by the authors in 2006 and subsequently the basis for modification of the design and production of the pellet press prototype was created.
There was a development of a new prototype machine launched in 2011. The design of the machine has been subjected to a comprehensive analysis of the deficiencies of the machine. The analysis concerned the construction of the machine but also investigated the tribology machine and damage to various parts of the former variants of the machine. The current version of the ball pelleting mill is shown in Figure 18.
Innovative spherical pellet machine (V4). (a) 3D model, (b) cut of the chamber, (c) prototype, variant V4 and (d) pellet in IMC line.
The current version of the machine has some fundamental changes from previous variants, which are its main advantages. The concept of the machine allows easy and rapid exchange of press tools, depending on the type of the pressed material. The tests of various materials using different matrices can be tried.
It is also possible to change the length of the pressing channel by means of calibration matrices that can be added or removed. We can say that after the application is the modularity of the machine at a higher level which provides a simpler implementation of experiments. The final drive solution is modular machine tools on the same basic platform. Drive instruments may be by means of universal joints and friction bonds formed between tools using tools or gear using punch with projections. Each of these solutions helps to better ensure the transfer of torque from the stamp to the die.
There are ongoing long-term pilot plant verification test pelleting various types of materials. In the picture we can see pelleting paper sludge [14]. During the tests, the machine demonstrates compliance with the required operating parameters, quality and process reliability. Today, we are prepared to introduce its mobile technology lines for pellet horse dung. This line was started to be produced with the company IMC Slovakia, Banská Bystrica [1].
In the 2013, we prepared absolutely a new design of the modular pellet mills [14]. A pellet mill according to the invention will now be described in more detail in the sections with the accompanying drawings, where Figure 19a shows the mill mechanism with a freely placed spherical tool in a side cross-section. Figure 19b shows the mill mechanism with a hemispherical tool in a side cross-section, forming one block with the punch. Figure 19c is a side cross-section of the mill mechanism with a self-driven spherical tool.
Innovative spherical pellet machine [14]. (a) with loose ball, (b) mill with a spherical member associated with punch and (c) with a self-driven balls.
The concept of an ideal briquette arose from a comparison of the properties, advantages and disadvantages of the briquettes of individual technologies (Figure 20). It is an attempt to create a briquette that would contain the advantages of pelleting, briquetting and compacting while at the same time eliminating the disadvantages of the individual technologies. A new briquette shape would be produced on the principle of compacting, which means being pressed between two rollers. In contrast with compacting, the new technology would have to allow for the briquette to be for a certain time under pressure, by which cooling would occur, as is common in pelleting and briquetting. Therefore, there arose the need to design a shape and, following that, a compactor machine that would manage to make newly shaped briquettes.
Scheme of idealised granule [4]. (a) Briquetting, (b) pelleting, (c) compacting and (d) briquettes were valuated by: briquette burning process, automatization of combustion process, machine wear, and briquette storage and transit.
On the basis of the input requirements and later theoretic analysis, we created the almost-round briquette, which is designed as the intersection of two half cylinders each rotated through 90° and is suitable for automatic feeding. With such a briquette, it is possible to regulate the ratio of the surface to its volume. The edges at the intersection of the two cylinders allow optimal lighting of the briquette [15].
After the design of a suitable shape for the briquette, we continued with a combination of potential solutions and a design of a kinematic compactor that would be capable of producing such briquettes. The result of this combination was a proposal for a completely new principle “ring compaction machine”. In 2012, we received a granted patent SK 287505 [16] for the stated principle. The invention belongs to the area of compaction of bulk organic and inorganic materials (Figure 21).
Principle arrangement of annual compacting machine with internal pressing disc [16].
The essence of the new patented solution is a large ring (1) which has in its interior circumference a great number of slots (3) in semi-cylindrical shape whose axes are parallel with the axis of rotation of the ring. The compression instrument is also a disc (4), which on its outside circumference has a cylinder slot (5), which fits into the slots of the ring (1) and is turned 90° from the slots of the ring (1). So both the ring and the compression disc have independent movement. The hold-off stage under the pressure at which the moulds are cooled is ensured by the calibration struts (6). In stage A, there takes place the filling of the press chambers that appear during rotation, in stage B compression, in stage C partial expansion and finally in stage D gradual cooling of the briquette under pressure and its calibration. The effect of cooling of the binder brings the binder (lignin) from the plastic to the firm state, by which the briquette achieves the required rigidity [17].
A further task arising out of the work on the overall project was designing the compacting machine itself. At the beginning, an analysis of kinematics of motions and the combination of possible structural solutions was carried out. In order to achieve the required briquette shape and kinematics of motions, we designed a functional model of the compacting machine as shown in Figure 22.
Design of the ring compacting press. (a) Axonometric view, (b) FEM analysis, (c) 3D model and (d) function model.
Design of force elements was based on a theoretical analysis of the forces calculated during the densification process. On the basis of such forces, calculations were made for the required input of the main drive, input of the drive of the compacting disc and the drive of the feeding screw. The final task in this part of the project was to prepare the manufacturing sketches and the final manufacture of the functional model (Figure 22). In this part of the task, two basic types of testing were performed on the functional model. The objective of the first set of measurements was to determine the required density of a briquette on the functional model. The second very important task in this experiment was to determine the maximum pressing force for the set density of the briquette.
The subject of the solved project is the development and optimization of a new progressive, patent-protected construction of the inverted kinematics of a compaction screw briquetting press. There is the justified assumption that the solved construction would remove the stated faults.
The essence of the proposed solution of the compacting machine with “inverted kinematics” is that the rotational part of the machine is a body in which the screw is firmly mounted and in the centre of the rotational drum is a fixed non-rotating mandrel. So the rotational action is not performed by the press but a pressing chamber whose important part is the screw [18]. And on the other hand, the compacting instrument which in this case we call the mandrel is firmly held in the machine’s frame and performs no movement.
The variable construction of the press with a rotational pressing chamber and a stationary instrument according to UV 7380 (Figure 23) is made up of a cylindrical or conical pressing chamber (1) with a pivotal bearing in its axial axle; on the inside the covering of which is a firmly held open orthogonal or clinogonnal helix (2) with a progressive or constant incline. In the axis of the cylindrical or conical pressing chamber (1), a cylindrical or conical stationary instrument (4) is firmly held in the frame (3). The pressing chamber (1) the drive mechanism (5) is connected with the moving unit (6) either directly or through a gearbox.
Possible combinations of the proposed patent solution [18]. (a) Cylindrical body, progressive ascension of the screw, cylindrical mandrel, (b) cylindrical body, constant ascension of the screw, conical mandrel and (c) conical body, constant pitch of the screw, cylindrical mandrel.
A compaction machine with inverted kinematics is made up of three main constructional sections—the pressing chamber, the rotating screw firmly connected with the rotating chamber, and the fixed pressing instrument, the mandrel. Each of the three main construction elements can be in different versions. In the case of the pressing chamber, this could be a cylindrical (Figure 23a) or conical shape (Figure 23c) with a diminishing cone diameter in the flow direction of the compacted material. The screw is prepared either with progressive inclination (Figure 23a) or with constant inclination (Figure 23b and c), and the pressing instrument is manufactured like the pressing chamber, either in conical or cylindrical shape (Figure 23a and c) or with conical shape (Figure 23b). The difference is that in the case of the conical version, the cone’s diameter will increase in the direction of the material flow.
The proposed possibilities allow the creation of eight basic solution combinations for the compacting inverted kinematic machine.
The inverted kinematic compacting machine brings along a number of advantages [19]:
Low energy demand due to the rotating cover. For rotations on a larger diameter, the lower torque is sufficient for producing pressing power equally great to in the case of a conventional apparatus.
The simpler constructional solution for cooling or heating the pressing machine thanks to its rigid unmoving mounting.
The construction eliminates the wearing of the front parts of the screws more than with the classical design. In the proposed solution, the tip of the stationary instrument is not moulded, does not turn and is located in the phase of the process which could be called calibrating/compacting. The tip just defines the space and the material simply bypasses it.
The bearings on which the rotary compression chamber is mounted are not axially loaded because the force acts in a critically small diameter.
In line with industrial model SK 7380, it is possible to power the inverted kinematic compacting machine in a number of ways:
The machine drive by means of a gearbox can be worked out in two methods. The first method, where the axle of the drive shaft is identical or parallel to the axis of the drive shaft, is called direct drive through the gearbox. The second method, where the axle of the drive shaft is perpendicular to the drive shaft axle, is referred to as cranked drive through the gearbox.
Machine drive through chain or belt drive. In this method, the torque contribution is very advantageous because the connection element, be it belt or chain, takes on the role of a safety element.
New original design of the screw briquetting press.
The various combinations of the make-up of the briquetting press and its drive methods offer sufficiently varied opportunities for research, development and selection of the optimal solution. In Figure 24, a 3D model is shown [20].
Until now we have carried out projects on 51 lines for briquetting wood waste. Within this number there are nine installations in Slovakia, two in Estonia and one each in the Czech Republic and Hungary [21]. Those in Slovakia include lines for the LandR company in Pezinok, IMEKO Malacky, Excellent Bratislava, Kéri Trnava, NORBA Prievidza, Defektospol Údavské, Obecný podnik Lehota pod Vtáčnikom, Colorspol Novoť, Ekomix-Natúrprodukt Vrbové and JUGA Lučenec (Figure 25). In Estonia we designed two lines in Tabasalu for the KRK Moigu company, in the Czech Republic for the Dřevoterm firm in Náchod and in Hungary for the GUEM company in Salgotarjan.
Combined line for briquette and pellet production for JUGA. (a) Layout of machines and (b) real view of the line.
The implemented projects show the positive contribution brought about by the original resolutions for compacting machines.
Edited by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, ISBN 978-953-51-3020-8, Print ISBN 978-953-51-3019-2, 336 pages,
\nPublisher: IntechOpen
\nChapters published March 22, 2017 under CC BY 3.0 license
\nDOI: 10.5772/61430
\nEdited Volume
This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\\n\\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\\n\\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\\n\\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\\n\\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\\n\\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\\n\\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\\n\\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\\n\\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\n\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\n\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\n\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\n\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\n\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\n\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\n\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\n\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5717},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5179},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1696},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10260},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:890},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15670}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117458},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"ebgfFaeGuveeFgfcChcyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:51},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5156},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6934",title:"Psycho-Social Aspects of Human Sexuality and Ethics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"44731b106aa0d1ab5c64a7394483c7d5",slug:"psycho-social-aspects-of-human-sexuality-and-ethics",bookSignature:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6934.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10062",title:"Forecasting in Mathematics",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a3ad05fef0502040d2a238ad22487c0",slug:"forecasting-in-mathematics-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Abdo Abou Jaoude",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10062.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoude",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9043",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d21066c7438e459e4c6fb13217a5c8c",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",bookSignature:"Loredana Benedetto and Massimo Ingrassia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10075",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"From Solitons to Similaritons",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b034b2a060292c8511359aec0db1002c",slug:"nonlinear-optics-from-solitons-to-similaritons",bookSignature:"İlkay Bakırtaş and Nalan Antar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10075.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186388",title:"Prof.",name:"İlkay",middleName:null,surname:"Bakırtaş",slug:"ilkay-bakirtas",fullName:"İlkay Bakırtaş"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10116",title:"Nano- and Microencapsulation",subtitle:"Techniques and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d92c5999718734b36a0cc3a6af7c7f6",slug:"nano-and-microencapsulation-techniques-and-applications",bookSignature:"Nedal Abu-Thabit",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10116.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"308436",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nedal",middleName:null,surname:"Abu-Thabit",slug:"nedal-abu-thabit",fullName:"Nedal Abu-Thabit"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9881",title:"Perovskite and Piezoelectric Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8fa0e0f48567bbc50fbb3bfdde6f9a0b",slug:"perovskite-and-piezoelectric-materials",bookSignature:"Someshwar Pola, Neeraj Panwar and Indrani Coondoo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9881.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177037",title:"Dr.",name:"Someshwar",middleName:null,surname:"Pola",slug:"someshwar-pola",fullName:"Someshwar Pola"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9394",title:"Genotoxicity and Mutagenicity",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Test Methods",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9ee7e597358dbbfb5e33d0beb76e6fff",slug:"genotoxicity-and-mutagenicity-mechanisms-and-test-methods",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9394.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"757",title:"Semiotics",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-semiotics",parent:{title:"Electrical and Electronic Engineering",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:19,numberOfWosCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitations:22,numberOfDimensionsCitations:36,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-semiotics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"3240",title:"Soundscape Semiotics",subtitle:"Localization and Categorization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2591f42f72b6e851e6cd65911ec93cb7",slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation",bookSignature:"Herve Glotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3240.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"23522",title:"Dr.",name:"Hervé",middleName:null,surname:"Glotin",slug:"herve-glotin",fullName:"Hervé Glotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"45589",doi:"10.5772/56872",title:"Clusterized Mel Filter Cepstral Coefficients and Support Vector Machines for Bird Song Identification",slug:"clusterized-mel-filter-cepstral-coefficients-and-support-vector-machines-for-bird-song-identificatio",totalDownloads:1540,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,book:{slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation",title:"Soundscape Semiotics",fullTitle:"Soundscape Semiotics - Localization and Categorization"},signatures:"Olivier Dufour, Thierry Artieres, Hervé Glotin and Pascale Giraudet",authors:[{id:"23523",title:"Prof.",name:"Pascale",middleName:null,surname:"Giraudet",slug:"pascale-giraudet",fullName:"Pascale Giraudet"},{id:"169025",title:"Dr.",name:"Olivier",middleName:null,surname:"Dufour",slug:"olivier-dufour",fullName:"Olivier Dufour"},{id:"169026",title:"Dr.",name:"Thierry",middleName:null,surname:"Artieres",slug:"thierry-artieres",fullName:"Thierry Artieres"},{id:"169027",title:"Dr.",name:"Hervé",middleName:null,surname:"Glotin",slug:"herve-glotin",fullName:"Hervé Glotin"}]},{id:"45262",doi:"10.5772/56040",title:"Automatic Identification and Interpretation of Animal Sounds, Application to Livestock Production Optimisation",slug:"automatic-identification-and-interpretation-of-animal-sounds-application-to-livestock-production-opt",totalDownloads:1709,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation",title:"Soundscape Semiotics",fullTitle:"Soundscape Semiotics - Localization and Categorization"},signatures:"Vasileios Exadaktylos, Mitchell Silva and Daniel Berckmans",authors:[{id:"20140",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Berckmans",slug:"daniel-berckmans",fullName:"Daniel Berckmans"},{id:"20246",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasileios",middleName:null,surname:"Exadaktylos",slug:"vasileios-exadaktylos",fullName:"Vasileios Exadaktylos"},{id:"20391",title:"Mr.",name:"Mitchell",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",slug:"mitchell-silva",fullName:"Mitchell Silva"}]},{id:"45612",doi:"10.5772/56907",title:"Head-Related Transfer Functions and Virtual Auditory Display",slug:"head-related-transfer-functions-and-virtual-auditory-display",totalDownloads:2024,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation",title:"Soundscape Semiotics",fullTitle:"Soundscape Semiotics - Localization and Categorization"},signatures:"Xiao-li Zhong and Bo-sun Xie",authors:[{id:"155754",title:"Prof.",name:"Bo-Sun",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"bo-sun-xie",fullName:"Bo-Sun Xie"},{id:"155755",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Xiao-Li",middleName:null,surname:"Zhong",slug:"xiao-li-zhong",fullName:"Xiao-Li Zhong"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"45612",title:"Head-Related Transfer Functions and Virtual Auditory Display",slug:"head-related-transfer-functions-and-virtual-auditory-display",totalDownloads:2024,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation",title:"Soundscape Semiotics",fullTitle:"Soundscape Semiotics - Localization and Categorization"},signatures:"Xiao-li Zhong and Bo-sun Xie",authors:[{id:"155754",title:"Prof.",name:"Bo-Sun",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"bo-sun-xie",fullName:"Bo-Sun Xie"},{id:"155755",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Xiao-Li",middleName:null,surname:"Zhong",slug:"xiao-li-zhong",fullName:"Xiao-Li Zhong"}]},{id:"45589",title:"Clusterized Mel Filter Cepstral Coefficients and Support Vector Machines for Bird Song Identification",slug:"clusterized-mel-filter-cepstral-coefficients-and-support-vector-machines-for-bird-song-identificatio",totalDownloads:1540,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,book:{slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation",title:"Soundscape Semiotics",fullTitle:"Soundscape Semiotics - Localization and Categorization"},signatures:"Olivier Dufour, Thierry Artieres, Hervé Glotin and Pascale Giraudet",authors:[{id:"23523",title:"Prof.",name:"Pascale",middleName:null,surname:"Giraudet",slug:"pascale-giraudet",fullName:"Pascale Giraudet"},{id:"169025",title:"Dr.",name:"Olivier",middleName:null,surname:"Dufour",slug:"olivier-dufour",fullName:"Olivier Dufour"},{id:"169026",title:"Dr.",name:"Thierry",middleName:null,surname:"Artieres",slug:"thierry-artieres",fullName:"Thierry Artieres"},{id:"169027",title:"Dr.",name:"Hervé",middleName:null,surname:"Glotin",slug:"herve-glotin",fullName:"Hervé Glotin"}]},{id:"45338",title:"Contribution of Precisely Apparent Source Width to Auditory Spaciousness",slug:"contribution-of-precisely-apparent-source-width-to-auditory-spaciousness",totalDownloads:1424,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation",title:"Soundscape Semiotics",fullTitle:"Soundscape Semiotics - Localization and Categorization"},signatures:"Chiung Yao Chen",authors:[{id:"154975",title:"Prof.",name:"Chiung Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chiung-yao-chen",fullName:"Chiung Yao Chen"}]},{id:"43951",title:"Evaluation of an Active Microphone with a Parabolic Reflection Board for Monaural Sound-Source-Direction Estimation",slug:"evaluation-of-an-active-microphone-with-a-parabolic-reflection-board-for-monaural-sound-source-direc",totalDownloads:1027,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation",title:"Soundscape Semiotics",fullTitle:"Soundscape Semiotics - Localization and Categorization"},signatures:"Tetsuya Takiguchi, Ryoichi Takashima and Yasuo Ariki",authors:[{id:"2093",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetsuya",middleName:null,surname:"Takiguchi",slug:"tetsuya-takiguchi",fullName:"Tetsuya Takiguchi"},{id:"5503",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuo",middleName:null,surname:"Ariki",slug:"yasuo-ariki",fullName:"Yasuo Ariki"},{id:"17095",title:"Mr.",name:"Ryoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Takashima",slug:"ryoichi-takashima",fullName:"Ryoichi Takashima"}]},{id:"45170",title:"Source Separation and DOA Estimation for Underdetermined Auditory Scene",slug:"source-separation-and-doa-estimation-for-underdetermined-auditory-scene",totalDownloads:1460,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation",title:"Soundscape Semiotics",fullTitle:"Soundscape Semiotics - Localization and Categorization"},signatures:"Nozomu Hamada and Ning Ding",authors:[{id:"155108",title:"Prof.",name:"Nozomu",middleName:null,surname:"Hamada",slug:"nozomu-hamada",fullName:"Nozomu Hamada"}]},{id:"45262",title:"Automatic Identification and Interpretation of Animal Sounds, Application to Livestock Production Optimisation",slug:"automatic-identification-and-interpretation-of-animal-sounds-application-to-livestock-production-opt",totalDownloads:1709,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation",title:"Soundscape Semiotics",fullTitle:"Soundscape Semiotics - Localization and Categorization"},signatures:"Vasileios Exadaktylos, Mitchell Silva and Daniel Berckmans",authors:[{id:"20140",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Berckmans",slug:"daniel-berckmans",fullName:"Daniel Berckmans"},{id:"20246",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasileios",middleName:null,surname:"Exadaktylos",slug:"vasileios-exadaktylos",fullName:"Vasileios Exadaktylos"},{id:"20391",title:"Mr.",name:"Mitchell",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",slug:"mitchell-silva",fullName:"Mitchell Silva"}]},{id:"45332",title:"Application of Iterative Reverse Time Migration Procedure on Transcranial Thermoacoustic Tomography Imaging",slug:"application-of-iterative-reverse-time-migration-procedure-on-transcranial-thermoacoustic-tomography-",totalDownloads:1213,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation",title:"Soundscape Semiotics",fullTitle:"Soundscape Semiotics - Localization and Categorization"},signatures:"Zijian Liu and Lanbo Liu",authors:[{id:"156358",title:"Dr.",name:"Zijian",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"zijian-liu",fullName:"Zijian Liu"},{id:"157065",title:"Prof.",name:"Lanbo",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"lanbo-liu",fullName:"Lanbo Liu"}]},{id:"43711",title:"Auditory Distance Estimation in an Open Space",slug:"auditory-distance-estimation-in-an-open-space",totalDownloads:1647,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"soundscape-semiotics-localisation-and-categorisation",title:"Soundscape Semiotics",fullTitle:"Soundscape Semiotics - Localization and Categorization"},signatures:"Kim Fluitt, Timothy Mermagen and Tomasz Letowski",authors:[{id:"157339",title:"Ms.",name:"Kim",middleName:null,surname:"Fluitt",slug:"kim-fluitt",fullName:"Kim Fluitt"},{id:"157340",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Letowski",slug:"tomasz-letowski",fullName:"Tomasz Letowski"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-semiotics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/242516/rong-chang-zeng",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"242516",slug:"rong-chang-zeng"},fullPath:"/profiles/242516/rong-chang-zeng",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()