\r\n\tSafety of structures is the key point in engineering industries. There are multiple procedures to improve the performance of structures to make sure that the occupants are safe and in comfort. Vibration control of structures is crucial for confirming their protection in the occurrence of sudden dynamical forces. Vibration control of structures is proposed to suppress and control any unnecessary vibration formed by dynamical forces that could possibly alter the performance of the structure. Even though numerous vibration control of schemes have been investigated so far, additional concerns involving their practical application remain to be studied. Also to present the use of optimization techniques such as harmony search, genetic algorithms, and particle swarm optimization to vibration control of structures.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in vibration control and safety of structures, including an easy-to-follow, article-based presentation that focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this critically important area.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-889-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-888-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-890-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"912cb4cb6d5960e126cb843ddb4e001a",bookSignature:"Dr. Said Elias Rahimi",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10383.jpg",keywords:"Vibration, Tuned Mass Dampers, Structure, Passive Dampers, Semi-Active Dampers, Active Dampers, Uncertainty Analysis, Buildings, Bridges, Multiple Hazards, Cost-Benefit Analysis, Controlled Structures",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 21st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 17th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 15th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 6th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 5th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Elias is currently working as a post-doctoral research scholar at the Earthquake Engineering Research Centre, University of Iceland. He obtained his doctorate (PhD) degree from Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi in 2017 in the area of earthquake and wind engineering.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"307861",title:"Dr.",name:"Said Elias",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi",slug:"said-elias-rahimi",fullName:"Said Elias Rahimi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/307861/images/system/307861.jpg",biography:"Dr. Said Elias is currently with the University of Iceland. He is an associate editor of Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction of American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE). In addition, he was recently introduced as a new editorial board member of Shock and Vibration and Journal of Low Frequency Noise, Vibration and Active Control. Dr. Said Elias was also appointed a co-editor in Chief of a new established journal named as Progress in Civil and Structural Engineering.",institutionString:"University of Iceland",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Iceland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iceland"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"184402",firstName:"Romina",lastName:"Rovan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184402/images/4747_n.jpg",email:"romina.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"9547",title:"Application of Remote Sensing to the Estimation of Sea Ice Thickness Distribution",doi:"10.5772/8332",slug:"application-of-remote-sensing-to-the-estimation-of-sea-ice-thickness-distribution",body:'\n\t\tSea ice covers about one tenth of the world ocean surface and plays an important role in the global climate system through its interaction with the atmosphere and ocean. Although its thickness is only several meters at most, it forms an effective thermal insulation sheet due to its high albedo and low thermal conductivity, leading to a significant reduction in the heat flux from the ocean to the atmosphere, especially in winter. Moreover, when sea ice forms, it expels brine into water to produce high density water underneath the ice, leading to the deep vertical convection. This plays a major role in the three dimensional ocean thermohaline circulation of the ocean on a global scale. Another notable feature is its large variability in areal extent on seasonal to annual time scales e.g. in the Southern Hemisphere (Figure 1). Even on a daily time scale, it varies significantly due to the combined effects of wind and ocean swell. In turn this variability also has an impact on both climate and daily weather conditions through the above processes. In addition, the mobility of sea ice leads to the interaction between ice floes and ridging/rafting of the ice (dynamical pile-up), which makes its properties more complex in comparison with other surface types in the cryosphere, such as snow cover or frozen soil.
\n\t\t\tIn these processes, thickness distribution is one of the most important parameters of sea ice. This is firstly because the outgoing heat flux from ocean to atmosphere is highly dependent on the ice thickness distribution, especially in winter when the areal fraction of ice with a thickness of less than 0.4 m essentially controls the net heat input to the atmosphere (Maykut, 1978). This implies that the areal fraction of thin ice controls the rates of thermodynamic ice growth amount and the associated production of the high density water beneath. Therefore, the ice thickness distribution can make a significant difference to both the surface heat budget and deep ocean convection for a given concentration of sea ice. In this context, it is worth mentioning that snow cover on ice also works as a more effective insulator due to its low thermal conductivity. Secondly, and in terms of sea ice dynamics, the thickness distribution determines ice strength, and thus controls ridging/rafting processes and vice versa (Thorndike et al., 1975). These “pile-up” processes are essential to the ice thickening, particularly in the seasonal sea ice zone (SSIZ) where the ice is relatively thin and mobile. From the crystallographic analyses it has been shown that a layered structure due to ice pile-up is prominent in the SSIZ (e.g. Gow et al., 1982; Lange and Eicken,
\n\t\t\tMean geographical distribution of sea ice extent (1979-2000) for the northern hemisphere at (a) maximum extent (Feb. 28) and (b) minimum extent (Sep. 15) the southern hemisphere at (c) maximum extent (Sep. 15) and (d) minimum extent (Feb. 28).
(Japan Meteorological Agency, 2005)
\n\t\t\t1991) and that the mean layer thickness is only about 12 cm both for Antarctic ice (Worby et al., 1996) and that in Arctic peripheral seas e.g. the Sea of Okhotsk (Toyota et al., 2007). Therefore, the observed thickness distribution can provide some important insights into the role of such dynamical thickening processes. Thirdly, the long-term trend and the short-term change in the sea ice thickness distribution is a sensitive indicator of climate change, as observed for Arctic perennial ice (e.g. Nghiem et al., 2007). Therefore, the accurate and consistent estimation of sea ice thickness distribution is one of the most important issues that many researchers in this field have paid attention to for a long time.
\n\t\t\tUnfortunately, sea ice thickness is also one of the most difficult parameters to measure. It was only two decades ago that the mean hemispheric distribution of ice thickness was first mapped for the Arctic Ocean (Bourke and Garrette, 1987, Figure 2a), and only recently for the Antarctic Seas (Worby et al., 2008, Figure 2b). The most direct and accurate measurement technique is in-situ drilling with an ice auger. In the Arctic, it is said that Nansen first conducted systematic ice thickness measurement with this method during the drift of “Fram” (1893-96) (Wadhams, 2000). In the Antarctic, it was by drilling that the standard measurement protocol was initiated in the late 1970’s (Ackley et al., 1979). In addition to being labour-intensive, this technique suffers a problem of representativity. Rothrock (1986) pointed out from a statistical perspective that as many as 560 drilling sites would be required if we need to know the mean thickness at a point with an accuracy of 0.1 m for the Arctic ice. Thus, nowadays this method is used mainly for calibration of other tools. To obtain thickness distribution at a large scale, remote sensing is a requisite tool. Since 1958, when submarine sonar was applied for this purpose in the Arctic Ocean, enormous efforts have been made to estimate it using remote sensing. Unfortunately, submarine sonar coverage of Antarctic ice is not possible.
\n\t\t\tIn this chapter several methods will be introduced to give a brief history of ice thickness measurement, focusing on how remote sensing techniques have been applied and how they have contributed to the improved understanding of sea ice thickness. Finally, the current situation will be summarized and some suggestions will be made about a future work that needs to be done.
\n\t\tIn this section the remote sensing tools that have been used to measure ice thickness to date will be introduced. There are generally two strategies: 1) direct measurement of ice draft or a full depth of ice using an upward-looking sonar or other tools; and 2) relating the observed surface properties with ice thickness using satellite sensors. Here, they will be described in near-chronological order.
\n\t\t\tThis method provides the under-ice profile relative to sea level using an upward beamed sonar on a submarine. By this technique, profiles of ice draft can be obtained along the track of the submarine by recording the distance to the underside of the ice pack and subtracting this from the depth of the sonar, using intervening regions of open water as a reference level. The overall accuracy is about 0.3 m (0.09 m for smooth ice), and the horizontal resolution is 1.3 to 1.5 m with a surface beam diameter of 3.2 m (Wadhams and Horne, 1980). These data are not a complete measurement of ice thickness, as ice draft corresponds to 80 to 95 % of ice thickness, but nonetheless this data set provides the approximate thickness distribution and detailed topography of under-ice with reasonable accuracy, assuming invariability in snow cover thickness and density.
\n\t\t\t\tThis device was first used during the voyage of the “Nautilus” in early August 1958 which crossed the Arctic Basin, and much of our knowledge about the synoptic ice thickness
\n\t\t\t\tClimatology of ice thickness distribution for (a) the northern hemisphere (reproduced based on Bourke & Garrett (1987)) (b) the southern hemisphere (cited from Worby et al. (2008)). The average periods are 1960-82 for the Arctic and 1981-2005 for the Antarctic. The data are based on submarine sonar observations for the Arctic and on ship-based repeated visual observations for the Antarctic.
Probability density of ice thickness in the Greenland Sea. Note that the clear negative exponential tail at the thick end can be seen for all the cases. (cited from Wadhams (1992)).distribution in the Arctic Ocean is based on the results obtained with this device on subsequent cruises (McLaren, 1989). With the results obtained, the regional statistics of ice thickness distribution and ridge keel profiles were investigated in detail e.g. for the Beaufort Sea (Wadhams and Horne, 1980), in the Fram Strait region (Wadhams, 1983, 1992), and in Davis Strait (Wadhams et al., 1985). One of the most significant findings is that in most cases the thickness distribution follows a negative exponential function, irrespective of regional location (Figure 3). Although the mechanism to explain this feature has not been clarified yet, this feature may provide considerable insight into the ridging process and is therefore a problem worth investigating given that ridging is a key determinant of the thickness distribution. McLaren (1989) examined the general features for the ice over the Arctic Basin from the data sets obtained along the two identical cruises tracks in 1958 and 1970. Bourke and Garrett (1987) then compiled the data obtained during the 17 voyages from 1960 to 1982 and mapped the ice thickness distribution for the first time (Figure 2a). According to their results, the mean ice thickness above 65N is 2.9 m with a standard deviation of 1.8 m. This value was taken to be the standard “baseline” value for the Arctic Ocean before the recent thinning of the Arctic ice that has been reported (e.g. Rothrock et al., 1999).
In a further development of this method, Wadhams (1988) showed that additional information can be gained of the three-dimensional under-ice topography of Arctic ice using a side-scan sonar. Indeed, it was this technique that provided the first evidence for significant thinning of the Arctic ice cover over the past few decades (Wadhams, 1990, Rothrock et al., 1999, Tucker et al., 2001). By comparing the data obtained in 1958-1976 with those in the 1990s, Rothrock et al. (1999) showed that the mean ice draft at the end of the melt season decreased from 3.1 m to 1.8 m in the Arctic Ocean.
\n\t\t\t\tDespite all these pioneering results, the drawback to these data is that since this measurement is operated on a military basis, the observation is not necessarily systematic in space and time and time series of thickness data cannot be obtained within given areas (Wadhams, 2000). Therefore, it does not provide sufficient data sets to enable monitoring of change in ice thickness distribution on a seasonal or annual basis. Moreover, it cannot be applied to Antarctic ice because military submarines are prohibited from operating under Southern Ocean sea ice by the Antarctic Treaty.
\n\t\t\tThis technique measures ice draft using a moored upward-looking sonar system which is tethered to a line attached to the seafloor. The principle is similar to that of submarine sonar. The device transmits a pulse of sound towards the surface, and the ice draft is then obtained by converting the travel time of the pulse to vertical distance allowing for variation in water temperature and pressure and subtracting it from the depth of the device (Figure 4). The footprint at the underside of the sea ice is about 2 m and the overall accuracy is 0.05 to 0.10 m (Melling and Riedel, 1995). The most remarkable merit of this method is that it can provide a time series of ice draft distribution at a fixed site with high temporal resolution (a few seconds to minutes) for several months. Thus it enables the monitoring of daily to seasonal variation in the ice draft distribution. Additionally, it can be deployed on the shallow continental shelf regions, where a submarine cannot operate. This is important because considerable deformation often occurs near the Arctic coastal region, to affect sub-sea ice exploration.
\n\t\t\t\tThis technique was first applied to the near-shore region of the Beaufort Sea in the late 1970’s (Hudson, 1990). From the over-winter measurements, the seasonal change of level ice thickness and the frequency of ridge keels were first revealed. In the same region, Melling and Riedel (1995, 1996) also deployed this system and examined the more detailed characteristics of deformed ice and under-ice topography by combining the ice motion obtained with a Doppler sonar. In Fram Strait, Vinje et al. (1998) examined the annual and seasonal variation of ice draft during the period of 1990 to 1996. By empirically converting ice draft to thickness and combining the ice drift data obtained from buoys, they estimated the annual mean ice volume flux through the Fram Strait to be 2850 km3 yr-1. Combining this ice thickness data set with satellite-derived ice velocity Kwok and Rothrock (1999) found a relationship between the ice volume flux out of the central Arctic and the large-scale modes of atmospheric circulation (i.e. the North Atlantic Oscillation). In the Sea of Okhotsk, Marko (2003) applied this method to the east of Sakhalin Island and analyzed the ice draft data in conjunction with intense wave energy. Fukamachi et al. (2003, 2006) deployed this system in the coastal region of Hokkaido, Japan, and first revealed the ice thickness distribution including ridged ice in this region from three-year data sets.
\n\t\t\t\tIn the Antarctic, where submarine sonar data are not available, this method has been an effective tool. However, it should be noted that there are some restrictions regarding deployment: the mooring system has to be operated from the seafloor at a depth deeper than 350-440 m to avoid ice bergs in the sea ice area (Massom et al., 2009), which may damage the instrument (Worby et al., 2001). Strass and Fahrbach (1998) examined the temporal and regional variation of ice draft across the Weddell Sea from six ice profiling sonars deployed between the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula and Kapp Norvegia from 1990 to 1994. Based on these data, Harms et al. (2001) estimated the annual mean ice volume export from the western Weddell Sea to be about 0.05 Sv (~ 1580 km3 yr-1). In East Antarctica, Worby et al. (2001) analyzed the seasonal variation of ice thickness distribution with this system.
\n\t\t\t\tThus this method has significantly enhanced our knowledge of detailed ice thickness distribution, as a second tool to submarine sonar, for about three decades. It has allowed the estimation of various parameters related to ice thickness and in particular contributed to the understanding the fresh water budget through Fram Strait, which relates to, and has strong implications for climate change. Additionally, this method has enabled detection of ice ridge keels as deep as a few tens of meters (e.g. 29 m in the Beaufort Sea [Melling and Riedel, 1995] and 17 m in the Sea of Okhotsk [Fukamachi et al., 2006]). However, the drawback is that this device is not appropriate for obtaining the spatial distribution of ice thickness on a large scale at a given time, and has difficulties in monitoring ice thickness for more than decadal terms because of logistical constraints i.e. the need to recover and redeploy instruments every few years.
\n\t\t\tThis technique is basically designed as a ship-based measurement. With a downward-looking video camera mounted on the side deck of a ship, ice conditions around the hull are continuously recorded along-track. Ice thickness is then estimated on the video images for ice floes which break up at the bow and turn into a side-up position alongside of the hull (Figure 5). The scale on the video image is determined by lowering a measured stick onto the ice surface while the ship is stationary. The reading error is less than a few centimetres. In
\n\t\t\t\tSchematic representation of an ULS mooring set-up. (cited from Strass (1998))
Schematic picture of a video monitoring method.
(a) A schematic figure (cited from Shimoda et al. (1997))
\n\t\t\t\t(b) A typical picture of ice which was broken and turned into a side-up position. Note the brown color near the bottom, associated with the attachment of ice algae.
\n\t\t\t\tthis way, spatial ice thickness distribution along the ship track can be determined in a relatively short amount of time. However, it should be noted that deformed ice, which is hard to turn, is beyond the measuring capability of this method, and that it is subject to the ship route which tends to be selected to traverse regions of thinner ice. These facts can cause some bias in the results i.e. a net underestimate in ice thickness distribution estimates. Therefore, this method is not appropriate for the measurement of thick ice distribution. This is in contrast with the measurement by upward-looking sonar, which is relatively free from such artificial bias.
\n\t\t\t\tNevertheless, there are several advantages unique to this method. First, it is useful for obtaining the thickness distribution of level ice, accurate knowledge of which is important to understand the thermodynamic growth and rafting process (stacking of two ice floes without break-up). Secondly, it allows us to measure the overlying snow depth according to the degree of whiteness on the video images. This is particularly effective in the marginal ice zones, where ice is so thin that it is hard to measure snow depth directly. It also allows us to detect brown ice containing ice algae (Figure 5b). Thirdly, this system can be operated at a relatively low cost and does not require complicated calibration. Finally, without any risk of the damage by icebergs, this method can safely be applied in the coastal Antarctic ice area.
\n\t\t\t\tThe key to this method is the downsizing of the video camera to facilitate its use. This system was first introduced to monitor the sea ice conditions in the Antarctic coastal region during the Japanese Antarctic Research Expeditions (JARE) in late 1980’s (Shimoda et al., 1997). In this area, theses observations were continued from 1988 to 2004, and from these results Uto et al. (2006a) found a significant annual variation in the thickness distribution of land-fast ice in the Lützow-Holm Bay near the Syowa Station and discussed the relationship with the break-up events of the land-fast ice there. This system was also deployed in the Sea of Okhotsk in 1991. Monitoring of the ice thickness distribution in the southern Sea of Okhotsk has continued since then from the icebreaker P/V “Soya”, in collaboration with the Japan Coast Guard. Based on the data set obtained from 1991 to 2000, Toyota et al. (2004) showed that the thickness distribution follows a near Poisson distribution with an average of 33±10 cm, and proposed a stochastic rafting cycle model, referring to the layered structure. They also checked the accuracy of this method by comparing their data with the ice profiling sonar data obtained in that region (Fukamachi et al., 2003) and confirmed that the thickness distribution of these two methods matches well within the range of a few percent for non-ridged ice. Their group is still continuing these observations over this region, and the annual variations in mean ice thickness and volume are shown in Figure 6. In this figure, an annual variation in ice thickness is apparent with a period of about 7 years, while the trend towards a decrease in ice volume is remarkable, particularly after 2000.
\n\t\t\t\tIn spite of several drawbacks, a video monitoring system therefore still remains an effective tool for obtaining ice thickness distributions, and in the marginal ice zones in particular. As this method provides direct measurements in a larger sense, it is sometimes used to validate the results of other remote sensing tools. However, the time-consuming task of analysing the images for measurement precludes real time monitoring and this problem should be improved on the computer base in the future.
\n\t\t\tThis device measures the distance from the instrument to the ice-seawater interface (i.e. ice bottom) using low-frequency (10 to 100 kHz) electromagnetic (EM) induction. The device is composed of transmitter and receiver coils, which are set apart by a few meters. The transmitter generates a primary electromagnetic field which induces eddy currents mainly just below the ice bottom, because the conductivity of sea ice (0-50 mS m-1) is negligible compared to that of seawater (2500 mS m-1). In turn the induced currents generate a secondary electromagnetic field. Then the distance to the ice bottom is calculated from the strength of the secondary electromagnetic field sensed by the receiver coil. Therefore, if this device is used on the ice surface, the data obtained correspond directly to ice thickness. While the accuracy is ±0.1 m for undeformed ice, it degrades to up to 30 % for ridged ice because of the presence of seawater-filled cavities between the ice blocks and the smoothing effect caused by a larger footprint that is approximately equal to the distance to the ice bottom (Haas, 2003). Therefore validation is needed for ridged ice. The primary advantage of this method is that it allows us the measurement of ice thickness from the air, which is much easier than from below the ice. If we mount a laser profilometer on the instrument and measure the height of the instrument above the combined snow and ice surface, ice thickness can be obtained by subtracting it from the EM results and by incorporating knowledge of snow cover depth and density (Figure 7a). In this way, we can use an icebreaker or an aircraft to obtain profiles of ice thickness distribution with this device over a wide scale of 100s of kms. However, it should be noted that this method provides the summation of ice thickness and overlying snow depth. If we want to determine ice thickness itself, snow depth has to be measured by another tool and its density must also be factored in.
\n\t\t\t\tSince this technique was first tested for the ground-based observations in the Arctic in the 1970’s, numerous measurements were done to obtain ice thickness data in the various regions of the Arctic (Worby et al., 1999). The EM instrument used most frequently is the Geonics EM31 which contains the coils located at each end, 3.66 m apart (Figure 7b), and uses a frequency of 9.8 kHz. The ship-based EM system was first applied to the summer sea ice in the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas, Antarctica (Haas, 1998). This study found that the properties of summer ice, in particular seawater-filled gaps close to the ice surface, significantly reduces the accuracy of the EM measurement, although Worby et al. (1999) confirmed that the EM system is more robust when operating under winter and spring ice conditions in the Antarctic. The ship-based EM system was also introduced to the Sea of Okhotsk in 2004, where it was found that the seawater-filled cavities between the ice blocks in this region lower the accuracy of ice thickness estimates significantly, even in winter. Therefore, based on the calibration results from drilling on the ridged ice, Uto et al. (2006b) developed an algorithm that converts conductivity to ice thickness, taking into account the presence of gaps within the ice (Figure 8a). As a result, the measurement error was reduced to about 10 % for ridged ice, and the spatial ice thickness distribution, including ridged ice, was first revealed in this area. The comparison of ice thickness distribution with coincident ship-based video result in the same area is shown in Figure 8b, where reasonable agreement can be seen. However, the ground or ship-based EM measurement has a limitation in spatial coverage and may be biased according to the selection of ice floes or ship-route. For greater representativity, airborne measurement is desirable.
\n\t\t\t\tThe airborne EM sounding technique was first developed with a helicopter in the Beaufort Sea in the mid 1980’s (Kovacs et al., 1987, Kovacs and Holladay, 1989). Multala et al.(1996) subsequently applied the technique to Baltic Sea ice using a fixed-wing aircraft. By validating the data with drill-hole measurements, each study showed the method to be promising. Recently, the technique was developed further and improved using two
\n\t\t\t\tAnnual variations of (a) mean video thickness with a standard deviation (error bars) and (b) ice volume estimated by multiplying mean thickness and sea ice area in the southern Sea of Okhotsk, where sea ice area were offered by Japan Meteorological Agency.
Schematic picture of EM sounding system.
(a) Illustration of the principle of the measurement (cited from Uto et al. (2006b))
\n\t\t\t\t(b) A picture of EM set-up onboard the P/V “Soya” in the Sea of Okhotsk.
\n\t\t\t\tfrequencies (3.7 and 112 kHz) for the systematic measurement, and since 2001 the monitoring and observation of ice thickness in the Arctic has been operated with a helicopter-borne EM by the German Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (AWI). The details of the technique are described by Haas et al. (2009). By combining this data set with the ground-based EM measurements acquired since 1991, Haas et al. (2008) showed a rapid thinning of sea ice had occurred in the Arctic Transpolar Drift in the 2000’s and suggested a regime shift from multi-year to first-year ice.
\n\t\t\t\tThus, the EM sounding technique has enabled us to remotely measure sea ice thickness from the air, which enhances the measurement considerably in comparison with the previous methods. With a ship- or helicopter-borne system, more detailed and spatial ice thickness distribution was revealed in various regions. Although a ship-based measurement may have some bias, it is effective especially in regions where relatively thin ice is dominant or helicopter operations are prohibited by law. However, it should be noted that it still needs validation, especially for melting ice or regions with significant ridges, and that its total areal coverage is rather limited.
\n\t\t\ta) Model ice structure used for the algorithm converting conductivity to ice thickness developed for the Okhotsk ice. (cited from Uto et al. (2006b)). (b) Comparison of the probability density functions of ice thickness between the results obtained by converting the EM outputs to ice thickness with the algorithm (Figure 8a) and those obtained from video monitoring system in the Sea of Okhotsk during 2004 – 2008.
Previous sections have concentrated on various in-situ and airborne remote sensing tools. Although they have all contributed greatly to our knowledge about ice thickness distribution on a regional scale, ultimately it is the operational monitoring at a global scale
\n\t\t\t\tvia space-borne sensors that is most desirable. In this section, we evaluate the current situation regarding several satellite remote sensing possibilities.
\n\t\t\t\tMulti-frequency passive microwave sensors have flown in space continuously since 1979. The merits of this sensor are: 1) the signal is not subject to the effect of cloud; 2) due to its large swath width, daily coverage is possible at a global scale; and 3) data can be obtained both day and night. Since the microwave emissivity of open water is much lower than that of sea ice, the areal coverage of sea ice can be derived with relatively high accuracy and thus several algorithms have been successfully developed to derive ice concentration using brightness temperature data acquired at the frequencies of 19 and 37 GHz (e.g. Cavalieri et al., 1984; Comiso, 1986). On the other hand, this has not necessarily been the case with ice thickness. Theoretically and from tank experiments, it has been shown that sea ice becomes opaque at all the microwave frequencies used at a thickness of less than a few centimetres (Troy et al., 1981. Grenfell and Comiso, 1986). Thus in a practical sense, the signals received by this sensor originate from the top few centimetres of sea ice and cannot include the direct information of ice thickness. Even so, if there are any surface dielectric properties of sea ice that do correlate well with ice thickness, they differentiate the emissivity and then allow the estimation of ice thickness. Fortunately, the dielectric properties depend on brine volume which is determined by salinity and temperature (Vant et al., 1978), and it is generally known that ice bulk salinity decreases with the increase of thickness through desalination over time by brine drainage and seasonal “flushing” by melt water (Kovacs, 1996). Furthermore, it was found for the Sea of Okhotsk ice that the surface brine volume fraction is highly correlated with ice thickness for ice thinner than 20 cm due to the multiplying effect of salinity and temperature (Figure 9). These observational results provide the physical grounds for the potential estimation of ice thickness with passive microwave sensors.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn the field, measurements of microwave emission over sea ice area were initiated using aircraft in the late 1960’s (Wilheit et al., 1972). This was aimed at a preparation for the coming satellite observations, and they found that thin and thick ice can be discriminated at about 30 GHz due to the contrast in their emissivities at this frequency. Since the first scanning passive microwave sensor (Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer; 19.3 GHz) was flown on the Nimbus-5 in 1972, significant effort has been put into classifying sea ice types using passive microwave signals. The ESMR sensor was succeeded by the Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR) on Nimbus-7 (1978-1987), followed by the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) on DMSP (1987-present) and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS (AMSR-E) since 2002. To interpret the satellite-derived data, the fundamental microwave properties of sea ice were studied from field experiments, and the dependence of emissivity on ice types and microwave frequencies was investigated in detail (Troy et al., 1981; Svendsen et al., 1983). As a result, it was revealed that while the microwave emissivity increases as sea ice grows from open water or nilas to first-year ice, it decreases to an intermediate value for Arctic multi-year ice, and that the difference in emissivity between ice types is large at frequencies below 40 GHz (Figure 10). Based on theses results, Cavalieri (1994) succeeded in mapping ice type distribution in the Arctic Ocean, categorizing sea ice into nilas (< 10 cm thick), young (10-30 cm), first-year (> 30 cm), and multi-year ice with the SSM/I 19 and 37 GHz data. More recently, and from an aircraft campaign in the Sea of Okhotsk Naoki et al. (2008) showed
\n\t\t\t\t\tRelationship between ice thickness and brine volume fraction for (a) bulk and (b) surface (top 9cm layer) mean for the Okhotsk ice. (from Toyota et al. (2007))
Emissivity response curves in the 14 to 90 GHz range for four ice types.
(cited from Troy et al. (1981))
\n\t\t\t\t\tthat even the estimation of ice thickness for ice thinner 20 cm is possible with microwave data at 19 and 37 GHz. In fact, on the basis of the ice thickness calculated from AVHRR-derived ice surface temperature and a simple thermodynamic model, the algorithm which estimates the thin ice thickness (< 20 cm) was successfully developed with SSM/I 37 GHz data for the Chukchi Sea (Martin et al., 2004) and with SSM/I 37 and 85 GHz data for the Antarctic (Tamura et al., 2007). Martin et al. (2005) further extended the analysis using AMSR-E data for the Chukchi Sea. In addition to the four thickness categories, Tateyama et al. (2002) and Tamura et al. (2007) proposed the use of the 85 GHz data to detect fast ice area.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn summary it is concluded that passive microwave data can be usefully used to estimate ice thickness distribution for ice thinner than 20 cm. This is important because it is over the thin ice area that the most intense heat exchange between ocean and atmosphere occurs in winter (Maykut, 1978), producing high rates of brine rejection from growing ice and dense water formation. With SSM/I-derived ice thickness information, Tamura et al. (2008) mapped the amount of ice production around the Antarctic coast and discussed the geographical features. However, it should be noted that the spatial resolution is rather coarse (25 km for SSM/I 37 GHz data) and that at present this method is available only for ice at an early stage of growth. It has not been guaranteed for deformed ice or snow-covered ice yet because surface roughness or snow also has significant influence on the emissivity (Grenfell and Comiso, 1986, Brown and Armstrong, 2008). For such ice conditions, further studies are needed.
\n\t\t\t\tThe key merit of this sensor is, as with passive microwave, that it is available irrespective of either cloud or darkness. In addition, the advent of space-borne Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) has made it possible to obtain the backscatter coefficient data with a horizontal resolution of 10 to 100 m, although the swath width is limited to a few tens to hundreds of kilometres. In general, the backscatter coefficient includes the effects of both surface scattering and volume scattering, depending on the microwave frequency and ice conditions such as salinity, roughness (degree of deformation) and temperature. Snow cover tends to be largely transparent unless wet. For typical first-year ice with a salinity of 5 psu at a temperature of -5 deg. C, the penetration depth of the microwaves is only about 10 cm at the C-band (Hallikainen and Winebrenner, 1992). Therefore, the backscatter coefficient is predominantly determined from surface scattering for first-year ice. Since the surface scattering includes the effects of both the dielectric properties of the top layer and the surface roughness of the ice, the principle of the method is to relate either of these two parameters to ice thickness. As mentioned in the previous section, the former is well correlated with ice thickness for ice thinner than 20 cm. Therefore if these two effects can be separated, the estimation of ice thickness distribution becomes possible for thin ice. Fortunately, it was found that the effect of surface roughness can be reduced by taking the ratio of the VV (vertical) to HH (horizontal) backscattering (Winebrenner et al., 1989). In fact, from field experiments using an airborne L-band SAR in the Sea of Okhotsk, it was revealed that the VV-HH ratio is well correlated with ice thickness for relatively thin ice (Figure 11, Wakabayashi et al., 2004, Nakamura et al., 2005). Thus, it was confirmed that polarimetric data are particularly useful as a means of remotely estimating thin ice thickness distribution in the peripheral Arctic seas.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThen what about thick ice distribution? Toyota et al. (2009) presented the usefulness of L-band SAR backscattering to estimate thick ice thickness distribution in the SSIZ from the airborne Pi-SAR campaign in the Sea of Okhotsk. The main results and conclusions of this work will be summarized here.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIt is generally known that in the SSIZ ridging (pile-up) activities are a key process by which the ice thickens (e.g. Worby et al., 1996, Toyota et al., 2007). It follows therefore that the degree of surface roughness correlates with ice thickness. As discussed by Dierking and Busche (2006), L-band SAR data (wavelength = 24 cm) seem more suitable for this purpose than C-band (6 cm) data. This is because the longer wavelength approximates the horizontal
\n\t\t\t\t\tRelations between ice thickness and VV-to-HH backscattering ratio obtained from airborne L-band SAR in the Sea of Okhotsk. (cited from Wakabayashi et al. (2004))
roughness scale of the ice surface more closely (Massom, 2006). Spaceborne L-band SARs have been launched on JERS-1 and ALOS, while C-band instruments have flown on ERS-1 and -2, Radarsat-1 and -2 and Envisat. Details are given in Lubin and Massom (2006).
\n\t\t\t\t\tTo verify this idea, Toyota et al. (2009) conducted ship-borne electromagnetic (EM) induction sounding and supersonic profiling observations with an icebreaker, coordinated with airborne L-band SAR observations in the southern Sea of Okhotsk in February 2005 (Figure 12). The general conditions of ice thickness in the study area were of undeformed ice thickness ranging from 0.3 to 0.7 m with an average of 0.33 m, and a total average ice thickness, including ridged ice area fraction (26%), was estimated to be 0.84 m. The surface elevation was estimated with a supersonic profiler by representing the ship’s motion with a low-pass filter.
\n\t\t\t\t\tBased on results obtained along a 40 km observation line, radar backscattering coefficients correlated well with ice thickness (correlation coefficient = 0.88) and surface roughness (i.e. 0.80), defined by the standard deviation of surface elevation (Figure 13abc). Here, it should be noted that the theoretical microwave penetration depth is up to 0.50 m at L-band for first-year ice with a salinity of 5.1 psu (Hallikainen and Winebrenner, 1992). Therefore, backscattering is affected by the internal structure of the sea ice, which should work to decrease the correlation with ice thickness. Importantly and in spite of this property, the L-band backscatter coefficient corresponds well with surface roughness. On the other hand, the VV-HH ratio has a lower correlation with ice thickness (i.e. -0.77) than either VV or HH (Figure 13d). This means that backscatter coefficients are useful for estimating the thickness distribution for thick ice not through the dielectric properties but through roughness properties. All these results shed light on the possibility for determining ice thickness distribution in SSIZ from polarimetric radar backscatter data.
\n\t\t\t\t\tLocation map of the Pi-SAR experiment conducted in mid-February 2005 in the Sea of Okhotsk. Solid lines denote the observation line selected for analysis. (cited from Toyota et al. (2009))
Scatter plots of the 1 km-averaged values between (a) surface roughness and
Backscatter coefficient (VV), (b) surface roughness and ice thickness, (c) backscatter
\n\t\t\t\t\tcoefficient (VV) and ice thickness, (d) backscattering ratio (VV-HH) and ice thickness.
\n\t\t\t\t\t(cited from Toyota et al. (2009))
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn summary, ice thickness retrieval for first-year ice by L-band SAR is promising for a wide range of ice thickness by virtue of the effect on the dielectric constant of surface properties for relatively thin undeformed ice and of surface roughness for thicker ice. On the other hand, multi-year ice has significantly different properties in the Arctic in particular. Due to desalination in summer, the penetration depth becomes deeper for Arctic multi-year sea ice, and then the volume scattering becomes more significant at L-band. In this case, C-band is more appropriate to distinguish between multi-year ice and deformed first-year ice (Rignot and Drinkwater, 1994). Therefore, as pointed out by Rignot and Drinkwater (1994), ultimately the combining of C- and L-band is optimal for the overall classification of ice types. Since the L-band data are now available from the ALOS/PALSAR with polarimetric and ScanSAR modes, combined analysis with C- and L-band is expected in the near future.
\n\t\t\t\tThis sensor measures the freeboard of sea ice (i.e. its height relative to sea level), and freeboard is then converted to ice thickness by assuming that a floating ice floe is in isostatic balance. At present there are two kinds of altimeters available for this type of ice thickness estimation: radar and Laser profiler. Radar altimeters operating at a frequency of 13.8 GHz on the ERS-1 and ERS-2 satellites were launched in 1991 and 1995, respectively. The coverage area for these data extends to 81.5 N and S with a footprint of ~1 km. Since it has been confirmed from the laboratory experiments that reflected echoes come from the interface between sea ice and snow (Beaven et al., 1995), this sensor basically measures the height of snow/ice interface relative to sea level with an accuracy of 10 cm. The relatively large footprint limits the applicable area to closely packed ice area, however the key advantage remains that the data can be obtained irrespective of weather conditions, albeit along a profile. Conversely, the laser altimeter (Geoscience Laser Altimeter System or GLAS) onboard ICESat satellite, launched in January 2003, operates at a wavelength of 1064 nm and covers the area up to 86 N and S. In this case, the sensor measures the elevation of the ice or snow surface within a footprint of 70 m spaced at 170 m and an overall accuracy of 14 cm (Kwok and Cunningham, 2008). Although such a small footprint promises detailed analysis, it should be noted that this sensor is subject to cloud contamination, which may be critical for the polar research, as pointed by Haas (2003). A schematic figure is shown in Figure 14 and the calculation for each sensor is as below:
\n\t\t\t\t\tRadar: \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Laser:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
, where\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
This method was first applied in the Arctic Ocean by Laxon et al. (2003), using the ERS radar altimeter. In this case, the reference sea level was analyzed using individual echoes with some corrections for orbits, tides, and atmospheric pressure (Peacock and Laxon, 2004),
\n\t\t\t\t\tSchematic picture showing the variables of snow depth (h\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t), ice thickness (h\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t), ice freeboard (h\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t), and total freeboard (h\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t).
and the density of sea ice and seawater was assumed to be constant (i.e. 915 and 1024 kg m-3). The density and depth of snow were taken from a monthly climatology. Submarine sonar data were used for validation of the ice thickness product. As a result, the authors succeeded in extracting the geographical distribution of the Arctic ice thickness and showed the availability of this method for ice thicker than 1 m. Furthermore and on the basis of an 8-year data set (1993-2001), they found out that the interannual variation is much larger than predicted by numerical models, and that this large variability could be better explained by the length of melting season than expected changes of atmospheric and oceanic circulation.
\n\t\t\t\t\tSimilarly the results from the algorithm used by the ICESat GLAS laser altimeter has recently been analyzed by Kwok et al. (2004), Kwok & Cunningham (2008) to the Arctic Ocean, and by Zwally et al. (2008) in the Weddell Sea. Kwok & Cunningham (2008) used the ECMWF outputs for snow data, and tested two cases of sea ice density as a constant value (925 kg m-3) and a function of ice thickness, while Zwally et al. (2008) used AMSR-derived snow depth and constant densities for snow (300 kg m-3) and sea ice (915 kg m-3). The method for estimating the reference sea level was developed individually. As a result, these studies all succeeded in showing the potential usefulness of this method. However, as mentioned by both of the authors, the improved knowledge about snow is crucial because of the sensitivity of laser altimetry to the temporal variation of snow depth and density.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn summary, it has been shown that satellite altimeters are useful as a means of estimating ice thickness distributions over a wide scale, and for thick ice in particular. The primary merit is the ability to obtain hemispheric ice thickness distribution on a seasonal time scale, which allows us to monitor trends in ice thickness change and validate the results from numerical models. In turn, this will feed back to an improvement in the way dynamical processes are prescribed in the sea ice models. However, it should also be noted that improved knowledge about densities of snow and sea ice is still needed for this method, since observational data show that they range widely and also evolve over time according to the meteorological conditions. In addition, we need to consider the effect of the seawater-filled cavities between ice blocks on the altimeter estimates. Since such cavities increase the bulk ice density, the further investigation will be needed. An additional concern relates to the footprint size. Since this method is based on the assumption of isostatic balance, research needs to be carried out to determine whether the important underlying assumption of isostatic balance holds at the scale of the footprints.
\n\t\t\t\tIn this chapter, a brief history of ice thickness measurement has been presented, stressing how remote sensing tools have contributed to an improved understanding of the sea ice thickness distribution and its importance in sea ice research. Since Weyprecht first conducted the observation of the ice thickness growth at the Franz-Joseph Island (80 N) during the 1873/74 winter (Zubov, 1945), ice thickness has been one of the most challenging and interesting topics in sea ice research. As seen above, in general the tools have been developed to cover a wider region. Most recently satellite altimeters have allowed us to monitor the ice thickness distribution at a hemispheric scale and on a seasonal time scale, albeit limited to thick ice. Since the response of sea ice associated with recent global warming receives much attention now, it is a notable achievement to be able to discuss the ice thickness trends not only from the products of numerical models but also on the basis of observational results. This will also be helpful for the improvement of physical processes in the models, and validation of their output.
\n\t\t\tIn spite of these advances, it is unlikely that all of the various methods developed to date will be replaced by satellite sensors. The individual tools are appropriate for measurement at their optimum scale. In general, ice thickness varies in a hierarchical fashion, as suggested by Rothrock and Thorndike (1980), and the properties at each scale have an influence on those at a different scale. For example, the ice thickness distribution at a scale of a few to tens of meters is directly involved in the formation of ridges, while it is the thickness properties at a scale of a few kilometres that determine the external forcing for ridging. Thus, a more comprehensive understanding of sea ice behaviours depends upon acquisition of accurate information on the ice thickness distribution at both local and large scales. Considering that ice formation and melting are basically localized processes, the interaction between different scales needs to be further clarified when using the different though complementary tools at different scale; this factor will become more important to the sea ice research in the future.
\n\t\t\tIt should be mentioned that there are other methods widely used for ice thickness measurement. The representative one is visual observation on the basis of ASPeCT protocol, which was designed for the ship-based observations in the Antarctic seas by Australian researchers based on a previous method used by other groups in the 1980’s (Worby & Allison, 1999). The observation is conducted every hour from the ship’s bridge along-track, including the thickness of sea ice and snow, floe size, and surface properties. Although there may be some problems with accuracy and bias from the ship-track, this is a convenient method and the statistics obtained represent useful general characteristics of the ice cover. A climatology of sea ice thickness obtained in this fashion are presented in Figure 1.2b. The continuation of this type of observing program is to be encouraged.
\n\t\t\tFinally, I would like to close this chapter by concluding that the history of ice thickness
\n\t\t\tmeasurement is closely related to the development of sea ice research on both macro- and micro- scale properties, and that many researchers from a variety of backgrounds have been involved in it. Therefore, this is truly an interdisciplinary issue, and further collaboration with many researches is highly desirable in future.
\n\t\tThe author expresses his sincere gratitude to Dr. Robert Massom (Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre and Australian Antarctic Division) for the critical reading of this manuscript and valuable comments and to Dr. Guy Williams (Hokkaido Univ.) for the proof-reading. They are very helpful for the improvement of the manuscript.
\n\t\tToday, the medical community considers endometriosis as a significant disease and problem. According to different resources, about 176 million women are suffering from the disease worldwide. In multination, multicenter study [1] about 50% of gynecologists polled in Russia in 2007 examined 7–28 patients with endometriosis per month (240 patients per year). The number was almost equal to that of patients with myoma.
\nEndometriosis is known to be found in 60% of women aged under 30. More important is the fact that there is a 7-year delay from the first disease manifestation to the diagnosis [2].
\nThe physician should suspect the endometriosis if the following complaints are present [3]:
Dysmenorrhea, acyclic pelvic pain, deep dyspareunia, and infertility
If a woman of reproductive age has the following symptoms: dyschesia, dysuria, hematuria, and rectorrhagia
Even though the exact mechanism of endometriosis-associated infertility is still unknown, some aspects are well studied. Endometriosis has an influence on the quality of peritoneal fluid with growing macrophage concentration as well as proteases and cytokines negatively influencing the quality of oocytes, sperm, embryo, and fallopian tube potential.
\nIt is difficult to recommend the optimal treatment as the development of the disease is unpredictable—from asymptomatic to very aggressive though pelvic pain and infertility usually called “active endometriosis” [4].
\nThe American Society of Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) classification of endometriosis describes four stages of the disease. But that does not always correlate with the actual symptoms (pain, infertility, etc.) [5, 6, 7]. The more you work with this classification, the more it becomes obvious that patients with the same stages of the disease by ASRM classification, in fact, are incomparable. The ideal approach to endometriosis treatment should take into consideration how active the disease is. The “active” disease requires a combined treatment. The combination of surgical, hormonal treatment, and in vitro fertilization (IVF) could be individually chosen in each specific case of infertile patients.
\nFor an easier understanding of how to treat endometriosis-associated infertility, it is better to separate the disease in four different phenotypes: superficial, endometrioma, deep infiltrated endometriosis, and adenomyosis.
\nThe “gold” standard of superficial endometriosis treatment is laparoscopy. The common indications for surgery are pelvic pains and infertility. Hysteroscopy and biopsy, laparoscopy with fallopian tube perturbation, adhesiolysis, endometriosis staging with ablation, and/or removal lesions could be recommended. Pregnancy rate (PR) after laparoscopic treatment is the same for all stages [5].
\nHowever, if pelvic pain dominates, empirical conservative medical treatment could be applied. Infertile patients should be informed of alternative methods of treatment. Pregnancy can be achieved with IVF without surgery.
\nLaparoscopic treatment of minimal and mild endometriotic lesions (stage 1 and 2 ASRM) is justified in the case of pelvic pain because their destruction significantly decreases the pain compared with diagnostic laparoscopy alone. In this context, ablation and excision give identical results in terms of pain reduction. It is not recommended to treat asymptomatic patients. Literature shows no interest in uterine nerve ablation in case of dysmenorrhea due to minimal and mild endometriosis. With regard to treatment of minimal and mild endometriosis in infertile patients, only two studies can be selected, and both show that laparoscopy with excision or ablation and ablation of adhesions is superior to diagnostic laparoscopy alone also in terms of pregnancy rate [8].
\nThe effectiveness of adjuvant hormonal treatment after surgery is not improved. Most hormonal medications have a contraceptive effect and make spontaneous pregnancy almost impossible.
\nIVF should be recommended in cases of fallopian tubes’ low potential and/or male infertility. The spontaneous PR is very low if there are several simultaneous infertility factors. The very important factor is also the maternal age. At present, there is no generally accepted age for patients who should be recommended to go straight to ART after surgery and who could try to achieve spontaneous pregnancy. But a lot of surgeons agree that the maternal age of 35 and higher should be considered in favor of ART after surgery.
\nde Ziegler’s et al. in the review [9] presented an algorithm for the management of infertility associated with endometriosis. This algorithm is presented in Figure 1.
\nAlgorithm for management of infertility associated with endometriosis [9]. IVF, in vitro fertilization; ART, assisted reproductive technologies; GnRH, gonadotropin-releasing hormone; ICSI, intracytoplasmic sperm injection.
The repeated surgery is not recommended due to low spontaneous PR. The second (third, fourth, etc.) laparoscopy results in further IVF. This is not because of the bad surgery performed but because endometriosis is a chronical complex disease, which is associated with pelvic inflammation and profound alterations of peritoneal fluid, which surrounds the pelvic organs [10]. These alterations could affect natural conception.
\nRecently, the number of patients with deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE) has been steadily increasing. It is estimated to affect up to 12% of all women with endometriosis. DIE is detected in 50–70% of patients of reproductive period with pain syndrome. This disease is diagnosed when there is an infiltration of 5 mm or more beneath the peritoneal surface [11] and/or an involvement of muscular layer of affected organ into the pathologic process is found [12].
\nDIE is characterized by multifocal distribution with the involvement of peritoneum, pelvic spaces, uterus ligaments, rectovaginal septum, vagina, intestine, bowel, ureters and bladder, and diaphragm. The feature of such dissemination is the lymphovascular invasion, the degree of which one is correlated with sizes of the primary endometrioid nodules. It is also estimated that endometriotic lesions seem to infiltrate the bowel wall preferentially along the nerves, even at distance from palpated nodules, while the mucosa is rarely and only focally involved [13].
\nThere is no correlation between the stage of endometriosis, how deep it is, the number of symptoms, and their duration. Infertility is the most frequent symptom. Development of infertility in DIE is multifactorial: pelvic adhesions, the decrease in ovarian reserve, and a poor quality of oocytes in case of involvement of the ovaries. It is assumed that changes in ectopic endometrium are not as pronounced in patients with DIE as in cases of severe adenomyosis. This conclusion could be made on the basis that in patients with DIE, the frequency of miscarriages is less, and the frequency of successful IVF attempts is satisfactory.
\nIn cases of lesions difficult location (myometrium, bowel and ileum, pararectal space), where removal is technically impossible or highly risky, the combination of surgery and medication is very promising. According to the data of Darai et al., spontaneous PR after surgical treatment is 51.1%, whereas IVF PR is 18.9% [14].
\nThe medical treatment of deep infiltrating endometriosis may decrease symptoms and is often associated with such side effects as noncyclic bleedings, weight increase, libido loss, and headaches. It doesn′t provide the control of disease course in a long-term period, and when the treatment is over, the disease progresses. Moreover, the medical options have contraceptive effects and can′t be used when pregnancy is attempted [15].
\nSurgical treatment of DIE and infertility in most cases is preferable. Spontaneous pregnancy rate (PR) after surgical treatment of DIE is close to 50% [15]. It means that every second patient with DIE and infertility will not require IVF.
\nAt the same time, we must not forget that the rate of severe postoperative complications of DIE treatment (rectal bleeding, anastomosis insufficiency, rectovaginal fistulas, abscesses, fecal peritonitis) is 10% [16]. Patients must be informed about the possible complications and results of DIE infertility treatment. IVF is preferable if other symptoms (pain, dyspareunia, dyschezia, low urinary tract symptoms) are absent.
\nThere are no doubts about the removal of such endometriotic nodules in the bladder and parametrium, but the choice of ideal surgical approach to the treatment of bowel endometriosis is more controversial. Three types of surgical removal of endometrioid nodules are described: shaving, discoid, and bowel resection. According to the data of Abrao et al. [17], the treatment algorithm for deep endometriosis compromising the bowel must be individualized (Figure 2). “Conservative” surgery (shaving) is more appropriate in reproductive medicine due to its less risk. Surgery of DIE including bowel resection should be considered as a second-line treatment after failed IVF and in cases when there is a presentation of such symptoms as pelvic pain, dyspareunia, dyschezia, and bowel stenosis.
\nTreatment algorithm for deep endometriosis compromising the bowel by Abrao et al. [17] (VAS—visual analog scale).
We can’t recommend the anticipating spontaneous pregnancy after surgery for more than 9–12 months. It is attended with the risk of recurrent endometriosis and pelvic pain, which will make IVF more complicated.
\nIn Malzoni et al. [18] publication, indications for radical colorectal surgery are described and clearly stated. Absolute indications are severe pain, bowel stenosis with functional organ compromise, and infertility in patients after unsuccessful IVF attempts even asymptomatic. The relative indications to radical surgery are the following: infertility in young patients (<35 years), infertility (even aged >35 years) after two or more IVF failures before the oocyte donation, and increased risks of pregnancy and delivery complications.
\nThe last indication is one of the most disputable. Exacoustos et al. [19] described the obstetrical complication in patients with colorectal endometriosis. The number of premature delivery <37 weeks was five times more in colorectal endometriosis group than the control group. Placenta previa was diagnosed in every six patients with posterior endometriosis (only 1 case from 300 patients in control group). Cesarian section was performed in 68.3% in colorectal endometriosis group. Hysterectomy, hemoperitoneum, bowel resection, and bladder injury were described in 3.6–7.1% of patients with colorectal endometriosis.
\nThe pathogenic mechanisms of pregnancy complications can be the following: endometriosis-related chronic inflammation, adhesions and their mechanical implications, and invasion of decidualized ectopic endometrium to the vessel walls.
\nTaking into account the risks of surgical intervention in cases of DIE, it′s reasonable to perform the operation in the specialized medical centers by multidisciplinary team, including gynecologist, urologist, colorectal surgeon, and fertility specialist. But endometriosis is a gynecological disease, and the gynecologist should be the leader of this team.
\nA very important practical question is what would be the recommendations if an unexperienced surgeon found DIE with diagnostic laparoscopy? In such case no one has repealed one of the basic rules of medical practice—“primum non nocere”—do not harm. If the surgeon is not enough experienced, to prevent complications, it would be better to stop the surgery after doing those steps, which could be done, according to the experience and send the patient to the clinic, which is focused on DIE treatment. Providing all the information about the presence of the disease to the patient is essential.
\nIn recent years, indications for surgical treatment of endometriomas in infertile patients are reconsidered due to the negative impact of surgery on the ovarian reserve, especially in recurrent cysts and bilateral localization. The surgeon faces the question which patients should be operated and if expectant management is chosen and then what period is appropriate. Comparative evaluation of cystectomy of non-endometriotic cyst (dermoid, serous, and mucinous cystadenoma) and endometriomas highlighted that some ovarian tissue was removed only in 6% during surgical treatment of non-endometriotic cysts. In contrast, in the resection of endometriomas, ovarian tissue was present in the specimen in 54% of cases [1].
\nNowadays, there is no consensus on the size of endometriomas which should be treated surgically. International recommendations indicate surgical treatment for cysts larger than 3–4 cm [3, 20] and according to some other guidelines, more than 6 cm.
\nAccording to some published data, surgery on the ovaries before IVF does not improve reproductive outcomes. The exception is large endometriomas which are difficult to puncture [21]. Asymptomatic endometriotic cysts of small size do not require surgical treatment, especially in patients older than 35 years. Surgical treatment must be performed in patients with long-term infertility in the presence of cysts greater than 4 cm [3].
\nIn patients with a high risk of ovarian reserve damage (second ovarian surgery, bilateral localization, late reproductive age), it is necessary to consider cryopreservation of embryos or vitrification of oocyte before surgical treatment.
\nSurgical treatment can be performed in three ways—aspiration, sclerotherapy, and laparoscopic/open removal. The endometriotic lining of endometrioma may undergo pressure atrophy, and that spontaneous resolution of cyst can be achieved by simple aspiration by ultrasound or laparoscopic control. In difficult cases (adhesions, high risks of anesthesia, recurrence of small endometrioma), transvaginal puncture by ultrasound guidance could be recommended. According to different publications, the recurrence rate for sclerotherapy is 9.1–66.7% and could be decreased to 12% by the use of 95% ethanol in situ [22]. However, this procedure has been associated with postoperative pelvic abscesses.
\nIf the surgery is to be performed, then the “gold” standard in case of endometrioma and infertility is laparoscopic cystectomy. Cystectomy can be performed in two ways: cyst ablation and enucleation. Laparoscopic cystectomy demonstrates the best results in achieving pregnancy for the first identified unilateral endometriomas. The spontaneous PR after cystectomy is more than 60%.
\nHowever, in the second surgery, partial capsule removal and ablation are the better options (to save ovarian reserve). In case of bilateral endometriomas in more advanced reproductive age and recurrent endometrioma, urgent IVF is indicated (the risk of decreased ovarian reserve). The removal of small endometrioma does not have an impact on cumulative PR. In some cases (recurrent endometrioma, difficulty in follicle puncture), sclerotherapy by ultrasound control could be recommended.
\nThere are pitfalls of endometrioma’s surgery. Surgery should be performed in the follicular phase to prevent recurrence. High power electrosurgical technique should be avoided. Bipolar coagulation (max 30 Watts) and/or suturing of the ovarian tissue is safer. Ablation can be applied for recurrence endometrioma in particular. New energies (PlasmaJet, CO2 laser, argon-spread).
\nIn our unpublished study, from 2010 to 2018, we performed 1187 laparoscopic procedures with removing of endometriomas in Moscow Regional Scientific Research Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology. The average age of patients was 31.6 years old. Among them we make a follow up in 530 patients, and only 259 were included in the study. From 259 patients 105 have primary infertility before surgery (40.5%), 45 (17.37%) have secondary infertility, and 93 (35.9%) did not desire a pregnancy. In total, infertility was detected in 150 cases (57.9%). Laparoscopy and cyst removal (stripping) were done in the majority of cases—211 (81.6%); in 48 (18.4%) ovarium resection with the cyst was performed. Spontaneous pregnancy was registered among 77 women (51.3%). In 16 cases pregnancy was unexpected. Twenty-eight patients (18.6%) became pregnant after IVF. Cumulative pregnancy rate was 70% (105 patients). Ineffective attempts of spontaneous conception were 30, and IVF attempts were also unsuccessful in 36 cases (24%). After surgery, hormonal therapy was prescribed: dienogest in 34.3%, COC in 15%, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists (GnRH-a) in 1.9% cases. The recurrence rate of the disease was 13.1% (34 cases).
\nThere are the risks of nonsurgical management of patients with cysts and infertility [23]. The conditions with an expected high risk of complications, if patients go to IVF without surgical treatment, are the following: low ovarian responsiveness to the stimulation, low quality of oocytes, technical difficulties for ovarian puncture, endometrioma rupture, injury to adjacent organs, infection of the endometrioma, follicular fluid contamination, progression of endometriosis, pregnancy complications, the opportunity to miss the malignancy, and/or cancer development after IVF.
\nHowever, the meaning of surgery was overestimated. Surgical treatment did not improve an ovarian responsiveness to the stimulation, quality of oocytes, rate of technical difficulties during ovarian puncture, rate of injury to adjacent organs during this procedure, follicular fluid contamination, progression of endometriosis, and pregnancy complication rate.
\nAdenomyosis is a common gynecological disease, defined as the presence of ectopic endometrial epithelium and stroma in the myometrium.
\nThrough the twentieth century before the widespread of transvaginal ultrasound (TVU) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques, adenomyosis remained the disease, whose diagnosis was based on histological examination of the specimen after hysterectomy. As this examination was held after the surgery, the connection between infertility and adenomyosis was not well established. However, over the last three decades, the introduction of new diagnostic tools, mentioned above (TVU and MRI), made it possible to study adenomyosis without performing surgery. The measuring of the inner myometrium or myometrial junctional zone (JZ) described by Hricak group [24], provided new noninvasive diagnostic criteria for adenomyosis [25]. These new diagnostic tools allow us to diagnose the adenomyosis from early to advanced stages and see the progressing of the disease with high sensitivity and specificity. By different authors, the sensitivity and specificity range is 53–89% and 65–98% respectively. Although there is a great success in noninvasive diagnosis, the real incidence of adenomyosis is still unknown. The prevalence has been reported to range from 1 to 70%. This large range primarily reflects the lack of agreed diagnostic standards both by imaging tools and pathological analyses.
\nEven though many classifications, as well as scoring systems, have been proposed since the first mentioning of endometriosis as a disease, no widespread agreement on a classification for endometriosis has been reached. Unfortunately, there is no ideal classification of endometriosis that would be able to reflect all the aspects of the disease, the pathogenesis, anatomical distribution, clinical manifestation, progression, and recurrence.
\nThe clinical presentation of adenomyosis can vary from patient to patient, but the main symptoms are abnormal uterine bleeding and dysmenorrhea, occurring in approximately 65% of patients [26]. Today there is a strong data that there is a correlation between the type, localization, and the number of endometriotic lesions and painful symptoms [27]. Despite the fact that the link between infertility and adenomyosis is still a subject of debate, the association between these two processes is clinically recognized [28]. Infertility is found in 11–12% of patients with adenomyosis [29].
\nThe effect of adenomyosis on fertility has been assessed by examining its prevalence in infertility in patients or its effect on the outcomes of assisted reproduction technologies (ART). In a review by Campo et al. [30], several pathogenesis hypotheses of infertility in patients with adenomyosis are described. The first one was proposed by Kunz et al. [31, 32], which points out the idea of thickening and disruption of the myometrial JZ which can result in perturbed uterine peristalsis. In 1984 Birnholz [33] has published his data about the presence of contraction waves in the myometrium: using transabdominal ultrasound, he showed that uterine peristaltic activity originates exclusively from the JZ, while the outer myometrium remains static. During the follicular and periovulatory phases, contraction waves have a cervico-fundal orientation, and their amplitude and frequency increase significantly towards the time of ovulation. There is an idea that adenomyosis causes infertility by impairing sperm transport.
\nThe second hypothesis is focused on biochemical and functional alterations in both eutopic and heterotopic endometrium in individuals with adenomyosis [34]. These alterations could lead to lower receptivity, as suggested by the presence of “implantation marker” defects. This increased knowledge has created new therapeutic options, including the block of local aromatase production through the use of selective estrogen receptor modulators, estrogen-progestin combinations, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone super agonists.
\nThe third hypothesis proposes that the presence of an abnormal concentration of intrauterine free radicals [35] and of altered decidualization [36] is also suggestive of altered receptivity. The authors propose that free radicals may adversely affect eggs and fertilized eggs in adenomyosis by a similar mechanism to that in endometriosis. The exaggerated expression of these enzymes suggests a crucial role of superoxide in infertility and/or miscarriage in these diseases.
\nA lot of studies showed the effect of adenomyosis on fertility in patients, who underwent ART. Recent reviews by Vercellini et al. [37] and Younes et al. [38] allowed to shed light on many questions, even though the number of publications analyzed in these reviews is small. In Vercellini review 1865 women were enrolled in the 9 selected studies, and in Younes paper only 15 studies were analyzed.
\nThe prevalence of adenomyosis in the infertility population undergoing IVF/ICSI varies widely, from 6.9% [39] to 34.3 [40]. A clinical pregnancy after IVF/ICSI happens in 40.5% of women with adenomyosis and in 49.8% in those without this disease. The effect of adenomyosis on implantation rate per cycle is still controversial, and different authors have different data, related to that topic [40, 41]. According to Piver’s publication [42], JZ thickness could be a predictive factor of repeated implantation failure in women who underwent IVF, suggesting that adenomyosis may impair embryo implantation in IVF cycles. As for the miscarriage rate, we now know that adenomyosis almost doubles this index: 31.9%, compared to 14.1% in women without adenomyosis. There could be also a connection between the miscarriage rate and a live birth rate per cycle. Martínez-Conejero et al. [40] reported 26.8% in the adenomyosis group and of 37.1% in the no adenomyosis group.
\nDespite the fact that now we have such meta-analysis data, it is still hard to understand the exact influence of the adenomyosis on the fertility, as in some analyzed studies there were groups of patients with both adenomyosis and endometriosis, so it is difficult to identify whether IVF failure and early pregnancy complications were directly related to the presence of endometriosis or the presence of adenomyosis. However, Vercellini and his team concluded that adenomyosis has a negative effect on the outcome of IVF/ICSI, which leads to reduced rates of clinical pregnancy and implantation and an increased risk of early pregnancy loss. To sum up, it seems logical to screen for adenomyosis before starting assisted reproduction procedures [43].
\nAnother publication shows that there is a heightened risk of preterm delivery in patients with adenomyosis. A case–control study of Juang et al. [44] reveals the connection between adenomyosis and preterm birth, and two other studies show poor pregnancy and perinatal outcomes in adenomyosis patients [45, 50].
\nAccording to Sandberg’s study [46], the prevalence of adenomyosis in women in the time of delivery is quite high (17.8%), but complications during spontaneous pregnancy in such patients are rare. They can include rapid growth in pregnancy [47], spontaneous rupture of an unscarred uterus [48], and delayed postpartum hemorrhage [49]. Also, there is data that women with adenomyosis are at an increased risk of second-trimester miscarriage, small-for-gestational-age, preeclampsia, fetal malpresentation, placental malposition, and postpartum hemorrhage [50]. However, there are no large studies investigating the influence of adenomyosis on perinatal complications, and further accumulation of data is required to reveal this issue. Taking into account that the majority of pregnancies will be uneventful, it may be best that available information should be given to pregnant women in a way that would avoid raising unnecessary anxiety [43].
\nTreatment of adenomyosis could be conservative and surgical. Medical treatment for adenomyosis follows the principles for medical treatment of endometriosis, which aim is to reduce the production of endogenic estrogen or induction of endometrial differentiation with progestins. The principles are inhibition of ovulation, abolition of menstruation, and establishment of a stable steroid milieu [51].
\nNowadays there are several different options of conservative treatment, mainly against menstruation-related symptoms such as dysmenorrhea and heavy menstrual bleeding. According to Streuli et al. review [52], there are almost no well-conducted randomized controlled trials on the pharmacological treatment of adenomyosis, and the information collected from published studies is insufficient. However, experts’ opinion in this review says that the use of levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system, oral contraceptive pills, and danazol can improve those symptoms. Also, there are very few reports showing therapeutic effects of these drugs for infertility. Despite the fact that there are many therapeutic options, the majority of them inhibits the ovulation and\\or inducts of necrosis, which is unacceptable in infertile patients. So, in this chapter, we will discuss options, which could be applied in such a group of patients.
\nThe use of gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists (GnRH-a) and its effect on infertility were described in several studies. In two IVF studies [53] in which a long protocol GnRH-a was admitted, there were no lower pregnancy rates in women with adenomyosis. GnRH-a could be admitted in women with moderate to severe symptomatic adenomyosis, especially in women with failed implantation of embryos of high quality. The weak point of these studies is that both of them were retrospective, and other factors may also have contributed. In patients with adenomyosis who plan to have frozen embryo transfer, one study [54] showed that 2-month GnRH analog pretreatment improved rates of implantation, clinical pregnancy, and ongoing pregnancy.
\nThere is also data that the treatment of an intrauterine device containing danazol resulted in the successful conception of infertile patients [55].
\nGrimbizis reviewed studies on uterus-sparing surgical treatment options for adenomyosis and concluded that this kind of treatment is feasible and efficient [56]. There are several options nowadays: adenomyomectomy for diffuse or focal adenomyosis, cytoreductive surgery (partial adenomyomectomy), or a variety of non-excisional techniques (endometrial ablation, high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) and uterine artery embolization (UAE)). Non-excisional techniques result in tissue necrosis, which is unacceptable in patients who desires pregnancy.
\nIn patients with adenomyosis who desires pregnancy, surgery should only be chosen if the medical treatment is no effect. In patients with the localized process (adenomyoma) it is possible to perform an adenomyomectomy and remove all pathologic tissue. Nowadays it is the most popular surgical technique, performed through the laparoscopic or open approach. Laparoscopic surgery (adenomyosis resection) might be proper for women younger than 40 years old with focal adenomyosis who failed infertility treatments including assisted reproductive technology [57]. Several kinds of incisions are proposed for such procedure—transverse, longitudinal, wedge-shaped, and transverse H-shaped incisions [58], which could be chosen according to the size and location of the lesion. As well as for the incisions, for suturing wounds, there are several different techniques, including double- and triple-flap methods [59, 60].
\nIn Figure 3 you can see the different types of complete adenomyomectomy.
\nDifferent complete adenomyomectomy techniques. (A) Classic technique, (B) classic technique with overlapping flaps, and (C) triple-flap technique [56].
In patients with the diffuse process, cytoreductive surgery is performed. The main aim of the uterine preservation surgery is quite challenging—to remove the adenomyotic tissue as much as possible and to preserve the functional myometrium to save a functional uterus. In cases of diffuse process, it could be quite difficult to find the right plane and the border between those two layers in the adenomyotic uterus, as the pathologic tissue invades the myometrium. On one side of the scale, there is a radical treatment and on the other a functional uterus.
\nIn the recent review of fertility-sparing treatment for adenomyosis by Rocha et al. [61], there is also an analysis of combined medical and surgical treatment. The overall pooled clinical pregnancy rate after surgical resection of adenomyosis was 38.8%, ranging from 12.5 to 61.5%. The pooled miscarriage rate was 17.9% and pooled live birth rate 30.4%. As for spontaneous pregnancies, the overall clinical pregnancy rate was very low (18.2%). However, when using GnRH-a for 24 weeks after surgery [62, 63], the pooled spontaneous pregnancy rate was higher than not using adjuvant GnRH-a. There was no significant difference between pooled results with or without GnRH-a after adenomyomectomy for pregnancy rate, live birth rate, IVF pregnancy rate, or miscarriage rate. Two studies examined the effect of combined treatment with the use of adenomyomectomy and GnRH-a versus GnRH-a treatment alone [62, 64]. Even though the number of patients in the studies was small, it appears that surgery is associated with increased pregnancy rate. To sum up, adenomyomectomy alone has low spontaneous pregnancy rates and should be followed by ART or medical therapy with GnRH-a. Assisted reproductive technologies have good pregnancy rates in women with adenomyosis, and data suggest that long stimulation protocol is superior to short protocol. Most authors agree that there is currently no convincing evidence of the superiority of one of the methods of treatment over another and further prospective studies are needed to elucidate the usefulness of adenomyosis cytoreductive surgery as a fertility treatment. Also at the moment, literature data on such complications like uterine rupture and placenta accrete after surgery is scarce.
\nThere is also a place for treatment adenomyosis with hysteroscopic techniques [65]. This method could be performed in patients with adenomyotic cysts, and crypts are suggested before treatment for fertility [66]. However, this procedure and its effect on adenomyosis are described only in case reports.
\nDueholm et al. [51] in the recent review proposed an algorithm of how the patient with adenomyosis should be treated in infertility clinic. This algorithm is presented in Figure 4. However, authors make a conclusion that this algorithm is based on limited evidence and further randomized controlled trials are necessary to define the best strategy for patients with adenomyosis who want to conceive.
\nTreatment algorithm for the patient with adenomyosis in an infertility clinic [51].
In the twenty-first century, new technologies come for patients suffering from uterine infertility, and without the option of surrogate motherhood, uterine transplantation could be the only way to parenthood. Since the report in 2014 of a successful pregnancy [67] in the transplanted uterus, research interest in this field has been steadily growing with an increasing number of surgical teams training on the technique. Thirty-seven transplantations have already been realized worldwide setting the stage for a complex new research area in gynecological surgery, which needs to address technical, ethical, social, and economic issues [68]. These new technologies in the nearest future could also give a chance to become a mother for patients with uterine infertility caused by adenomyosis, resistant to other types of treatment.
\nIn spite of huge achievements both in reproductive surgery and assisted reproductive technologies, endometriosis as a disease is very actual today. It is known that the number of ART centers has been increased recently, the majority of which do not have facilities to perform surgery. This fact seems quite controversial. It resulted in the situation when the importance of reproductive surgery is neglected. Most of the studies are originally oriented to a recognition of ART as a major method of infertility treatment. We think this practice leads to the loss of reproductive surgery quality and professional degradation. Spontaneous pregnancy rate occurs in 30–70% infertile patients after an adequate operation performed just in time. That means one- or two-thirds of patients with endometriosis-associated infertility do not need ART at all. However, surgery is not the only possible kind of infertility treatment. It is important to diminish the number of the second (third, fourth, etc.) surgery. The reproductologist should be involved in the treatment and ART could be recommended promptly. The best option is to find a balance between surgery and ART, which could be reached through the organization of the multidisciplinary team, “brother in arms” professional connections between the surgeon and the reproductologist. Only working together with a constant search of the best solution on how to reach the pregnancy and informing the infertile patient about all ways of the treatment could lead to success.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen is the first native scientific publisher of Open Access books, with more than 116,000 authors worldwide, ranging from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery. Established in Europe with the new headquarters based in London, and with plans for international growth, IntechOpen is the leading publisher of Open Access scientific books. The values of our business are based on the same ones that any scientist applies to their research -- we have created a culture of respect, collegiality and collaboration within an atmosphere that’s relaxed, friendly and progressive.
",metaTitle:"Social Media Community Manager and Marketing Assistant",metaDescription:"We are looking to add further talent to our team in The Shard office in London with a full-time Marketing and Communications Specialist position. The candidate will bring with them a creative and enthusiastic mindset, high level problem-solving skills, the latest marketing and social media platforms skills and strong involvement in community-best practices to engage with researchers and scholars online. The ideal candidate will be a dynamic, forward thinking, approachable team player, able to communicate with all in the global, growing company, with an ability to understand and build a rapport within the research community.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We are looking to add further talent to our team in The Shard office in London with a full-time Social Media Community Manager and Marketing Assistant position. The candidate will bring with them a creative and enthusiastic mindset, high level problem-solving skills, the latest marketing and social media platforms skills and strong involvement in community-best practices to engage with researchers and scholars online. The ideal candidate wll be a dynamic, forward thinking, approachable team player, able to communicate with all in the global, growing company, with an ability to understand and build a rapport within the research community.
\\n\\nThe Social Media Community Manager and Marketing Assistant will report to the Senior Marketing Manager. They will work alongside the Marketing and Corporate Communications team, supporting the preparation of all marketing programs, assisting in the development of scientific marketing and communication deliverables, and creating content for social media outlets, as well as managing international social communities.
\\n\\nResponsibilities:
\\n\\nEssential Skills:
\\n\\nDesired Skills:
\\n\\nWhat makes IntechOpen a great place to work?
\\n\\nIntechOpen is a global, dynamic and fast-growing company offering excellent opportunities to develop. We are a young and vibrant company where great people do great work. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, passionate, and above all, fun environment where you can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow your career and experience.
\\n\\nTo apply, please email a copy of your CV and covering letter to hogan@intechopen.com stating your salary expectations.
\\n\\nNote: This full-time position will have an immediate start. In your cover letter, please indicate when you might be available for a block of two hours. As part of the interview process, all candidates that make it to the second phase will participate in a writing exercise.
\\n\\n*IntechOpen is an Equal Opportunities Employer consistent with its obligations under the law and does not discriminate against any employee or applicant on the basis of disability, gender, age, colour, national origin, race, religion, sexual orientation, war veteran status, or any classification protected by state, or local law.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'We are looking to add further talent to our team in The Shard office in London with a full-time Social Media Community Manager and Marketing Assistant position. The candidate will bring with them a creative and enthusiastic mindset, high level problem-solving skills, the latest marketing and social media platforms skills and strong involvement in community-best practices to engage with researchers and scholars online. The ideal candidate wll be a dynamic, forward thinking, approachable team player, able to communicate with all in the global, growing company, with an ability to understand and build a rapport within the research community.
\n\nThe Social Media Community Manager and Marketing Assistant will report to the Senior Marketing Manager. They will work alongside the Marketing and Corporate Communications team, supporting the preparation of all marketing programs, assisting in the development of scientific marketing and communication deliverables, and creating content for social media outlets, as well as managing international social communities.
\n\nResponsibilities:
\n\nEssential Skills:
\n\nDesired Skills:
\n\nWhat makes IntechOpen a great place to work?
\n\nIntechOpen is a global, dynamic and fast-growing company offering excellent opportunities to develop. We are a young and vibrant company where great people do great work. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, passionate, and above all, fun environment where you can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow your career and experience.
\n\nTo apply, please email a copy of your CV and covering letter to hogan@intechopen.com stating your salary expectations.
\n\nNote: This full-time position will have an immediate start. In your cover letter, please indicate when you might be available for a block of two hours. As part of the interview process, all candidates that make it to the second phase will participate in a writing exercise.
\n\n*IntechOpen is an Equal Opportunities Employer consistent with its obligations under the law and does not discriminate against any employee or applicant on the basis of disability, gender, age, colour, national origin, race, religion, sexual orientation, war veteran status, or any classification protected by state, or local law.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5703},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5174},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1690},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10246},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:889},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15653}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117316},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"9"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9226",title:"Intelligent User Interfaces",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2540a73b78f2f13158366ac0ab9d62a1",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rüdiger Heimgärtner",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9226.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"135236",title:"Dr.",name:"Rüdiger",surname:"Heimgärtner",slug:"rudiger-heimgartner",fullName:"Rüdiger Heimgärtner"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9980",title:"Vision Sensors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fc472f04a4214bf13db3f693a2c7c323",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Vasanth Iyer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9980.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"301000",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasanth",surname:"Iyer",slug:"vasanth-iyer",fullName:"Vasanth Iyer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10270",title:"Fog Computing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"54853b3034f0348a6157b5591f8d95f3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Isiaka Ajewale Alimi, Dr. Nelson Muga, Dr. Qin Xin and Dr. Paulo P. Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10270.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"208236",title:"Dr.",name:"Isiaka",surname:"Alimi",slug:"isiaka-alimi",fullName:"Isiaka Alimi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10394",title:"Blockchain Potential in AI",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"700eff7270bae63fd214974a0bd8e77f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Tiago M. Fernández-Caramés and Dr. Paula Fraga-Lamas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10394.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"186818",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiago M.",surname:"Fernández-Caramés",slug:"tiago-m.-fernandez-carames",fullName:"Tiago M. Fernández-Caramés"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10403",title:"Recent Advances on Numerical Simulations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d74c4bc8f3f49c49eb2e80810d938611",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Francisco Bulnes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10403.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10452",title:"Computer-Mediated Communication",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ed2d494d96079740341956fe830814ac",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Indrakshi Dey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10452.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"321151",title:"Dr.",name:"Indrakshi",surname:"Dey",slug:"indrakshi-dey",fullName:"Indrakshi Dey"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10517",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c184136bf5b833b19f7e12ace5531773",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10517.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10519",title:"Middleware Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c326d436ae0f4c508849d2336dbdfb48",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mehdia Ajana El Khaddar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10519.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"26677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehdia",surname:"Ajana El Khaddar",slug:"mehdia-ajana-el-khaddar",fullName:"Mehdia Ajana El Khaddar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10522",title:"Coding Theory - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6357e1dd7d38adeb519ca7a10dc9e5a0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sudhakar Radhakrishnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10522.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10576",title:"Factoring Ethics in Technology, Policy Making and Regulation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"eff20787f4c5417ea12367e8a6d72e92",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ali G. Hessami and Dr. Patricia Shaw",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10576.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali G.",surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-g.-hessami",fullName:"Ali G. Hessami"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10651",title:"Machine Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5806b4efae3bd91c3f56e64e0442df35",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10651.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10652",title:"Visual Object Tracking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"96f3ee634a7ba49fa195e50475412af4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:55},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:18},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5146},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"384",title:"Chemical Biology",slug:"chemical-biology",parent:{title:"Bioorganic Chemistry",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-bioorganic-chemistry"},numberOfBooks:37,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1291,numberOfWosCitations:1609,numberOfCrossrefCitations:856,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2362,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"chemical-biology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8852",title:"Chemistry and Applications of Benzimidazole and its Derivatives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e95984a2b87df5a7ca051cb3345d5e7a",slug:"chemistry-and-applications-of-benzimidazole-and-its-derivatives",bookSignature:"Maria Marinescu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8852.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"250975",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Marinescu",slug:"maria-marinescu",fullName:"Maria Marinescu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5855",title:"Protein Phosphorylation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5f88bc57e9b8606807624451a48a5a1",slug:"protein-phosphorylation",bookSignature:"Claude Prigent",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5855.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"98783",title:"Dr.",name:"Claude",middleName:null,surname:"Prigent",slug:"claude-prigent",fullName:"Claude Prigent"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5935",title:"Solubility of Polysaccharides",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f2e1999c512e400b58f4065789d080ee",slug:"solubility-of-polysaccharides",bookSignature:"Zhenbo Xu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5935.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176645",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhenbo",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"zhenbo-xu",fullName:"Zhenbo Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5843",title:"Quantitative Structure-activity Relationship",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"009d82593f285d019aaecb2670da39cf",slug:"quantitative-structure-activity-relationship",bookSignature:"Fatma Kandemirli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5843.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"104919",title:null,name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Kandemirli",slug:"fatma-kandemirli",fullName:"Fatma Kandemirli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5945",title:"Amino Acid",subtitle:"New Insights and Roles in Plant and Animal",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7d91fed8804240b70bcc3e803f3b73a",slug:"amino-acid-new-insights-and-roles-in-plant-and-animal",bookSignature:"Toshiki Asao and Md. Asaduzzaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5945.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"106510",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshiki",middleName:null,surname:"Asao",slug:"toshiki-asao",fullName:"Toshiki Asao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5769",title:"Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"026ff00026816b4cca7116ca6e1e7fbd",slug:"fatty-acids",bookSignature:"Angel Catala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5769.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5797",title:"Carotenoids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"95f1843c0526c96e4aa0be620d8db749",slug:"carotenoids",bookSignature:"Dragan J. Cvetkovic and Goran S. Nikolic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5797.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195521",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"J.",surname:"Cvetkovic",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetkovic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5836",title:"Bisphenol A",subtitle:"Exposure and Health Risks",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"446599b9e5cf929537d445edc546c449",slug:"bisphenol-a-exposure-and-health-risks",bookSignature:"Pinar Erkekoglu and Belma Kocer-Gumusel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5836.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pinar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pinar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5497",title:"Nitric Oxide Synthase",subtitle:"Simple Enzyme-Complex Roles",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"be2bf109fabe37c7514acc5712b9995b",slug:"nitric-oxide-synthase-simple-enzyme-complex-roles",bookSignature:"Seyed Soheil Saeedi Saravi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5497.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14680",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Soheil",middleName:null,surname:"Saeedi Saravi",slug:"seyed-soheil-saeedi-saravi",fullName:"Seyed Soheil Saeedi Saravi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5507",title:"Current Topics in Lactation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ac8a108f23ad313d4ea64202d68c7502",slug:"current-topics-in-lactation",bookSignature:"Isabel Gigli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5507.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175679",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Gigli",slug:"isabel-gigli",fullName:"Isabel Gigli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5508",title:"Carbohydrate",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e594b777fe1d4981c5b1adbe5a40f19c",slug:"carbohydrate",bookSignature:"Mahmut Caliskan, I. Halil Kavakli and Gul Cevahir Oz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5508.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51528",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Çalışkan",slug:"mahmut-caliskan",fullName:"Mahmut Çalışkan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5683",title:"Advances in Lipoprotein Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b1bebf38c2a7e785165e7d020b1ec933",slug:"advances-in-lipoprotein-research",bookSignature:"Turgay Isbir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5683.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"55739",title:"Prof.",name:"Turgay",middleName:null,surname:"Isbir",slug:"turgay-isbir",fullName:"Turgay Isbir"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:37,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"38477",doi:"10.5772/45943",title:"Lipid Peroxidation: Chemical Mechanism, Biological Implications and Analytical Determination",slug:"lipid-peroxidation-chemical-mechanism-biological-implications-and-analytical-determination",totalDownloads:12016,totalCrossrefCites:51,totalDimensionsCites:155,book:{slug:"lipid-peroxidation",title:"Lipid Peroxidation",fullTitle:"Lipid Peroxidation"},signatures:"Marisa Repetto, Jimena Semprine and Alberto Boveris",authors:[{id:"36452",title:"Dr.",name:"Marisa",middleName:"Gabriela",surname:"Repetto",slug:"marisa-repetto",fullName:"Marisa Repetto"}]},{id:"40938",doi:"10.5772/48294",title:"Dehydrogenase Activity in the Soil Environment",slug:"dehydrogenase-activity-in-the-soil-environment",totalDownloads:5918,totalCrossrefCites:48,totalDimensionsCites:121,book:{slug:"dehydrogenases",title:"Dehydrogenases",fullTitle:"Dehydrogenases"},signatures:"Agnieszka Wolińska and Zofia Stępniewska",authors:[{id:"141696",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Wolinska",slug:"agnieszka-wolinska",fullName:"Agnieszka Wolinska"}]},{id:"41116",doi:"10.5772/51572",title:"Algal Polysaccharides, Novel Applications and Outlook",slug:"algal-polysaccharides-novel-applications-and-outlook",totalDownloads:13391,totalCrossrefCites:48,totalDimensionsCites:118,book:{slug:"carbohydrates-comprehensive-studies-on-glycobiology-and-glycotechnology",title:"Carbohydrates",fullTitle:"Carbohydrates - Comprehensive Studies on Glycobiology and Glycotechnology"},signatures:"Stefan Kraan",authors:[{id:"142720",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Kraan",slug:"stefan-kraan",fullName:"Stefan Kraan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"32419",title:"The Two DUF642 At5g11420 and At4g32460-Encoded Proteins Interact In Vitro with the AtPME3 Catalytic Domain",slug:"the-two-duf642-at5g11420-and-at4g32460-encoded-proteins-interact-in-vitro-with-the-atpme3-catalytic",totalDownloads:2189,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"protein-interactions",title:"Protein Interactions",fullTitle:"Protein Interactions"},signatures:"Esther Zúñiga-Sánchez and Alicia Gamboa-de Buen",authors:[{id:"115057",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"Gamboa-De Buen",slug:"alicia-gamboa-de-buen",fullName:"Alicia Gamboa-De Buen"}]},{id:"50934",title:"Bioinformatics: Basics, Development, and Future",slug:"bioinformatics-basics-development-and-future",totalDownloads:4227,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"bioinformatics-updated-features-and-applications",title:"Bioinformatics",fullTitle:"Bioinformatics - Updated Features and Applications"},signatures:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",authors:[{id:"213344",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}]},{id:"50574",title:"Bioinformatics for RNA‐Seq Data Analysis",slug:"bioinformatics-for-rna-seq-data-analysis",totalDownloads:3602,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"bioinformatics-updated-features-and-applications",title:"Bioinformatics",fullTitle:"Bioinformatics - Updated Features and Applications"},signatures:"Shanrong Zhao, Baohong Zhang, Ying Zhang, William Gordon,\nSarah Du, Theresa Paradis, Michael Vincent and David von Schack",authors:[{id:"176364",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"shanrong-zhao",fullName:"Shanrong Zhao"}]},{id:"54169",title:"Importance of Fatty Acids in Physiopathology of Human Body",slug:"importance-of-fatty-acids-in-physiopathology-of-human-body",totalDownloads:3472,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:20,book:{slug:"fatty-acids",title:"Fatty Acids",fullTitle:"Fatty Acids"},signatures:"Katalin Nagy and Ioana-Daria Tiuca",authors:[{id:"178879",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Gug",slug:"ioana-gug",fullName:"Ioana Gug"},{id:"204524",title:"Ms.",name:"Katalin",middleName:null,surname:"Nagy",slug:"katalin-nagy",fullName:"Katalin Nagy"}]},{id:"57644",title:"Polysaccharides: Structure and Solubility",slug:"polysaccharides-structure-and-solubility",totalDownloads:2979,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:38,book:{slug:"solubility-of-polysaccharides",title:"Solubility of Polysaccharides",fullTitle:"Solubility of Polysaccharides"},signatures:"Mark Q. Guo, Xinzhong Hu, Changlu Wang and Lianzhong Ai",authors:[{id:"202384",title:"Dr.",name:"Qingbin",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",slug:"qingbin-guo",fullName:"Qingbin Guo"},{id:"203883",title:"Dr.",name:"Changlu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"changlu-wang",fullName:"Changlu Wang"},{id:"203884",title:"Prof.",name:"Xinzhong",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"xinzhong-hu",fullName:"Xinzhong Hu"}]},{id:"57402",title:"Solubility of Chitin: Solvents, Solution Behaviors and Their Related Mechanisms",slug:"solubility-of-chitin-solvents-solution-behaviors-and-their-related-mechanisms",totalDownloads:3346,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:34,book:{slug:"solubility-of-polysaccharides",title:"Solubility of Polysaccharides",fullTitle:"Solubility of Polysaccharides"},signatures:"Jagadish C. Roy, Fabien Salaün, Stéphane Giraud, Ada Ferri",authors:[{id:"27644",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabien",middleName:null,surname:"Salaün",slug:"fabien-salaun",fullName:"Fabien Salaün"},{id:"150004",title:"Prof.",name:"Yan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yan-chen",fullName:"Yan Chen"},{id:"189338",title:"Prof.",name:"Ada",middleName:null,surname:"Ferri",slug:"ada-ferri",fullName:"Ada Ferri"},{id:"189339",title:"Dr.",name:"Stéphane",middleName:null,surname:"Giraud",slug:"stephane-giraud",fullName:"Stéphane Giraud"},{id:"189340",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Jagadish",middleName:"Chandra",surname:"Roy",slug:"jagadish-roy",fullName:"Jagadish Roy"},{id:"218812",title:"Prof.",name:"Guan",middleName:null,surname:"Jinping",slug:"guan-jinping",fullName:"Guan Jinping"}]},{id:"49498",title:"Members of Antioxidant Machinery and Their Functions",slug:"members-of-antioxidant-machinery-and-their-functions",totalDownloads:2782,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"basic-principles-and-clinical-significance-of-oxidative-stress",title:"Basic Principles and Clinical Significance of Oxidative Stress",fullTitle:"Basic Principles and Clinical Significance of Oxidative Stress"},signatures:"Shalini Kapoor Mehta and Sivakumar Joghi Thatha Gowder",authors:[{id:"118572",title:"Dr.",name:"Sivakumar Joghi",middleName:null,surname:"Thatha Gowder",slug:"sivakumar-joghi-thatha-gowder",fullName:"Sivakumar Joghi Thatha Gowder"}]},{id:"38477",title:"Lipid Peroxidation: Chemical Mechanism, Biological Implications and Analytical Determination",slug:"lipid-peroxidation-chemical-mechanism-biological-implications-and-analytical-determination",totalDownloads:12019,totalCrossrefCites:51,totalDimensionsCites:155,book:{slug:"lipid-peroxidation",title:"Lipid Peroxidation",fullTitle:"Lipid Peroxidation"},signatures:"Marisa Repetto, Jimena Semprine and Alberto Boveris",authors:[{id:"36452",title:"Dr.",name:"Marisa",middleName:"Gabriela",surname:"Repetto",slug:"marisa-repetto",fullName:"Marisa Repetto"}]},{id:"53367",title:"Lactate, Not Pyruvate, Is the End Product of Glucose Metabolism via Glycolysis",slug:"lactate-not-pyruvate-is-the-end-product-of-glucose-metabolism-via-glycolysis",totalDownloads:2312,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"carbohydrate",title:"Carbohydrate",fullTitle:"Carbohydrate"},signatures:"Avital Schurr",authors:[{id:"72322",title:"Dr.",name:"Avital",middleName:null,surname:"Schurr",slug:"avital-schurr",fullName:"Avital Schurr"}]},{id:"48975",title:"Biochemistry of Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species",slug:"biochemistry-of-reactive-oxygen-and-nitrogen-species",totalDownloads:4283,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:38,book:{slug:"basic-principles-and-clinical-significance-of-oxidative-stress",title:"Basic Principles and Clinical Significance of Oxidative Stress",fullTitle:"Basic Principles and Clinical Significance of Oxidative Stress"},signatures:"Ayla Ozcan and Metin Ogun",authors:[{id:"95266",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayla",middleName:null,surname:"Özcan",slug:"ayla-ozcan",fullName:"Ayla Özcan"},{id:"177273",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Öğün",slug:"metin-ogun",fullName:"Metin Öğün"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"chemical-biology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/239688/mohd-khair-hassan",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"239688",slug:"mohd-khair-hassan"},fullPath:"/profiles/239688/mohd-khair-hassan",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var t;(t=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(t)}()