Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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It is one of the most common types of birth defect occurring in 1% of live births and affects up to 9 in every 1,000 babies born in the United Kingdom. It was estimated that 34.3 million people had a congenital heart abnormality in 2013. Abnormalities can arise in 3-5% of off spring in cases of de novo family history. Congenital heart disease was responsible for 223,000 deaths in 2010. This short volume details the common birth defects affecting the structure and functioning of the heart concentrating on the genetic basis and epidemiology, as well as risk factors, diagnostic modalities and treatment options.",isbn:"978-1-78984-817-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-816-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-775-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74138",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"congenital-heart-disease",numberOfPages:96,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f59bacfffcccc636ec3082869d10a82e",bookSignature:"David C. 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He is the commissioning editor for review articles for the Annals of Clinical Biochemistry & Laboratory Medicine and is Co-editor-in-chief of Practical Laboratory Medicine.",institutionString:"University of Westminster",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"University of Westminster",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"170",title:"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine",slug:"cardiology-and-cardiovascular-medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"64469",title:"Introductory Chapter: Congenital Heart Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82217",slug:"introductory-chapter-congenital-heart-disease",totalDownloads:1162,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"David C. 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Also, persistent patency of the arterial duct is a common problem in very premature sick neonates, which is associated with significant morbidity and mortality and is attributed to immaturity of the duct and associated co-morbidities in this population.",signatures:"Ageliki A. Karatza and Xenophon Sinopidis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63184",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63184",authors:[{id:"245456",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ageliki",surname:"Karatza",slug:"ageliki-karatza",fullName:"Ageliki Karatza"},{id:"256663",title:"Dr.",name:"Xenophon",surname:"Sinopidis",slug:"xenophon-sinopidis",fullName:"Xenophon Sinopidis"}],corrections:null},{id:"63754",title:"Cardiac Catheterization in Congenital Heart Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79981",slug:"cardiac-catheterization-in-congenital-heart-disease",totalDownloads:2531,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Interventional pediatric cardiology is a specialty of pediatric cardiology that deals specifically with the catheter-based treatment of congenital heart diseases. Cardiac catheterization involves the evaluation and manipulation of the heart and surrounding vessels through catheters place in peripheral vessels. In this chapter we begin by discussing the significant difference between adult and pediatric interventional cardiology. We will discuss basic hemodynamic measurements performed in cardiac catheterization and its application to congenital heart disease. Stent and balloon catheters are briefly discussed. Finally, specific catheter based interventional techniques, indications, and complications for various pediatric congenital heart disease is described.",signatures:"Neil Tailor, Ranjit Philip and Shyam Sathanandam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63754",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63754",authors:[{id:"245322",title:"M.D.",name:"Shyam",surname:"Sathanandam",slug:"shyam-sathanandam",fullName:"Shyam Sathanandam"},{id:"263449",title:"Dr.",name:"Neil",surname:"Tailor",slug:"neil-tailor",fullName:"Neil Tailor"},{id:"263450",title:"Dr.",name:"Ranjit",surname:"Philip",slug:"ranjit-philip",fullName:"Ranjit Philip"}],corrections:null},{id:"63157",title:"Impact of Modified Ultrafiltration in Congenital Heart Disease Patients Treated with Cardiopulmonary Bypass",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80599",slug:"impact-of-modified-ultrafiltration-in-congenital-heart-disease-patients-treated-with-cardiopulmonary",totalDownloads:949,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Modified ultrafiltration is used in cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass in order to diminish systemic inflammatory response syndrome. We aimed to show its utility for removing pro-inflammatory agents in operated pediatric patients with congenital heart disease and its impact at operative care. A clinical case control trial was designed, including patients with simple congenital heart disease operated on with cardiopulmonary bypass in a 1-year period. We randomized them to a problematic group (with modified ultrafiltration, n = 15) and a control group (without it, n = 16), and blood samples to measure interleukins (6 and 10), 3d and 4d complement fraction concentrations were taken at the following times: baseline, before cardiopulmonary bypass, after it, after modified ultrafiltration, and from the ultrafiltration concentrate. Operative clinical end points of success were defined as hemodynamic stability, absence of morbidity, and lack of mortality. We observed a higher significant interleukin six concentration in the problematic group patients at baseline, as well as a higher removal of this pro-inflammatory agent at the ultrafiltration concentrate. Modified ultrafiltration has a positive impact over simple congenital heart disease surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass because of removing interleukin 6. We recommend its routinely use when hemodynamic conditions are favorable.",signatures:"Pedro José Curi-Curi, Elizabeth Aguilar Alanis, Juan Calderón-\nColmenero, Jorge Luis Cervantes-Salazar, Rodrigo Reyes Pavón and\nSamuel Ramírez-Marroquín",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63157",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63157",authors:[{id:"237114",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Pedro José",surname:"Curi-Curi",slug:"pedro-jose-curi-curi",fullName:"Pedro José Curi-Curi"},{id:"251398",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Calderón-Colmenero",slug:"juan-calderon-colmenero",fullName:"Juan Calderón-Colmenero"},{id:"251399",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge Luis",surname:"Cervantes-Salazar",slug:"jorge-luis-cervantes-salazar",fullName:"Jorge Luis Cervantes-Salazar"},{id:"251400",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",surname:"Ramírez-Marroquín",slug:"samuel-ramirez-marroquin",fullName:"Samuel Ramírez-Marroquín"}],corrections:null},{id:"64223",title:"The Adult with Coarctation of the Aorta",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79865",slug:"the-adult-with-coarctation-of-the-aorta",totalDownloads:1409,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The manuscript will discuss the epidemiology and etiology of the adult with coarctation of the aorta (CoA) as well as describe the embryology, anatomy, pathophysiology, and clinical presentation in order to recognize and appropriately diagnose an adult patient with CoA. This chapter will also review diagnostic testing, management, therapeutic interventions including percutaneous and surgical procedures, and long-term complications that can arise in an adult with repaired CoA. It contains images with examples from echocardiography, cardiac computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and angiograms as part of the description.",signatures:"Ayesha Salahuddin, Alice Chan and Ali N. 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1. Introduction
Historical evidences indicates that, herbs and spices have beneficial consequences as medicine to treat different disease and its ailments, primarily they are having food valve, apart from this the composition comprised in different herbs and spices to get rid from major and minor disorder associated with the complex organic physiological system, demonstrating benefits as food by scientific mean is challenging, specially, when standards applied to assess the pharmaceutical agents. Pharmaceutical agents are special molecules which were isolated and purified in concentrated forms, whereas food is having in combination, literally in large quantity [1]. The real challenge not here to prove whether herbs and spices as food have healthy benefits but rather figuring out, one of the greatest saying by Abu Huraira (R.A), may Allah be pleased with him, narrated that the Prophet, Muhammed Sallallaahu alaihi wa sallam (May Allah exalt his mention), said: “use this black seed regularly, because it is a cure for every disease except death” [Al-Bukhari and Muslim] [2], secondly we encounter the another black herbs called Jambolana (Black Plum) [3].
2. Nigella sativa (black seeds)
NS belonging to the family Ranunculaceae is prominent miraculous and remarkable herb with holistic, historical and religious authenticated endorsement. NS sands apart with holds promising phytochemical and wide range of therapeutic potential among the botanical repository of medicinal plants in the world, NS is popularly known by the name of black seed. NS is native to Southern Europe, North Africa and Southwest Asia and is grown in many countries around the world, including the Middle East Mediterranean region, Southern Europe, India, Pakistan, Syria, Turkey and Saudi Arabia [4].
2.1 Botanical description
NS plant germinate, flower, set seed and die all in one. Ultimately reproduce themselves to set of seeds. Grow up to height of 20–30 cm (7.10–11.9 inches) with linear lanceolate leaves. The flowers are very much dedicated bearing 10 to 5 petals with remarkable white, yellow, pale blue. Pink, pale violet in colors. NS plants fruits are large & inflated capsules bearing with 3 to 7 united follicles having enormous number of seeds, whereas seeds containing black color with flattened, angular oblong with 0.2 cm long and 0.1 cm wide funnel shaped [5].
2.1.1 NS flower taxonomy
Domine: Plantae
Sub-domine: Tracheobionta
Division: Spermatophyta
Phylum: Magnoliophyta
Class Magnoliopsida
Order: Ranunculales
Family: Ranunculacese
Genus: Nigella
Species: Sativa
2.1.2 Common names
Wild onion seeds, Funnel flower, Black cumin, Nutmeg flower, Black caraway, black seeds, Devil in the bush, Roman coriander, Roman coriander, Damascene etc.
2.1.3 Synonyms
English: Black seeds, Love-in-a-mist, nutmeg flower, Roman coriander, funnel flower black cumin
Moreover, the NS meticulously endorsed by above mentioned taxonomical and botanical descriptions. Indeed, much uncertainty about particular name of NS seed. NS seed is called black cumin, black caraway and black onion seed in particular regions of the continent, such as Central Asia and Northern India, with different botanical and taxonomical description, NS seed or any such seed, apparently, are often the part of the stock, that is commercially available and used as adulterants [6].
2.1.5 Cultivation and collection
NS herb mostly grown during the winter season. It is annually grown on light and heavy soil. The scattering period of seeds in between October–November and get harvest in between April and May. The yield is about 350 kg/acre to 450 kg/acre.
The germination processes of the plant would be delay, if scattering of seeds on upper soil or deep inside but it should be optimal. It need not be irrigated frequently. When the fruit / capsule turns yellowish, the crop is harvested.
It can be threshed by trampling with a tractor or proper thresher after harvesting and proper drying. The seeds are stored properly in bags or containers after threshing [6].
2.2 Phytochemical description of NS
As mentioned in above point-2, NS bearing ultimately important and valuable amount of phytoconstituent which were extracted, separated, identified and reported and updated up to the limit of extent but still needs to be explored, where in contemplation to retrieve the relevant documentary evidence leads to figure out the following valuable constituents, such TQ (48%) in 25 gm, thymo-hydroquinone, dithymoquinone, p-cymene (15%), carvacrol (12%), 4-terpineol (7%), tanethol (5%), sesquiterpene longifolene (1 to 8%), thymol & α-pinene etc. Seeds contain dual different types of alkaloids called iso-quinoline alkaloids (indazole ring bearing alkaloids are nigellicinine, nigellicimine-N-Oxide & pyrazole alkaloids). NS seeds are also contain α-hederin which is water soluble pentacyclic triterpene and saponin (potential anticancer agent). The potential pharmacological activity of NS seeds is mainly due to Quinine constituents, whereas thymoquinone is most abundant one. NS seeds also contains micro & macromolecules that are, carbohydrates-28%, protines 27%, fats-25%, crude fibers-9%, total ash-5%, Vitamins &, minerals like Cu, P, Zn and Fe++ etc.: unsaturated fatty acids like linolic acid-60%, oilic acid-20%, eicodadienoic acid-4% & dihomolinoleic acid-10%; saturated fatty acids are present nearly about less than 30% (palmitic & stearic acid), apart from this NS also embedded with Other constituents such as α-sitosterol 44 to 54% of total sterols, Tunisian stigmasterol 6.8 to 20.92% of total sterols, the above mentioned constituents were reported apart from this some structural analysis also documented in the literatures these structures mentioned in Figure 1 [7].
Figure 1.
a- NS seeds b- NS flowers c- EJ leaves and fruits.
2.2.1 Reported constituent and its structures of NS
Some important steroidal monomers also reported from NS seed are nigellone, avenasterol-5-ene, avenasterol-7-ene, campesterol, cholesterol, sitrostadienol, obtusfoliol, lophenol, stigasterol, stigmasterol-7-ene, β-amirn, butyrospermol, cycloartenol, 24-methylene-cycloartenol, taraxerol, tirucallol, 3-O-[β-D-xylopyranosyl(1 → 3)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1 → 2)-α-L-arabino-pyranosyl]-28-O-[α-L-rhamnopyranosy](1 → 4)-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1 → 6)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]-hedera- genin, up to 1.6%-Volatile oil, fatty oil-41.6%, olic acid, C15 esters of unsaturated fatty acid with higher terpenoids, esters of dehydrostericacid & linolic acid, aliphatic alcohols like melanthin, melanthigenin etc, moreover to endorsed it also contain bitter constituents with tannin, resin, protein, reducing sugars like saponine, 3-O-[β-D-xylopyranosyl, (1 → 2)-α-L-rhambopyranosyl, (1 → 2)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]-11-methoxy-16, 23-dihydroxy-28-methyl-olean-12-enoate, stigma-5, 22-diene-3-β-D-glucopyranoside, cycloart-23-methyl-7,20,22-triene-3β, 25-diol, negellidine-4-O-sulfite, N-amines A3, A4, A5, C & A1, A2, B1 & B2 were found in seeds of NS. Hence it was assumed that, because of presence of above-mentioned bioactive constituents, NS stands apart with special category of medicinal specie, with infinite number of medicinal properties to manage bronchitis, diarrhea, rheumatism, asthma, skin disorders, it also acts as liver tonic, anti-diarrheal, appetite stimulant, digestive disorders. It also beneficial to increase milk production in nursing mothers, it also utilized to fight with parasitic infections, immunity system will be strengthened by regular utilization of NS seeds. In addition to above NS seeds are also used in food as additives, especially flavoring agent in bread and pickles coz low level of toxicity value. The NS seeds and oil also preferred in treatment of worm infestation, skin eruption, antiseptic, eternal anesthetics & roosted seeds of NS given internally to stop vomiting (Figure 2) [8].
Figure 2.
Reported bioactive components of NS.
3. Eugenia jambolana (black plum)
Next to NS another herbs which is bearing identical pharmacological properties with extra ordinary source of natural remedies and therapeutic application to treat different disease and its aliment, mid-nineteenth century was the era, which came up, with its first scientific evidence, as antidiabetic properties, apart from this the medicinal values endorsed in the ayurvedic, Unani, siddha and other folklore system of medicine [9].
3.1 Botanical and taxonomical description
Eugenia jambolana (EJ) or Syzygium cumini (L) Skeel was evergreen plant which grows up to 25 meters which is estimated up to 80 feet tall, it having grayish white steam with coarse & discolored lower bark, leaves are simple, elliptic, opposite to oblong, glossy smooth and somewhat leathery, midrib of the leaves is prominent yellowish, with 5 to 15 cm long and 2 to 8 cm broad, the base of the leaves are cuneate or round; apex is short, rounded or obtuse; edges are toothed; stalk is slender light yellow; veins are fine, close together parallel and gland are dotted. The petals adhere and fall together as a small disk. The stamens are many and almost the same length as calyx. The fruits are ovoid, 1-seeded berry, with a length of 2 centimeters (0.8 inch), dark purple red, shiny, with white to lavender flesh, fruit are oval to elliptic, length from 1.5 to 3.5 cm, dark purple to black in color, taste of the fruit is the combination of sweet, mildly sour with astringent flavor, it tends to color the tongue purple. Because of the dark violet color of the fruit it resembles to the olive tree fruits both shape and weight [10].
Brazil - Azeitona,Pakistan – Jaman, West Indies-Jambol, Nepal-Java plum, Thailand – Lukwa, Japan - Madan Madagascar – Rotra.
3.1.4 Cultivation and collection of EJ
EJ was tropical & subtropical plant grows up to 2,000 meters in the region where annual day time temperature ranges from 20 to 32°C & it tolerate 12 to 48°C, mature growth of the plant will be affected at -2°C lower, whist youngest growth is affected at -1°C. The plant grows well at annual rainfall in the range 1500 to 6,000 mm but tolerates 800–9900 mm. EJ can withstand a dry season of up to 7 months, where it prefers a sunny position, the pH prefer to range 5.5 to 7. The plants are moderately shade-tolerant, especially when young [12]. The versatile plant will grow on wide range of soils, even in shallow rocky soils where provided rainfall is maximum to tolerate prolonged flooding, once established, it tolerates drought in dry sites, the plant confine itself to the vicinity of watercourses & it tolerates quite strong winds, it sow-self freely and become serious pests in pasture.
In Florida EJ plant is listed as undesirable fast-growing plant, seedlings may reach up to 4 meter in 2 Years. This tree coppices remarkably well, with vigorous shoots, in large number, with minor and major stumps alike, the coppice which were stands in streams, will grew up to 4.6 meter in 4 years, and the raw material of the plant can be collected in rainy seasons to get good amount of bioactive constituents [13].
3.2 Phytochemical description of EJ
EJ is found to be rich in tannins, alkaloids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, sterols, glycosides, and among other phytoconstituents in different parts of the tree. There are many families of phytochemicals and they help the human body in a variety of ways. Phytochemicals can protect (Figure 3) human from diseases. Phytochemicals are nonnutritive plant chemicals that have protective or disease preventive properties. The fruits produce and determine the physical–chemical and sensory characteristics of light jambolan jelly. This fruit has intense purple color, which gave the jellies - both standard and light - a quite attractive visual aspect. The phytochemical analysis of ethanol extract of Jamun stem bark, leaf, seed and fruit pulp showed the presence of alkaloids, anthraquinone glycosides, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, phenols, cardiac glycosides, terpenoids, phytosterols, steroids and amino acids in all extracts. Terpenoids and phytosterols were absent in the leaf extract. The seeds are rich in protein and calcium. The seeds contain both micro & macromolecules as in NS. EJ also contines fats and oil such as tannins-19%, ellagic acid-2%, glycoside, jamboline, starch, myricyl alcohol in un-saponified fraction in small quantity that is 0.05% of pale yellow oil with specific gravity 20:0.926, [α] D- 5.420. The essential oils isolated from the freshly collected leaf (accounting for 82% of the oil), stem, seed, fruits contain α-Pinene, camphene, β-Pinene, myrcene, limonene, cis-ocimeme, trans-ocimeme, sterculic and vernolic acid, literature reported that huge quantity of malic acid present in fruits, i.e. thrice the weight of the fruit (0.59% wt of fruit), whereas oxalic acid present in minor amount but Gallic acid and tannin accountable for astringent taste of the fruit. The purple color of fruit is due to Cyanidin diglycosides, fruits are reach source of suger-9%, non-reducing sugars-10%. The fruits also contain monomeric sugar units such as glucose, fructose, mannose, galactose & mineral constituents were also reported to be present (mg/100 g of edible pulp) are Ca, Mg, Fe, Na, K, and Cu,. The vitamins present (in 100 g. edible pulp) are vit. A, 80 IU; thiamine, 0.03 mg, riboflavin, 0.01 mg; nicotinic acid,0.2 mg; vit. C, 18 mg; choline, 7 mg; folic acid, 3 μg. The stem bark contain friedelin, kaempferol, ellagic acid, gallotannin, betulinic acid, βsitosterol, eugenin. The leaves contain phenolic content like ferullic acid, catechin, also, n-dotricontanol, myrcetin, mycaminose, quercetin, annic acid, tocopherol and acetylated flavonol glycoside. The flowers contain oleanolic acid and other triterpenoids also acetyl oleanolin acid (0.3%) melting point (260–262°C), Eugenia- triterpenoid A (0.5%) and Eugenia triterpenoid B (0.3%). The roots contain myricetin 3-O-glucoside and myricetin 3-O-robinoside. Reported constituents (Figure 4) structures from different part of plant [14].
Figure 3.
Major bioactive constituents of jamun and its benefits.
Figure 4.
Constituents from eugenia jambolana.
3.2.1 Reported constituent and its structure of EJ
4. Endorsed pharmacological descriptions of ns and EJ
4.1 Pharmacological properties of NS seeds and oil
NS seeds and oil has been broadly utilized to cure different disease & its aliments associated with, leaving physiological system, which was proved by adopting modern scientific methodology. The collected research repository from different sources with regardless of time, focusing the activity done on NS, worldwide form the centuries NS seeds and oil traditionally utilized as therapeutic medicine, in Indian system of medicine (Unani & ayurvedic) the pharmacological applications are endorsed [15], further more to say our Prophet Muhammed
advocated the importance in one of his saying that “NS seeds is remedy for all disease accept death” on this hadith NS considered as greatest healing medicine available in the form of Herbs and species, further recommendation of use was endorsed in Tibb-e-Nabwi (Prophetic Medicine). NS bearing wide range of therapeutic & pharmacological activity such as diuretic, antidiabetic, anti-hypertensive, analgesic, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic, fever, influenza, eczema, cough, headache, paralysis, hemorrhage, amenoria, anorexia, bronchodilator, GIT protective, Hepatoprotective, renal treatment and antioxidant, skin disease [16], the activity of the NS seed is due to the presence of thymoquinone (TQ) which is major bioactive component NS oil. As already mentioned NS seeds are having food value hence it does not shows any adverse effect, TQ having potent anti-microbial properties including Gram +Ve and Gram -Ve bacteria [17], it also effective in viruses, parasites schistosomes and fungal infections.
The efficacy of NS seeds and TQ are variable and depend on target species. And other study reported the use of seeds and oil to control the symptoms of COVID-19 in combination with crude extract of EJ [18].
4.2 Pharmacological properties EJ
The second herbs which is having similar pharmacological properties was Eugenia jambolana (EJ), which is excellently prominent herb which utilized by ancient people of different continent to combat with the deficiency’s associated with physiological system apart from this the importance of this plant is endorsed in the ancient scriptures like Siddha, Ayurveda and Unani medication for its therapeutic potentials [19].
The entire plant is used in various traditional system of medicine in India and other parts of the continent around the globe. However, the leaves and bark are regarded as most significant part. In Ayurveda, the bark is acrid, sweet, digestive and astringent to the bowels, anti-helminths. Besides it is used to cure sore throat, bronchitis, asthma, thirst, biliousness, dysentery, blood purifier in ulcer treatment. In Unani system of medicine EJ Leaf ash is used to strengthen teeth gums, EJ seeds are used as astringent, diuretic and also used to stop urinary discharges. The bark of EJ having strong antidiabetic properties. The siddha system of Indian medicine utilizes Jambolana seeds for hematinic, thermo-regulate, the traditional medicine of Madagascar’s the Jambolana seeds are utilized to regenerate the β-cells of pancreas and leaves are used by women to contract vagina after delivery, reduce mucus and odors [20].
5. Comparative pharmacological properties
The uniform resemblances of pharmacological application both the species have been extensively analyzed with regardless of time, and tabulated in Table 1, the aim of the study, to put the researcher to focus on the beneficiary effect of bioactive constituents present in both the medicinal plants.
Anti-inflammatory activity is attributed to inhibition of cytokine, eicosanoids generation and measure lipid peroxidation through inhibition of cyclo-oxygenaseand 5-lipoxygenase pathway of archidonate metabolism. In addition, T cell- and natural killer cell-mediated immune responses are also accountable to its immune-modulatory activity.
Leaves
Ellagic acid, gallotannin betullinic acid, β sitosterol, eugenin, kaempferol triterpenoids, saponins and tannins phenolic compounds and flavonoids
2.
Oil
Nigellicimine, Nigellidine, Nigellimine-N-oxide
Cardiovascular actions
Cardiovascular depressant effects are mediated centrally via indirect and direct mechanisms that involved both 5-hydroxytryptaminergic and muscarinic mechanisms. Direct mechanism is virtue of volatile oild (TQ) which processes potent antihypertensive potential.
Arginine, Glutamic acid, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Tyrosine, Proline And Threonine
Anti-hyperlipidemic
Anti-hyperlipdemic effect is owing to significant reduction in hepatic HMG-COA reductase activity. In addition, this effect is attributed to blockage of the ex-vivo basal and in-vitro maximal formation of conjugated diene and malondialdehyde, and lengthened the lag times of low density lipoprotein, small dense low density lipoprotein and large buoyant low density lipoprotein. Methanolic extract possessing ω-6 linoleic acid along with palmitic acid is more effective that volatile extract containing thymol and isothymol phenolic antioxidant compounds. Thymoquinone has anti1hyperlipidemic as well as antioxidant activity
Plant pulp Seed
Triton X-100 induced hyperlipidemia
4.
Seeds
Palmitic acid (12.5%), Stearic and Myristic acid (30%).
Hypoglycemic effects
N. sativa and Eugenia jambolana has non-insulin-mediated mechanism for the demonstration of hypoglycemic activity. However, petroleum ether extract exerts an insulin1sensitizing action by enhancing the activity of the two major intracellular signal transduction pathways of the hormones receptor
Antinociceptive effects of N. sativa oil and Eugenia jambolana having Flavonoids, phenolic and thymoquinone N. sativa of are mediated by indirect activation of the supraspinal μ1- and k-opioid receptor subtypes.
Seeds
Flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids
6.
Seeds
Enoate, Stigma-5, 22-Dien- 3-B-D-Gluco.
Anti-oxytocic potential
The volatile oil of Nigella sativa seeds inhibits the spontaneous uterine smooth muscle contractions induced by oxytocin stimulation. These effects are concentration-dependent and reversible by tissue washing.
N. sativa cause significant reduction in acidity and glutathione level while it produced a significant increase in mucosal histamine content
Leaves
Amylase
8.
Seeds
Cycloeucalenol, Cycloartenol, Sterol Esters
Neuroprotective action
Neuro-protective action of NSO is correlated to its ability to inhibit not only excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation but also seizure generation
TQ were considered as protective agents against the chromosomal aberrations induced as a result of schistosomiasis
Crude extract of pulp
phenolic content and acetylated flavonol glycosides
11.
Seeds
Tyrosine, Proline and Threonine
Anxiolytic effect
N. Sativa oil increased brain levels of 5-HT but the levels of brain 5-HIAA decreased significantly. Brain and plasma levels of tryptophan also increased significantly following oral repeated administration of N. sativa oil. Based on this, it may be suggested that N. sativa oil is a useful choice for the treatment of anxiety.
N. sativa oil can possibly be utilized as both supplements and as adjuvant. It has great importance when combine with chloroquine because the rate of loss and failure becomes less that’s why it is safer for utilization. This will lessen the side effects of CQ. Total charge of treatment of malaria through chloroquine being the least expensive and mostly accessible
Methanolic extract of leaves
Polyphenols including Flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides & phenolic compound, fatty oils
Nigella sativa oil serves to counter infection by tapeworms and also used in the treatment or control of nematode infestations. It was demonstrated that oil have the ability to lessen the quantity of Schistosoma mansoni worms and ova that are produced in both the liver and in the intestinal tract. It has ability to expel parasitic worms such as nodular worms, tapeworms, hookworms, earthworms and nodular worms. Displayed great properties to attack the tapeworms and earthworms.
Leaves
glycosides & phenolic compound, fatty oils
14.
Seeds
Cycloartenol, Sterol Esters and Sterol Glucosides
Influence on blood
In an ongoing report it was seen that menthol dissolvable parts of Nigella sativa oil Counting thymol and carvacol Had extremely solid inhibitory impact on aggregated platelets that are induced by arachidonic acid
Seeds
glycosides & phenolic compound, fatty oils
15.
Seeds
Cycloeucalenol, Cycloartenol, Sterol Esters and Sterol Glucosides
Treatment of Acne
The Nigella sativa oil moisturizer has demonstrated its adequacy as an effective treatment for skin break out by acne vulgaris A new common plant extricates, which does not have any consequences. One of its constituents α-pipene had in vitro impact against Propionibacterium acnes, That is one of the main considerations involve in the advancement of skin inflammation.
The uptake of 1 ml/kg/day of black cumin oil enhances the release of sexual hormones that stimulated the increase protein production of liver enzymes, platelets number and in the blood it diminishing the level of cholesterol present in serum. Nigella sativa oil possess anti-oxidative activities to neutralize the damage in the epididymal sperm characters brought about by hydrogen peroxide (H2 02) treatment. Crude extract
In Saudi Arab and neighboring nations Kalonji seeds and oils are commonly utilized for the cure o asthma. Carbonyl polymer of thymoquinone (nigellone) ends up being an incredible preventive agent for both bronchial asthma and asthmatic bronchitis. Essential oil can be utilized as probable respiratory energizer if thymoquinone is eliminated
Seeds
glycosides & phenolic compound, fatty oils
19.
Seeds
Sterol Esters and Sterol Glucosides
Anti-bacterial Activity
Nigella sativa oil have shown great properties against bacterial specie that are producing wound infections. The oil provided great preventing impacts on Staphylococcus Aureus and Streptococcus species. Thymohydroquinone was separated from the essential oil known to possess higher actions against gram+ive bacteria.
Crude extract of leaves and bark
Phenols and flavonoids
20.
Seeds and oil
Cycloartenol
Anti-fungal Effects
The essential oil of Kalnoji of various backgrounds has accounted for to have adequate inhibitory activity against disease causing strains of: yeasts, dermatophytes and Non-dermatophytic filamentous parasites alongside aflatoxin-creating organisms.
Both the species exhibit to act on respiratory illness associated with type-Il cells and secondary pathway of epithelial regeneration will be triggered
Glimpse of phytochemical and pharmacological endorsement of both the species.
6. Conclusions
In a nutshell, both the species having identical pharmacological properties, bearing with different and rich source of phytoconstituents, currently, todays era getting conscious about the utilization of herbal medicaments, hence it was the preliminary choice of consumer world-wide. Otherwise, the traditional medicines are still occupying remedy-kingdom in particular area of research. Inherent and varied activities with meticulously indorsed phytoconstituents from both the species is triggering zone to the drug research, whereas this chapter is entirely dedicated to bring out the best from research crafted by different scholars. NS is one of the most important medicinal herbs with considerable commercial value, the valuable Phytoconstituents bearing by these herbs is commendable and also the gap in research to fucose on, merely the principal constituents responsible for activity are the derivatives of thymoquinone (TQ), as evident by various scientific studies support its safe use for the long-term traditional food and medicinal purposes.
To date, number of studies showed that, EJ is evergreen tree, having food value, which provide remarkably diversified therapeutic application, to treat different disease and its disorder associated with physiological system. The studies suggested that the major constituents responsible for the activity are flavonoids, anthocyanins, carotenoids, essential oil, terpenes, tannins and phenolic compounds.
To jot down, NS and EJ having wider safety margin and praiseworthy therapeutic activity, against sustainably cure to different bacteria and virus, this era of treatment require the molecules isolated from natural sources, whereas the worldwide ban of antibiotic, steroidal hormones and outbreak of covid-19, this candidate will prove its effectiveness.
Acknowledgments
Author immensely grateful to the management of AIKTC and the book publishing family for giving me the opportunity to become a part of this novelty work. Last but not least my heartfelt thanks to Librarian of AIKTC for guidance support. I never deny the support and love of my children and family for providing me the quality time to draft this chapter.
Conflict of interest
The author declared no conflict of interest.
Notes/Thanks/Other declarations
Thanks to publishing house for giving me the opportunity to contribute.
Acronyms and abbreviations
NS
Nigella sativa
EJ
Eugenia jambolana
TQ
Thymoquinone
NSO
Nigella sativa oil
DPPH
2,2-diphenyl- 1-1picryhydrazyl hydrate
LOO
lipid peroxyl radicals
FRAP
Ferric reducing antioxidant power
GAE
Gallic acid equivalent
CE
Catechin equivalent
TAE
Tannic acid equivalent
AGEs
Acute gastroenteritis
CVD
Cardio Vascular Disease
AMD
Age Related Macular Degeneration
\n',keywords:"Ranunculaceae, Myrtaceae, Thymoquinone, flavonoids, pharmaceutical, HIV-Aids, Cancer",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78065.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78065.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78065",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78065",totalDownloads:138,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:70,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 17th 2021",dateReviewed:"July 4th 2021",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 1st 2021",dateFinished:"August 12th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The repository of traditional, historical and cultural heritage of natural prophylactic medicine to treat different disease, disorder and its aliment is limitless and time-immemorial. As per the hadith narrated by Ibn Abbas (RA), Prophet Muhammed specifically mentioned about Sulayman (AS) recorded the name and use of many herbal medicinal remedies after construction of his castle (Ibn Asakri’s Mukhtasar Tareekh Dimashq 3.393), in addition to it, Prophet Muhammed use to recommend 65 different herbal prophylactic medicines which are scientifically proved to be highly effective against almost all types of ailments, among this repository of 65, while prescribing the NS Prophet Muhammed narrated “use this black seeds regularly it is having the properties to cure all disease (ailment) except death (An authentic hadith narrated by Abu Hurayrah (RA) and recorded by Bukhari, Muslim Ahmad Ibn Majah). This in-depth review specially articulated to elaborate phytochemical, pharmacological and mechanistic approach to bring out the properties of not only NS but in addition, it focusing on the important properties of EJ. Preliminarily to say NS claim to have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, hepato-protective, neuro-protective, gastro-protective and other useful activity are due to two important constituents Thymoquinone (TQ) and NS oil (NSO). TQ has interaction with human serum albumin. Seeds containing volatile oils mainly Melanthin showed toxicity at larger doses. Whereas, EJ simultaneously proved its effectiveness underutilized fruit, crops are nutritious bearing wide range of pharmaceuticals properties. EJ fruit is highly perishable and is mainly used for the diabetes patients, it is well known as a traditional medicinal plant having essential bioactive compounds which are present in all parts of the plant. The major bioactive compounds present in the EJ roots are phytosterols, flavonoids, carotenoids, myricetin, oxalic acid, gallic acid, citronellol, cyanidin diglucoside, hotrienol, and polyphenols as well as micronutrients having many health benefits. It is also a good source of anthocyanin and effective against numerous health problems and act as chemo-preventive, radioprotective and demonstrating antineoplastic properties. The ripe fruits are pleasant, astringent taste and are eaten either raw or processed into different products mainly vinegar, jam, jellies and squash. The jambolana seed contains alkaloid, jambosine, and glycoside jambolin or antimellin. To be concluded, NS and EJ both bearing similar therapeutic and pharmacological endorsement with different remarkable biological active molecule, which will become future reference to find out the natural way to cure untreatable disease and its disorder such as HIV-Aids, Cancer and recent outbreak, etc. according to narration made by Prophet Muhammed .",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78065",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78065",book:{id:"10907",slug:"herbs-and-spices-new-processing-technologies"},signatures:"Nikhat Farhana",authors:[{id:"352421",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikhat",middleName:null,surname:"Farhana",fullName:"Nikhat Farhana",slug:"nikhat-farhana",email:"nik.nida13ada25@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/352421/images/20283_n.jpg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Nigella sativa (black seeds)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Botanical description",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 NS flower taxonomy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Common names",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Synonyms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.4 NS seeds and oil",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.5 Cultivation and collection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.2 Phytochemical description of NS",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.1 Reported constituent and its structures of NS",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11",title:"3. Eugenia jambolana (black plum)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.1 Botanical and taxonomical description",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.1.1 Taxonomical description",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.1.2 Common names",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.1.3 Synonyms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.1.4 Cultivation and collection of EJ",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.2 Phytochemical description of EJ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.2.1 Reported constituent and its structure of EJ",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19",title:"4. Endorsed pharmacological descriptions of ns and EJ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"4.1 Pharmacological properties of NS seeds and oil",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"4.2 Pharmacological properties EJ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"5. Comparative pharmacological properties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Notes/Thanks/Other declarations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"Acronyms and abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Tapsell LC, Scientific TC, Sullivan DR. Health benefits of herbs and spices: the past, the present, the future. 2006;(September).'},{id:"B2",body:'Musharraf HM, Arman MSI. Prophetic medicine is the cheapest , safest and the best remedy in the prevention and treatment of hypertension (high blood pressure) – a mini review. 2018;3(5):245-50.'},{id:"B3",body:'Ayyanar M, Subash-Babu P. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels: A review of its phytochemical constituents and traditional uses. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2012;2(3):240-246.'},{id:"B4",body:'Jhade D, Gupta S. Medicinal and Phamacological Potential of Nigella sativa : A Review. 2016;(December).'},{id:"B5",body:'Eid AM, Elmarzugi NA, Ayyash LMA, Sawafta MN, Daana HI. A Review on the Cosmeceutical and External Applications of Nigella sativa. 2017;2017.'},{id:"B6",body:'Datta AK, Saha A, Mandal A, Behar C. Black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) – a review. 2012;(January).'},{id:"B7",body:'Wu S. An efficient RNA-cleaving DNA enzyme can specifically target the 5-untranslated region of severe acute respiratory syndrome associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV). 2007;(November 2006):1080-6.'},{id:"B8",body:'Sallehuddin N, Nordin A, Bt R, Idrus H, Fauzi MB. Nigella sativa and Its Active Compound, Thymoquinone, Accelerate Wound Healing in an In Vivo Animal Model : A Comprehensive Review. 2020;'},{id:"B9",body:'Sharma D. Chapter -3 Health Benefits of Syzygium cumini (Jamun) Seeds Chapter -3 Health Benefits of Syzygium cumini (Jamun .... Chapter - 3 Health Benefits of Syzygium cumini (Jamun) Seeds Authors Master’ s Student, Department of Food , Nutrition and Dieteti. 2020;(December).'},{id:"B10",body:'Ayyanar M, Subash-Babu P. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels: A review of its phytochemical constituents and traditional uses. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2012;2(3):240-246.'},{id:"B11",body:'Bijauliya RK, Alok S, Sabharwal M, Chanchal DK. Syzygium Cumini (Linn.) - an Overview on Morphology, Cultivation, Traditional Uses and Pharmacology. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2018;9(9):3608-3620.'},{id:"B12",body:'Ayyanar M, Subash-Babu P, Ignacimuthu S. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels., a novel therapeutic agent for diabetes: Folk medicinal and pharmacological evidences. Complement Ther Med. 2013;21(3):232-243.'},{id:"B13",body:'Ramya S, Neethirajan K, Jayakumararaj R. Profile of bioactive compounds in Syzygium cumini-a review. Artic J Pharm Res. 2013;5(8):4548-4553.'},{id:"B14",body:'Baliga MS, Bhat HP, Baliga BRV, Wilson R, Palatty PL. Phytochemistry, traditional uses and pharmacology of Eugenia jambolana Lam. (black plum): A review. Food Res Int [Internet]. 2011;44(7):1776-1789. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.02.007'},{id:"B15",body:'Ijaz H, Tulain UR, Qureshi J, Danish Z, Musayab S, Zaman M, et al. Nigella sativa (Prophetic Medicine): A Review. 2016;(November).'},{id:"B16",body:'Islam MT, Guha B, Hosen S, Riaz TA. Nigellalogy : A Review on Nigella Sativa Nigellalogy : A Review on Nigella Sativa. 2017;(September).'},{id:"B17",body:'Khan Z, Hasan N, Ahmad N, Khalid M. Pharmacological Activity of Nigella Sativa : A Review Pharmacological Activity of Nigella Sativa : A Review. 2016;(April).'},{id:"B18",body:'Nesrain F, Nadia S, Jumat S. Physiochemical properties of Saudi Nigella sativa L. (‘Black cumin’) seed oil. 2021;1-9.'},{id:"B19",body:'Oliveira ACP, Endringer DC, Amorim LAS, Brandão MDGL, Coelho MM. Effect of the extracts and fractions of Baccharis trimera and Syzygium cumini on glycaemia of diabetic and non-diabetic mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102(3):465-469.'},{id:"B20",body:'Rao SS, Najam R. Efficacy of combination herbal product (Curcuma longa and Eugenia jambolana) used for diabetes mellitus. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2016;29(1):201-204.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Nikhat Farhana",address:"nik.nida13ada25@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Anjuman-I-Islam’s Kalsekar Technical Campus, University of Mumbai, India
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, AIKTC-SoP, Mumbai University, India
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1. Introduction
International Health Security (IHS) includes a broad range of intertwined subject areas are related to human security [1, 2, 3, 4]. Introduced by the United Nations in the mid-1990s, the definition of “health security” is nebulous because of an overlap between its constituent “health” and “security” components [5]. Thus, there continues to be debate about the degree of such overlap and its implications. In addition, although traditional IHS applications focus on bio-terrorism and emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) [6, 7], the concepts of “health” and “security” can be applied more broadly when different man-made and non-man-made factors, from climate change to cyber health security are considered [8, 9, 10, 11].
The domination of personal and professional human interactions by the increasingly more powerful and sophisticated social media (SM) platforms brought with it many benefits and challenges. For example, SM has introduced conditions for cyberbullying, voter/public opinion manipulation, and criminal activity despite its well-intended attempts to bring people together in the digital, boundaryless environment [12]. Here, we will discuss how SM can create both constructive and destructive forces, focusing specifically on IHS and related topic areas.
2. The definition of social media
SM’s definition and sphere of influence extend to “any medium involving user-generated content” [13, 14]. Assorted subdomains within SM may include blogs or microblogs, interactive forums, message boards, social networks, wikis, as well as other types of audiovisual media-based platforms (e.g., photo or video sharing sites) [13, 14, 15]. Comprehensive acceptance of SM contributed to a startling rise in the overall amount of information being shared, the acceleration and pervasiveness of such sharing, as well as the ability to interact across nearly all areas of human activity, inclusive of public health and medical care [12, 16]. It must be noted that the vast volume of shared information on SM is largely unfiltered and difficult to verify.
The reach and breadth of SM platforms and related communication tools have developed exponentially and matured as the Internet has expanded [14, 17, 18]. During this time, the purpose and focus of various SM tools remained poorly defined [19, 20]. While altruism is at the heart of most large SM platforms, it is difficult to promote (or enforce) its charitable and humanitarian application by end-users, especially in the context of best interest of communities [21, 22, 23]. As with all discourses involving the interchange of knowledge, transparency becomes a paramount concern in that any information disclosures are made in a manner that is both open and honest, in effect strengthening the legitimacy of the involved SM platform [24, 25, 26]. It is critical that SM adheres to accepted ethical and scientific norms and that this adherence applies to the full range of related domains, including bioinformatics, statistical testing, peer-review, and independent validation [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. It should be emphasized that particularly when it pertains to SM in the context of the subsequent IHS arguments made in this chapter, the most popular, seemingly persuasive, and commonly repeated messaging does not always constitute the absolute truth or reliable information, and that one should be free to question and challenge any data he/she is presented with [35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40]. This is especially applicable in the setting of question-and-answer format of information exchange, where both relevance and quality of information are critical [40].
3. Social media platforms: “weaponizing” human emotions and interactions
The very presence of today’s Internet has created the expectation of internationalization and universal information sharing amid the rapidly evolving frameworks of technological and social change [41, 42, 43]. As the Internet matured, the type and presentation of the information itself evolved, with increasing participation of highly diversified, user-furnished content [44]. Human beings have always valued the stimuli provided by their senses, either consciously or subconsciously. People tend to create various reference points, both to self and others, allowing the construction of an environment that psychologically conditions its participants. This may lead to a compulsive feedback loop that emerges from intense competitive pressures, with users trying to out-compete themselves and others in search of external affirmation [45, 46, 47, 48, 49]. As part of its continued development, the Internet became rich in various audio-visual representations specifically designed to show appreciation or depreciation of the stimuli [49, 50, 51]. From a historical perspective, the first “like” button has been attributed to Vimeo, a video sharing platform that appeared in 2005 [52, 53]. Vimeo designers were inspired by Diggs, a Website that encouraged the clicking of a button labeled “digg” when a rewarding picture was observed by an end-user or an interesting article was read. Similar concepts have been fully embraced across the SM sphere and serve as the “fuel” in the highly gamified “ratings” competition [53, 54, 55, 56].
The concept of “liking” or providing “virtual endorsement” to an information snippet on an SM platform has sparked intense research into the implications and consequences of such an action that, on initial blush, appears benign [57, 58, 59]. More specifically, there is evidence that an action of providing a “like” creates a basis for a “directed voting” or reward system of sorts [59, 60]. Early research by Davey et al. [61] investigated the effect of “being liked” on specific regions of the brain. Primary reward and self-related regions were activated under such conditions (e.g., nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmentum midbrain, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and amygdala among others) [61]. Furthermore, there was a proportionately greater activation of the these neurological regions in response to “being liked” by individuals who are more highly regarded [61]. Sherman et al. [62] used a computer program resembling Instagram (Facebook, Inc., Menlo Park, California, USA) to investigate regions of the brain that exhibited significant activity when an image was “liked.” Their results showed statistically significant activation in the dorsal and ventral striatum, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, midbrain, and amygdala when “liking” an image versus simply pressing “next” to view the subsequent image [62]. The former regions were implicated in reward and the latter being implicated in reward processing [63, 64]. Sherman et al. [62] did note that the esthetic quality of the image itself can lead to activation of similar pathways. If both the “act of liking” and the act of “receiving a like” are being interpreted as rewards, it becomes clear as to why SM has been expanding so quickly. However, this also leads to the question, what are the consequences of such rewards?
Studies have linked these changes to dopaminergic system and its corresponding communication with the striatum [65]. When looking at the effects of “like” from the neuroscience perspective, functional MRI studies of SM users suggest that the “popularity of a photo” has a significant effect on its viewer’s perception. A popular photo was more likely to receive more “likes” from SM peers regardless of the activity being portrayed [66]. Sherman et al. [65] went on to discuss the quantification of social endorsement as an important example of sociocultural learning. Moreover, the question arises as to whether individuals actively engaged in SM-based discourses are more likely to neglect direct human interactions in favor of reaching larger, “virtual and impersonal” audiences [46, 67, 68]. If so, what are the implications of such conditioning to the ability to critically evaluate information encountered on SM platforms? Likewise, how does one sort out what is real versus what is virtual, as well as the impact of information upon each of these domains?
Before venturing back to the primary discussion of the relationship between SM and IHS, the concepts of “vague-booking” and “mediated lurking” should be noted [66, 69]. Berryman et al. [66] define “vague-booking” as sharing “ambiguous but alarming posts” to attract attention. “Mediated lurking” on the other hand is defined as becoming a member/user of a SM platform but “wishing to go largely undetected” [69, 70]. Finally, one would be remiss without mentioning the potential for “cyberbullying” and “cyber aggression” [71, 72]. These phenomena can create a real and damaging link between online and real-life behaviors [71, 73, 74]. Aggressive online behaviors have been categorized into subtypes, which include hostile aggression (e.g., “an act of aggression stemming from a feeling of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury”) and instrumental aggression (e.g., “an intention to hurt the other person, but the hurting takes place as a means to some goal other than causing pain”) [75]. Within this general context, SM facilitates and escalates negative behaviors that may serve to “deliver aggression,” while not being physically present, yet directed toward the person of interest. Jamison et al. [76] investigated the types of malicious actors that are found on Twitter (Twitter, San Francisco, California, USA) and the potential ramifications of their influence. Three categories of malicious actors were identified: (1) automated accounts (i.e., bots without human influence once created), (2) semiautomated accounts (i.e., bots with some degree of human influence), and (3) malicious humans [76]. Malicious SM actors have been labeled “trolls,” with the associated activity of “trolling” defined as “posting denigrating and inflammatory messages in order to argue and/or emotionally upset individuals” [77]. Each form allows for altering influence, as well as delivering aggression. In particular, if the actors can deliver an aggressive message with a disregard for any ramifications, they are in fact executing the purest form of passive aggression, a demonstration of hostile feelings in a non-confrontational manner [78, 79]. All of the above definitions, characteristics, behavioral patterns, and consequences play an important role in the “weaponization” of SM as it relates to IHS. Within this psychological context, a discussion of various aspects of concern regarding targeted SM content manipulation is warranted [80].
4. Social media in public health
As outlined in previous sections, SM has several emerging real-life applications in public health [81]. It is a powerful platform for real-time data collection, especially during fast-moving events such as epidemics or outbreaks [81, 82]. User inputs on SM platforms may help with the detection—and subsequent mapping—of geographic patterns for disease-specific signs or symptoms, confirmed cases, and/or other relevant parameters [83]. The resultant data can then be filtered, tracked, collected, analyzed/modeled, and reported [84, 85].
The use of SM to analyze various aspects of disease outbreaks (e.g., prediction, detection, and tracking) was described in the early 2010s by several independent groups [86, 87, 88, 89]. SM was felt to be instrumental in containing the Ebola outbreak in Nigeria through enhanced information sharing and coordination between front line personnel [85]. While Internet “search engines” are valued tools, primarily because they can be used in the leveraging of targeted marketing and sales, their use in characterizing the epidemiology, and geographic evolution of an emerging disease [90, 91, 92] as well as other more scientifically focused endeavors [93, 94] is of unquestionable worth. Increased frequency of specifically tracked search queries, such as “how does one prevent the flu,” “what is the treatment of the flu,” and “what are the most common symptoms of the flu” have shown accuracy and temporal correlation with the extent of disease spread and its prevalence, especially when contrasted against more traditional means of tracking outbreak progression. There is also a strong correlation between trends identified by “Internet search engines” and phenomena such as emergency department visits by patients with influenza [95]. A striking example of the correlation between Google™ Trends and an emerging infectious threat was recently demonstrated in an “infodemiological” study of the Wuhan coronavirus (2019-nCoV) [96]. Still, it is not surprising that some pragmatic researchers urge caution when using such information in the absence of complete epidemiological understanding, context, and expert interpretation [97, 98].
Despite some flaws, strict adherence to proper scientific methodology and structured peer review can provide reasonably robust ways of enforcing proper balance to help minimize the risk of propagation of false or misleading information [99, 100, 101]. To ensure wide adoption, SM platforms tend to be open and inviting, thus providing an essentially unrestricted forum for the exchange of ideas. Much of this occurs in the name of “protecting and enabling free speech.” Consequently, short of legal action, objective accountability for communicated content is lacking at best [102, 103, 104, 105]. In certain scenarios, unrestricted online attacks can be very destructive, including consequences in both in the “real” and “digital” domains, and both personally and professionally [12, 106]. Some forms of malicious SM participation have been discussed in an aforementioned section. Among established SM platforms, there seems to be a struggle to find a balance between self- or user/community-censorship and various forms of “online aggression” [12, 72, 107]. Significant spillover into public health can occur, especially among minors, and can have tremendous impact when “online actions” translate into “real-world implications” [108, 109, 110, 111].
5. International Health Security: constructive uses of social media
It has been shown that SM-based vigilance can be useful for outbreak or epidemic interception, tracking, and data reporting [86, 87, 112, 113]. In the midst of the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa, isolated islands of the disease were successfully contained leveraging SM-based coordination tools, including targeted identification of misinformation and its prompt correction [85]. SM can also be valuable to public health community when determining how human networks behave in the context of social determinants of health (e.g., health behaviors, resource availability, and general compliance) [114]. Thus, SM may be particularly helpful in promoting positive health behaviors [115]. All of the above implementations of SM in public health are now being actively employed during the Wuhan 2019-nCoV outbreak, with focus on augmented intelligence in the context of preventing the spread of the disease [116, 117]. An additional use case for SM, as reported in conjunction with the 2019-nCoV, is the promotion of psychological crisis interventions using popular SM channels to share strategies for dealing with stress and anxiety associated with the outbreak [118].
6. International Health Security: potentially harmful aspects of social media use
The sharing of non-peer-reviewed information over SM entails the potential of transmitting misinformation or misinterpretation of such unfiltered content [119], especially if it is out of context. The hourly volume of SM messaging that may contain “inaccurate or fake news” outnumbers “fact checking” capabilities by as much as 10-fold [120]. In addition, the average time between the release of “fake news” and any “fact checking” response may be greater than 12 hours, thereby causing significant damage before the misinformation can be rectified [120]. Thus, misinformation introduced into public discourse can be substantial if placed by a highly motivated and appropriately equipped individual (or group). In the context of IHS, the consequences can be profound when “fake news” is carefully crafted and communicated in a strategic manner (Table 1). “Fake news” can be damaging in several ways, from spreading false claims (e.g., that risk of vaccines is greater than their benefits), to misinforming the public regarding a particular health condition (e.g., misstating signs and symptoms of a viral infection). Programmatic moderation of content is one of the solutions that SM outlets have embraced, but this process is very resource-intensive, may be quite cumbersome, and may not apply universally across different types of data [121, 122]. Additionally, in regard to SM and addiction, there are significant correlations between symptoms of addiction to technology use and mental health conditions [123]. Furthermore, more advanced technological applications, such as virtual reality, have been associated with dissociation and lower “sense of presence” in objective reality [124]. Various psychological aspects and nuances associated with SM use were discussed earlier in the chapter, and the reader is referred there to avoid content redundancy.
Harmful behavior
Description
Comments
Cyberbullying
SM content that is of intimidating or threatening in character, with potential for risk to self or others. Associated harm may be both mental and physical
Robust surveillance, reporting, and prompt remediation; establishing and enforcing accountability, as applicable
Fabricated or “fake” news
Intentional release of erroneous news and information via both traditional and SM. Consequences can be both unintended and unpredictable, including intentionally or unintentionally harmful or damaging behaviors, or misdirected action
Adherence to established news reporting standards; Sound editorial policies and procedures. Appropriate fact-checking and prompt intervention to avoid any resultant or potential harm
Intentional misinformation
Leading individuals to perform actions that may have harmful consequences on self or others. Release of intentional misinformation may result in random and unpredictable downstream events. The process involves the end-user receiving, processing, and implementing any information before actual harm can result
Empowering SM moderators to remove harmful content; Vigilance, fact-checking, and timely intervention to prevent any potential or actual damage from dissemination of false information; legal consequences for intentional introduction of potentially damaging misinformation
Misinterpretation
Erroneous conclusions made regarding data generated or compiled from SM inputs. Although usually not intentional, this may lead to misguided planning or implementations, with some potential for harm
Careful cross-checking and verification of both the source data and the analytical methods; use of established decision-making algorithms and verification mechanisms
Table 1.
Primary modes of deleterious behavioral patterns described on social media, with associated characteristics, potential for negative consequences, and proposed remedial/corrective measures.
SM, social media.
Although SM can provide an excellent medium for open discourse on a broad range of topics, the troubling reality is that SM may foster a society with fewer defined boundaries (e.g., “real-life friend” versus “social media friend”) [125, 126]. Thereby no longer plainly demarcating a defined personal space and presenting a risk of intentional or unintended “invasion” [127, 128]. Although SM’s negative aspects have been addressed, there is little doubt that responsible use of SM facilitates the public awareness of various health/mental health matters and thus can provide an overall positive influence.
There are examples of SM as a successful tracking tool of actual disease outbreaks/epidemics [86]. However, the risk of “false alarms” does exist, potentially affecting the utility of SM as a useful public health tracking tool at the population level [129]. The tracked data often lack specificity [130], can be misinterpreted and/or distorted, and subsequently promoted by influential personas without appropriate training or content expertise [131, 132]. Reversing damage caused by distortion of the facts and misinterpretation can be challenging [133, 134, 135, 136, 137]. For example, the controversy regarding the alleged association between childhood vaccination and autism exemplifies how concerns of global nature can be distorted in a highly publicized fashion [138, 139, 140]. Despite multiple research studies that were unable to definitively prove a connection between childhood vaccines and autism, large groups within the society still advocate otherwise [141, 142, 143]. Unfortunately, misplaced trust tends to be given to the messengers and various SM tools, rather than the authorities and the medical community [144, 145, 146]. These considerations need to be taken from the perspective of IHS, especially when one realizes that the “most prominent voice” is not universally the one with the correct or the best answer [147, 148].
There is a clear and present danger of malignant actors abusing SM to spread disinformation that may potentially lead to third-party harm [149, 150]. In 2009, in the midst of the swine influenza season, there was a substantial uptick in SM reporting of various conspiracies about the flu virus, its alleged genetically engineered origins, and other unfounded rumors [151, 152, 153]. Thousands of user views of the questionable material were recorded by involved SM platforms, which was likely a significant underestimate [151, 152, 153], with literally thousands of other search results on the “swine flu epidemic” topic [154]. Similar sources of misinformation continue to be abundant despite their unfounded assumptions and obvious danger [155, 156]. For example, SM outlets are rich with unfounded speculation regarding the most recent coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China [157, 158]. Vijaykumar et al. [159] describe the so-called “social media virality risk,” which attempts to quantify the amplification of the population’s perception of public health risk in the overall context of “social media effectiveness.” Their conceptual model is called Risk Amplification through Media Spread (RAMS) [159].
Of critical importance, SM platforms may be preferred by individuals (or groups) who perceive the lack of other means to express their beliefs and thoughts. As such, SM can be thought of as “virtual aggregators” for people who share generally compatible and/or synergistic viewpoints [160, 161, 162]. Moreover, there is a non-trivial risk of evolution of such “virtual groups” beyond “online presence” [163]. Traditionally, unconventional or controversial beliefs tended to be often marginalized by the society, with relative lack of effective platforms to share thoughts and ideas [164, 165, 166]. In current times, essentially every idea can have an “online home” with SM actively facilitating the aggregation of like-minded people into groups [167, 168]. And although “virtual homes” can become hubs for creativity, innovative thinking, scientific discovery, understanding, diversity, and idea exploration, they can also be the sources of damaging misinformation. Finally, there is at least some evidence that SM may also create an avenue for people to explore different points of view, thus potentially providing an avenue for “new perspectives and open mindedness” [159, 169]. Table 2 shows an overview of characteristics likely to be correlated with misinformation, with a focus on SM-related aspects.
Factor
Comment
Anonymous authorship
Although some press/news releases may not give credit to specific author(s) or source(s), stories/information from anonymous sources (especially if impossible to independently verify) should prompt additional confirmation; this is especially true when making policies or implementing procedures based on such information
Attractive or “catchy” headline
A “catchy” headline tends to attract a larger number of viewers and may help enhance subsequent dissemination of (mis)information
Cult-like followership
Concepts that attract cult-like (often fanatical) followership tend to be more prone to aggregate “SM communities” around them. This, in turn, may assist in further propagation of biased/false information
Disclaimer regarding the information is provided alongside the content
In most cases, sources that feature a disclaimer should be considered with caution, mainly because disclaimers tend to be used in the setting of potential liability risk
Dramatic or otherwise emotional nature of the content
If the content contains dramatic or emotional language, and/or leads to a strong emotional response, it was most likely intended to do so. Oftentimes, hidden agenda(s) may be present
Forward-looking claims or predictive statements may be embedded
News content that provides specific claim of a future event is most likely unauthentic. Likewise, when faced with reports of an effective therapy, end-users should carefully seek verification and remain skeptical
Information superficially “appears” to be legitimate
When “crafted and disseminated” in a specific and deliberate fashion, wrong information may appear legitimate. Only after a more careful/detailed review, factual or logical inconsistencies may be found
Reputable source/origin of the information is claimed by authors
FN may gain more credibility if the source “appears” legitimate. Having said that, any significant claims from an apparently respected source must be substantiated and verified, especially if the story’s author is not clearly identifiable (see above under “anonymous authorship”)
Propagation by high-profile individuals
Superficial appearance of credibility can often be maintained around fictional story accounts, especially when reputable individuals (e.g., community leaders, politicians, scientists) participate in information dissemination
The story is too good to be true…
In cases where SM information appears to be “too good to be true,” the end-users should remain critical and question any such reports/stories
Unusual or atypical domain name/uniform resource locator (URL)
When content is located on a Website, or originates from a source with an unusual domain name, suspicious user identification, and/or URL, skepticism is always wise
Table 2.
Factors that may signal that one is exposed to attempts at the dissemination of “fake news” and misinformation on social media platforms.
FN, fake news; SM, social media; URL, uniform resource locator.
Equipped with SM tools, “malignant actors” can develop a substantial potential for harm and otherwise destructive consequences. Thus, the malignant use of SM poses a risk to IHS. Beyond this, unimpeded access to Internet infrastructure, when “passively” permitted by countries/governments, can create conditions for the “malignant actor” or “fictitious public discourse” to lead to societal disruption and harm, involving both institutions and individuals [170, 171]. The subsequent sections will discuss malignant use cases where SM manipulation is centralized (e.g., government) versus decentralized (individuals, special interests, and non-governmental groups).
When centralized control of Internet infrastructure (e.g., government) is present, a narrative can in theory be created at the top echelons of power, and wide dissemination of messaging can be reasonably easily achieved. Under well-intended circumstances, this capability should be used to facilitate education and positive health behaviors. Having said that, if a central authority is the “bad actor” and their messaging is used to “manipulate” public discussions, the message may constitute an attempt to influence various policy objectives, such as a particular therapy, vaccine, or preventive health measure (s) [172, 173]. Corrupt central authorities may also manipulate SM messaging for monetary gain and/or political goals [174, 175, 176]. In this context, focused SM messages may involve falsified statements, manipulated statistics, and edited images. Such messaging can be directed at a particular target, including religious, ethnic, racial, political, and gender-specific or other groups [177, 178, 179].
When central control is not present, but laws and/or executive orders render SM fully unrestricted to all potential actors, then the so-called peripheral control can be attained [180, 181, 182]. Under such circumstances, individuals or interests can freely target selected individuals, groups, and organizations for manipulation via dissemination of false information via SM [183, 184, 185, 186]. In the arena of peripheral control, third-party entities (e.g., interest groups) who wish to influence a particular policy are able to use SM disguised as indigenous individuals or organizations, modulating the discourse to their benefit [187]. Inherent to modern capitalist societies is that major SM platforms are for-profit entities and thus can be maneuvered using financial resources to influence a society from the periphery [130, 188]. Finally, there is a less likely possibility that the more dominant SM platforms may evolve into new “central authorities” over time.
From public health standpoint, the potential for harm is both real and significant. Hypothetically, a broad range of harmful actions may be initiated using misguided SM, including the manipulation of populations to report to wrong/inappropriate locations for assistance [189, 190], misdirecting local populations with regard to the evacuation routes, sanctuaries/safe places, as well as creating public distress that leads to waste or misuse of precious public health resources [191, 192, 193]. Of importance, healthcare workers could theoretically be manipulated through SM platforms against accepting the risks associated with care for those in need, thus effectively negating a provider’s professional obligations [194, 195]. Although various conspiracy theories have been propagated throughout the history, their dissemination has escalated in the era of multiple SM platforms [196, 197]. As a result, the risk exists of an “engineered reality” by individuals or entities, using SM as the ultimate “mind bending” tool [198]. The theme of SM contributing to fear and misinformation or disinformation in the IHS context continues into the 2020s, with similar concerns being noted around the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak [199].
Finally, ongoing high-level efforts are underway to reduce the harm from SM-based disinformation at the national and international levels. More specifically, there is an increasing number of governmental and non-governmental organizations that actively focus on this important health security problem. This growing list includes the National Cyber Directorate in Israel, the National Security Communications Team (NSCT) in the United Kingdom, the Australian Security Intelligence Organization (ASIO) and the Department of Home Affairs in Australia, the Security Intelligence Service and the Defense Intelligence Service in Denmark, and the National Security Agency in France, among many others. In addition, major SM providers are signatories to the European Union (EU) Code of Practice on Disinformation. However, the same providers are not bound by this Code of Practice outside of the geographic boundaries of the Union [200].
7. Conclusions
Continuous worldwide information sharing fosters innovation and knowledge creation, thus facilitating humanity’s ongoing progress. The same is true regarding the implementation of SM tools in the area of public health/health security. Although there are undoubtedly important benefits of SM in this realm, the in-depth understanding of modern SM platforms is still somewhat limited. The introduction of SM into the domain of public health presented the community with a unique opportunity for the development of highly efficient, integrated tools for disease tracking and epidemiologic trend identification. At the same time, users must remain cautious because the potential for both intentional and unintentional misuse of data may be present, resulting in substantial and often unpredictable harm. Finally, malignant actors in control of the SM narrative can cause deliberate harm through the intentional propagation of “fake news” and misinformation. Consequently, risks and benefits associated with the use of SM in the realm of public health/IHS must be carefully considered to minimize any negative downstream consequences.
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Despite clear advantages, this new technology can present unintended consequences including medical misinformation and “fake news.” Although International Health Security (IHS) stands to benefit tremendously from various SM platforms, high-level decision-makers and other stakeholders must also be aware of the dangers related to its intentional and unintentional misuse (and abuse). An overview of SM utility in fighting disease, disseminating life-saving information, and organizing people and teams in a constructive fashion is discussed herein. The potential negatives associated with SM misuse, including intentional and unintentional misinformation, as well as the ability to organize people in a disruptive fashion, will also be presented. Our treatise will additionally outline how deliberate misinformation may lead to harmful behaviors, public health panics, and orchestrated patterns of distrust. In terms of both its affirmative and destructive considerations, SM can be viewed as an asymmetric influencing force, with observed effects (whether beneficial or harmful) being disproportionately greater than the cost of the intervention.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72906",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72906",signatures:"Keith Conti, Shania Desai, Stanislaw P. Stawicki and Thomas J. Papadimos",book:{id:"9376",type:"book",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",fullTitle:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security - Volume 1",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",publishedDate:"January 7th 2021",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-130-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-129-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-928-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",email:"stawicki.ace@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181694/images/system/181694.jpeg",institution:{name:"St. Luke's University Health Network",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"312709",title:"Dr.",name:"Keith",middleName:null,surname:"Conti",fullName:"Keith Conti",slug:"keith-conti",email:"tug91571@temple.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"St. Luke's University Health Network",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"319928",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanaya",middleName:null,surname:"Desai",fullName:"Shanaya Desai",slug:"shanaya-desai",email:"Shania.Desai@sluhn.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"St. Luke's University Health Network",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"319929",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Papadimos",fullName:"Thomas Papadimos",slug:"thomas-papadimos",email:"Papadimos@osumc.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"St. Luke's University Health Network",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The definition of social media",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Social media platforms: “weaponizing” human emotions and interactions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Social media in public health",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. International Health Security: constructive uses of social media",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. International Health Security: potentially harmful aspects of social media use",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Rodier G. New rules on international public health security. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 2007;85(6):428-430'},{id:"B2",body:'Aldis W. Health security as a public health concept: A critical analysis. Health Policy and Planning. 2008;23(6):369-375'},{id:"B3",body:'Chiu Y-W et al. The nature of international health security. 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The Psychology of Pandemics: Preparing for the Next Global Outbreak of Infectious Disease. Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing; 2019'},{id:"B157",body:'Xiao B, Xiao L. Chinese Scientist Finds “Killer Coronavirus Probably Originated from a Laboratory in Wuhan”. Available from: https://www.zerohedge.com/health/smoking-gun-chinese-scientist-finds-killer-coronavirus-probably-originated-laboratory-wuhan [Accessed: 23 July 2020]'},{id:"B158",body:'Xiao B, Xiao L. Smoking gun? Chinese scientist finds “Killer coronavirus probably originated from a laboratory in Wuhan”. SAT. 2020;10:44'},{id:"B159",body:'Vijaykumar S, Jin Y, Nowak G. Social media and the virality of risk: The risk amplification through media spread (RAMS) model. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management. 2015;12(3):653-677'},{id:"B160",body:'Marwick AE, Boyd D. I tweet honestly, I tweet passionately: Twitter users, context collapse, and the imagined audience. New Media & Society. 2011;13(1):114-133'},{id:"B161",body:'Gerlitz C, Helmond A. The like economy: Social buttons and the data-intensive web. New Media & Society. 2013;15(8):1348-1365'},{id:"B162",body:'Lewis K, Gonzalez M, Kaufman J. Social selection and peer influence in an online social network. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2012;109(1):68-72'},{id:"B163",body:'Harlow S. Social media and social movements: Facebook and an online Guatemalan justice movement that moved offline. New Media & Society. 2012;14(2):225-243'},{id:"B164",body:'Pawar M. Resurrection of traditional communities in postmodern societies. Futures. 2003;35(3):253-265'},{id:"B165",body:'Cao X. What Speech Should Be Outside of Freedom of Expression? 2010. Available from: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1733441 [Accessed: 23 July 2020]'},{id:"B166",body:'Langvardt AW. Not on our shelves: A first amendment analysis of library censorship in the public schools. Nebraska Law Review. 1982;61:98'},{id:"B167",body:'Kaplan AM, Haenlein M. Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media. Business Horizons. 2010;53(1):59-68'},{id:"B168",body:'Clinton H. Internet Rights and Wrongs: Choices & Challenges in a Networked World. US State Department; 2011. Available from: http://diritto-comunicazione.decesare.info/Hillary-Clinton_George-Washington-Univ_15_02_11.pdf [Accessed: 23 July 2020]'},{id:"B169",body:'Barberá P. How social media reduces mass political polarization. In: Evidence from Germany, Spain, and the US. Job Market Paper. New York University; 2014. p. 46. Available from: http://rubenson.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/barbera-tpbw.pdf [Accessed: 23 July 2020]'},{id:"B170",body:'Starvridis J. Convergence: Illicit Networks and National Security in the Age of Globalization. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office; 2013'},{id:"B171",body:'Svete U. European E-readiness? Cyber dimension of national security policies. Journal of Comparative Politics. 2012;5(1):38-59'},{id:"B172",body:'Aliyev H. Precipitating state failure: do civil wars and violent non-state actors create failed states? Third World Quarterly. 2017;38(9):1973-1989'},{id:"B173",body:'Chen D. “Supervision by public opinion” or by government officials? Media criticism and central-local government relations in China. Modern China. 2017;43(6):620-645'},{id:"B174",body:'Enikolopov R, Petrova M, Sonin K. Social media and corruption. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. 2018;10(1):150-174'},{id:"B175",body:'Enikolopov R, Petrova M, Sonin K. Do Political Blogs Matter?: Corruption in State-controlled Companies, Blog Postings, and DDoS Attacks. Princeton, NJ: Centre for Economic Policy Research; 2012'},{id:"B176",body:'Myers DP. Violation of treaties: Bad faith, nonexecution and disregard. American Journal of International Law. 1917;11(4):794-819'},{id:"B177",body:'Fuchs C. Social Media: A Critical Introduction. Los Angeles, CA: Sage; 2017'},{id:"B178",body:'Korta SM. Fake News, Conspiracy Theories, and Lies: An Information Laundering Model for Homeland Security. Monterey, California: Naval Postgraduate School; 2018'},{id:"B179",body:'Ting CSW, Song SGZ. What Lies Beneath the Truth: A Literature Review on Fake News, False Information and More. 2018 [28 October 2017]. Available from: https://lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/docs/default-source/ips/report_what-lies-beneath-the-truth_a-literature-review-on-fake-news-false-information-and-more_300617.pdf'},{id:"B180",body:'Fuchs C, Trottier D. Theorising Social Media, Politics and the State: An Introduction, in Social Media, Politics and the State. New York, NY: Routledge; 2014. pp. 15-50'},{id:"B181",body:'Cohen E. Mass Surveillance and State Control: The Total Information Awareness Project. New York, NY: Springer; 2010'},{id:"B182",body:'Castells M. Networks of Outrage and Hope: Social Movements in the Internet Age. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons; 2015'},{id:"B183",body:'Fox NJ. Foucault, Foucauldians and sociology. British Journal of Sociology. 1998:415-433'},{id:"B184",body:'White D. Public Discours: Importance & Strategies. 2018 [28 October 2018]. Available from: https://study.com/academy/lesson/public-discourse-importance-strategies.html'},{id:"B185",body:'Wolf R. Immigration, Gay Rights, Politics, Abortion, Taxes, Technology: Crunch Time at the Supreme Court. 2018 [28 October 2018]. Available from: https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2018/04/29/immigration-gay-rights-politics-abortion-taxes-technology-supreme-court/518748002/'},{id:"B186",body:'PublicHealth.org. Vaccine Myths Debunked. 2018 [28 October 2018]. Available from: https://www.publichealth.org/public-awareness/understanding-vaccines/vaccine-myths-debunked/'},{id:"B187",body:'Richey M. Contemporary Russian revisionism: understanding the Kremlin’s hybrid warfare and the strategic and tactical deployment of disinformation. Asia Europe Journal. 2018;16(1):101-113'},{id:"B188",body:'Dwoskin E. Facebook Profit Hits an All-time High, Unaffected by Recent Scandals—So Far. 2018 [28 October 2017]. Available from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2018/04/25/facebook-profit-hits-an-all-time-high-unaffected-by-recent-scandals-so-far/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.ac014b07938e'},{id:"B189",body:'WHO. Strengthening Heath Security by Implementing the International Health Regulations (2005): IHR Procedures Concerning Public Health Emergencies of International Concern (PHEIC). 2018 [28 October 2018]. Available from: http://www.who.int/ihr/procedures/pheic/en/'},{id:"B190",body:'Chou W-YS, Oh A, Klein WM. Addressing health-related misinformation on social media. JAMA. 2018;320(23):2417-2418'},{id:"B191",body:'Briggs CL. Stories in the Time of Cholera: Racial Profiling during a Medical Nightmare. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press; 2003'},{id:"B192",body:'Berlant L. Slow death (sovereignty, obesity, lateral agency). Critical Inquiry. 2007;33(4):754-780'},{id:"B193",body:'Bickerstaff K, Simmons P, Pidgeon N. Situating local experience of risk: Peripherality, marginality and place identity in the UK foot and mouth disease crisis. Geoforum. 2006;37(5):844-858'},{id:"B194",body:'Papadimos TJ et al. Ethics of outbreaks position statement. Part 2: Family-centered care. Critical Care Medicine. 2018;46(11):1856-1860'},{id:"B195",body:'Papadimos TJ et al. Ethics of outbreaks position statement. Part 1: Therapies, treatment limitations, and duty to trreat. Critical Care Medicine. 2018;46(11):1842-1855'},{id:"B196",body:'Andrejevic M. Infoglut: How Too Much Information Is Changing the Way We Think and Know. New York, NY: Routledge; 2013'},{id:"B197",body:'Shoemaker PJ, Reese SD. Mediating the Message in the 21st Century: A Media Sociology Perspective. New York, NY: Routledge; 2013'},{id:"B198",body:'Arendt H. The Human Condition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 2013'},{id:"B199",body:'Kickbusch I, Leung G. Response to the Emerging Novel Coronavirus Outbreak. British Medical Journal. 2020;368:m406'},{id:"B200",body:'Library of Congress Law. Government Responses to Disinformation on Social Media Platforms: Comparative Summary. 2020. Available from: https://www.loc.gov/law/help/social-media-disinformation/compsum.php [Accessed: 16 June 2020]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Keith Conti",address:null,affiliation:'
Medical School of Temple/St. Luke’s University Health Network, USA
Department of Medical Education, St. Luke’s University Health Network, USA
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Department of Research and Innovation, St. Luke’s University Health Network, USA
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IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
With the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
IntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
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Conflicts of Interest Policy
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In line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
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A substantial contribution to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work
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All scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
The Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
To identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
When faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\n
IntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
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In order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
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Translation Policy
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IntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
In line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
At IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
All chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\n
Online First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\n
Chapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\n
You are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
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If there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
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Readers and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
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Access policy
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IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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