Annual distribution of waste according to their function of Almeria [11].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"989",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Respiratory Diseases",title:"Respiratory Diseases",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Medicine is an ever-changing science. 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Pharmacodynamics, with pharmacokinetics (what the body does to a drug, or the fate of a drug within the body), helps explain the relationship between the dose and response, in other words, the drug's effects. The pharmacologic response depends on the drug binding to its target. The concentration of the drug at the receptor site influences the drug’s effect.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current insights in pharmacodynamics and drug safety, focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this existing field.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-082-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-081-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-083-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b889e24b3132aa437b6745db36fffe9b",bookSignature:"Prof. Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11812.jpg",keywords:"Enzyme, Receptor, Ion Channel, Pharmacodynamics, Drug Target, Drug Action, Drug Safety, RNA Therapy, Pharmacokinetics, RNA Delivery, Therapeutic Index, Drug Delivery",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 11th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 10th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 28th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 27th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Mahmoud Mansour completed his Ph.D. at the Karolinska Institute, Sweden. 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However, studies of human development history, especially those of infectious disease history, have clearly shown that ethnic and regional differences in susceptibility to some infectious diseases actually exist, even if their infection sources and transmission routes are the same. In terms of the 40 types of new infectious diseases that have occurred worldwide in the past 40 years, the epidemiology of some infectious diseases (including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)) has been dominated by regional/territorial or ethnic oriented infections. Examples, along with the year of first occurrence, include:Ebola hemorrhagic fever caused by Ebola virus (1977), Legionnaires\' disease caused by
It is well known that the investigation of genetic predisposition is an important topic in modern medicine. It helps to clarify not only the fundamental reasons for patients’ individual differences but also the pathogenesis of many diseases. Better understanding of genetic predisposition can provide prevention and treatment strategies for the corresponding diseases, an especially important consideration for individualized disease prevention and treatment. Modern medical studies have shown that disease is a specific life process formed by interactions of environmental factors (external) and the human body (internal). Genetic factors are the major basis of an organism’s reactivity, including defensive immunity, the functional states of the nervous and endocrine systems, nutritional status, psychological factors, age, gender, etc. Among these numerous factors, genetic factors predominate because, besides external factors, immune responses and neuropsychological and endocrine functions are constrained by genetic factors. Even nutrition status is not based only on the quality and quantity of the exogenous nutrient supply. It is also influenced by digestion, absorption, and utilization functions controlled by genetic factors. Gender and age (an organism’s reactive characteristics at different ages) are even more determined by genetic factors. Therefore, organism reactivities determined by genetic factors have been collectively called genetic predisposition. Numerous studies have demonstrated that many severe diseases, such as cancer, atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, diabetes, schizophrenia, and high blood pressure, have significant genetic predispositions. In addition, some infectious diseases caused by bacteria and viruses have significant individual genetic predispositions. The human immune and genetic system most closely related to genetic predisposition to disease is the major histocompatibility complex (MHC).
Human MHC is also named as human leucocyte antigens (HLA) system, which codes for the most polymorphic antigen system that is known. The correlation of HLA and human diseases has been studied for nearly 40 years. The rapid development of advanced technologies in modern molecular biology and their wide applications to HLA studies have effectively promoted studies of HLA mechanisms and their associations with disease, leading to significantly increased accuracy of disease association analysis. Many alleles have been identified as being primarily associated with certain aspects of diseases. For example, in autoimmune diseases, Hodgkin\'s disease and HLA-A1 have relative risk (RR) of 32. 0; congenital adrenal hyperplasia and HLA-B47 have relative risk of 15. 4; ankylosing arthritis and HLA-B27 have relative risk of 87. 4; Reiter\'s syndrome and HLA-B27 have relative risk of 37. 0; acute anterior uveitis and HLA-B27 have relative risk of 10. 4; psoriasis and HLA-Cw6 have relative risk of 13. 3, etc. In infectious diseases, Hepatitis B virus associated glomerulonephritis and HLA-DQB1*03 have relative risk of 12. 90; infection and development of AIDS are highly correlated with HLA-A29, HLA-B35, and B57; infection and development of flu are closely correlated with HLA-A2 antigen; hepatitis B is separately correlated with HLA-B13, B8, DR7, DR13; and infection and development of hepatitis C are closely correlated with HLA-DRB1*0402, DRB1*12 and DQB1*0301. Therefore, correlation studies of HLA and different diseases can help the identification and classification of diseases. The studies could also be treated as auxiliary diagnostic tools. While conducting such studies, researches could further clarify the relationships between diseases and genetic inheritance, provide genetic consulting services to specific families, detect HLA-linked disease genes, and, most importantly, provide early predictions and preventions of these diseases.
SARS virus is a recently discovered infectious pathogen that can cause severe human diseases, and, to date, we know little about it. Knowledge of its occurrence and development pattern remains limited, and studies of its pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention strategies remain limited. Considering that SARS displays significant regional/territorial and ethnic and individual specificity, and that the SARS-associated antigen epitopes are almost all related to HLA antigen recognition, as inferred by known SARS gene and protein sequences, we hypothesize that there is a close correlation between the occurrence of a SARS epidemic and the HLA system.
Previous studies demonstrated that although SARS-CoV and other known coronaviruses have less than 40%-50% homology in amino acid sequence, their structures and functions are similar to those of other known coronaviruses. The antisera of transmissible gastro-enteritis virus (TGEV), murine hepatitis virus (MHV), Feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV), and 229E human coronavirus can inhibit the growth of cultured SARS viruses. In the known OC43 and 229E coronavirus strains, HLA-A3. 1was shown by some studies to be the receptor of OC43 and aminopeptidase N (APN), also known as metalloproteinases or CD13, and the co-receptor of human coronavirus 229E and cats/pigs coronavirus. A recent study using molecular 3D structure simulation showed that CD13 also interacted with the S protein of SARS virus. Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) is the S protein receptor of human/rats coronavirus. The invasion, infection, and disease caused by OC43 must be accompanied by the presence and expression of HLA-A3. 1. The invasion, infection, and disease caused by coronavirus 229E must be accompanied by the presence and expression of aminopeptidase N. On the other hand, carcinoembryonic antigen may be the required co-receptor for many coronavirus infections. Theoretically, HLA-A3.1 is the susceptible gene of SARS coronavirus, and individuals without this susceptible gene are not easily affected or have resistance to the disease.
SARS is a highly contagious disease with high disease incidence and mortality rate. The limited diffusion mode based on East and Southeast Asian countries has indicated the existence of susceptible genes in these populations. This has been corroborated in numerous clinical case-control studies, but some other studies yielded opposite results. In the 2 months immediately following the last outbreak of SARS in Taiwan, Taiwan scholars recruited 658 employees from hospitals who had just experienced their initial or the most severe SARS infections to help the investigation of related infectious and genetic factors of SARS-CoV. They used an enzyme immunoassay to test the infections of SARS-CoV and then employed western blot analysis, antibody neutralization, and commercial SARS tests for verification. Risk evaluations were prepared through questionnaires and sequence-specific oligonucleotide probe analysis of the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) allele. The study showed that 3% (20/658) of the participants were positive. A female nurse with a subclinical case was identified. Identified risk factors of SARS-CoV infection included working in the same building, such as hospital emergency rooms and infection wards, direct nursing for SARS patients, and carrying the HLA-Cw*0801 allele. The SARS-CoV infection ratio of homozygous and heterozygous Cw*0801 carriers was 4. 4:1 (95% confidence interval, 1. 5-12. 9;
Another study in the Taiwan population also proved the correlation between HLA and SARS. The researchers used PCR-sequence specific oligonucleotides probe (SSOP) to study the genotyping of HLA type I and type II alleles. The study population included 37 suspected SARS cases (28 fever patients were excluded from SARS) and 101 non-infected medical staff who might have been exposed to SARS-CoV. Another control group contained 190 healthy, non-related Taiwanese people. Initially, during the analysis of SARS infected patients and the high-risk medical staff, the researchers found that HLA-B*4601 (OR = 2. 08,
Another study also showed that SARS infection was correlated with Chinese HLA. This study determined a strong correlation between SARS development and HLA-B*0703 (OR, 4. 08; 95% CI, 2. 03-8. 18;
Evidences of the SARS-HLA correlation has also been found in other Asian populations. In Vietnam 44 out of 62 SARS patients participated in a study. The control groups were 103 individuals who had contact with SARS patients and 50 individuals who had not. Compared with the control groups, HLA-DRB1*12 occurred more often in the SARS patient group (corrected
However, some studies resulted in the opposite conclusions. Xiong P,
Early in Feb. 2005 on an annual meeting of Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), an American microbiologist Kathryn Holmes, who had long been engaged in coronavirus researches, pointed out that it was not impossible to have another outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in the world like the one 2 years ago. The SARS-CoV used to spread in populations might only exist in laboratory samples. Her words shocked the world. It has been 10 years since the SARS pandemic. Many scholars conducted broad and indepth studies but have not achieved breakthroughs with respect to the origin of SARS CoV. On the contrary, the new influenza A virus (H1N1) that spread worldwide in April 2009 was studied thoroughly during the first 2 months of its spreading. It has 8 types of genes coming from 4 pedigrees and is very similar to the North American popular triple ligand swine H1N1 virus. Different from other viruses, there has been no SARS patient other than lab infections after the widespread infections in January 2004. SARS-CoV does not exist in nature or people now. Hence the natural SARS epidemic history has some extraordinary abnormalities. What are the reasons? The most important reason could be that there is no direct ancestor of SARS-CoV in nature. It had an “unusual evolution”. It is very likely that it was “unnaturally” introduced to populations, so it did not follow the normal epidemic transmission rules.
SARS-CoV has an unordinary phylogeny. It has a fast and obvious “reverse evolution. ”“Reverse evolution” is defined as “regaining the ancestor’s state” and is an evolution component that commonly exists in the biosphere, including microbial communities. In the long course of natural evolution, “reverse evolution” might be largely supplemental and it might coordinate “forward evolution” , acting as the twists and turns of mainstream evolution. However, the “reverse evolution” of SARS-CoV appears earlier and more powerfully, and it has more presence and lasts longer. In the early state of its epidemic, it had already lost the genes related to host adaptability (characteristic 29-ntORF8 gene) and presented “reverse evolution” of key amino acids on the virulence and transmission-related receptor’s binding site. The SARS-CoV outbreak in 2003-2004 in Guangzhou was phylogenetically closer to earlier viruses in the 2002-2003 epidemics than the later viruses. Under natural conditions, it is not possible that the adaptive evolution of Bt-SLCoV could have developed to the human level through carnivores in such a short time. Therefore, the only possible explanation is that SARS-CoV was produced through “unusual evolution (UE),” via processes such as like GM technology.
There have already been some debates about the technical maturity of transforming animal virus to human virus (for example, GM technology). However, it would be indisputable now, as in May and June 2012, a top international journal published 2 papers, which shocked the international natural science field in 2011 and clarified this problem by facts. However, according to some international information sources, in 2000 or earlier some scientists were studying or had already mastered these technologies at those early dates.
Therefore, Xu D
The investigation of the SARS in-out flow epidemic transmission network in mainland China shows that Beijing and Guangdong were the places where the exported cases and self-transmission cases were the most severe. Guangzhou was the origin of the transmission of SARS and the main import source of the early-stage regional cases of infection in most areas, but it did not cause significant radiation of transmission to its neighboring regions. Nevertheless, the in-out flow between Beijing and its neighboring regions did not start until the middle to late stages of the epidemic transmission. The transmission, however, was able to radiate significantly across regions. There have been no other cases reported among people and among animals except for laboratory infections and 4 mild infections reported in Guangzhou in December 2003 and January 2004. This is different from the trend of typical epidemic transmissions, and it is different from the correlation between the HLA gene polymorphism and SARS, as demonstrated by many studies. The HLA alleles that are closely related to the infection of SARS, such as B*4601, B*5401, Cw0801, and DRB1*0301, as found among populations from Taiwan, Hong Kong, and mainland China, are types of HLA alleles that are relatively common in the Chinese population. Why were only people in limited regions infected? Further, why did the transmission disappear rapidly?
The study of Xu D
Supported by grants from the State Key Development Program for Basic Research of China (No.2003CB515509 and 2009CB522401) and from National Natural Scientific Foundation of China(No.81070450 and 30470751) to Dr. X.-Y.Z.
Nowadays, the horticultural field is exploring with its various utilization. An ever-demanding market is going on with its various options. Vast cultivation in field level with fabulous export potential makes the horticultural product market more outstanding. The global horticultural market value about 20.77 billion USD was estimated in 2021 and targeted to 40.24 billion USD till 2026 [1]. From the kitchen to processing industry, the uses of horticultural product are remarkable today. With its flexibility of uses, problems also arise with various means. The by-products or wastes in horticultural point of view is getting worst day by day for lack of proper utilization not taken. Both developing and developed countries such as Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam are suffering from various environmental pollutions in concern with water, soil, and air pollution. The increasing trend of population is found to be the major cause of waste generation [2]. Increased population make wastes more usual in homestead generally produced by unnecessarily.
From the production of horticultural foods, various factors involve for the hazardous environmental appearance. Uncontrolled uses of pesticide and residual effects of various chemicals initiate the primary threats to nature by creating bad impact on the wildlife, soil, human, and animal communities [3]. Sometimes these chemicals (about 5–15%) that introduced in the global market for field management are counterfeit in nature [4]. The food wastes evolved in kitchen is noteworthy in many countries such as China, containing solid food wastes between 88% and 94% [5]. Processing industries greatly influence the environment pollution as so many by-products discarded to the environment from this sector while these by-products contain some high quantities of phytochemicals that can be reusable enough for the better disposal [6]. Massive climate issues arise from the undisposed waste available in the environment [7]. Greenhouse gases increases are also introduced in nature by the inappropriate waste disposal method. So, proper and alternative process of waste disposal is compulsory for economic viability and environmental stability.
Increasing the recycling and developing various disposal methods can ensure the proper mitigation of environmental pollution. The industrial and various sources of horticultural wastes are getting importance for its valuable compositions. Recycling can develop the new opportunities with commercial benefits. Biofuels, enzymes, vitamins, antioxidants, and various important chemicals are manufactured from the industrial wastes today. Waste to wealth can be the modern thought of waste disposal. The management of these wastes can be supervised by the government with its regular monitoring, because the waste disposal with its economic benefits can bring the sustainability for both environment and industrial concern [8].
The affluence of horticulture in industrial and environmental perspective is greatly significant today. Whereas there are some phenomena arising day by day with management and utilization of horticultural wastes. The nature of wastes in horticultural end is multidisciplinary. Some create chemical hazard; some are alarming for their biological and thermal point of view also. Postharvest handling and storage occur about 54% of wastes that is upstream, while 46% happens “downstream,” at the processing, distribution, and consumption stages [9]. These wastes disposal is our major concern in case of sustainable waste management.
The pragmatic scenario of waste evolving is associated with the increasing of population. With higher population, increasing rate demands the higher agricultural produce. In other words, more food demand may arise with the population increasing rate.
Agricultural production nowadays is more than three times than the last five decades [10]. With technological advancement, the productivity may increase in horticultural sectors also. On the contrary with the increasing productivity, it generates the higher quantities of wastes also. Some of them are green wastes, and some are recyclable solid wastes.
Mainly this sector may generate waste most in quantities. The whole process demands lots of intercultural operations such as training, pruning, thinning, earthing up, etc., of various fruits and vegetables can provide some wastes. For example, leaf residues, debris, dead leaves. However, these wastes sometimes added the additional organic matter in the soil. But if the maintenance is not sound enough in horticultural production chain, then the waste becomes burden for the environment. If we enlighten on the data (Table 1) given by Gmada et al. in 2019, according to their own supervision in the farm of Almeria, there are high amount of wastes distribution in various horticultural production systems. Greenhouses have the higher wastes in 39,215 ton out of 90,738 tons of total wastes, which is 43% of the total waste. Another approach of waste getting is disinfection having the second highest waste getting percentage that is 23%. So, there are different steps and period of waste getting and without waste management of horticultural products we the environment will be depleted day by day at the negative manner.
Function | Weight | Volume | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
t | % | m3 | % | |
Greenhouses | 39,215 | 43 | 49,798 | 27 |
Substrates | 1219 | 1 | 1598 | 1 |
Water storage | 576 | 1 | 730 | 0 |
Disinfection | 21,061 | 23 | 24,066 | 13 |
Shading | 10 | 0 | 10 | 0 |
Transplanting | 698 | 1 | 40,714 | 22 |
Tunnels | 2259 | 2 | 2429 | 1 |
Padding | 4900 | 5 | 5065 | 3 |
Supporting system | 6448 | 7 | 4891 | 3 |
Irrigation | 4967 | 5 | 20,760 | 11 |
Plant protection | 4034 | 4 | 17,333 | 9 |
Pollination | 2469 | 3 | 26 | 0 |
Harvesting | 2883 | 3 | 19,630 | 13 |
Total | 90,738 | 100 | 187,050 | 100 |
Annual distribution of waste according to their function of Almeria [11].
These wastes are generated from the continuous use of pesticides, insecticides, and herbicides during the cultivation. These are mainly solid wastes such as pesticides containers, bottles. The activities of using these types of chemicals in developing countries are mostly handled by the rural uneducated farmers. So, the disposal of these types of solid wastes usually gets ignorance by the farmers or the users. Such types of ignorance result in the degraded mode of the environmental balance. About 2% of pesticides usually remain unused in the containers, and then the disposal of these hazardous material is done by the throwing these into the nearest ponds or on the open field condition; the ultimate environmental issues may arise by this as food poisoning, water pollution, air pollution, etc., by this type of ignorance [12].
Postharvest food loss is any loss in physical weight, edibility, nutritional quality, caloric value, consumer adequacy happens between the period of reap and the time it reaches the consumer, while food waste is a subset of the food losses [13], and this might occur through human activity or inaction such as discarding produce, not consuming accessible food before its expiry date, or taking serving sizes beyond one’s ability to consume [14]. Horticultural crops are highly perishable products. As it is perishable so that handling and the maintenance are really tough. For this kind of phenomena, the developing countries are the real sufferers of this type of problems. Postharvest loss and wastes of perishable commodities in horticulture are up to 60% depending on the seasons, commodity, and the region of production [15]. So, the wastes after harvesting threaten the sustainable environmental security with environmental pollution. Postharvest loss is not the issue of reduction of food availability for the consumers; it may cause negative externalities to the societies with the increasing cost effect of waste management, greenhouse gas production, and loss of scarce resources used in production [16].
One part of the world’s population is struggling every day with the hunger and scarcity of food, whereas in some parts of the world, people waste food without thinking about the food security. Horticultural foods such as vegetables, fruits, and grain crops are wasted daily in our home and appear as the kitchen wastes. In America, horticultural wastages consist of fruits nearly 20%, vegetables 30%, others 25% [17]. General estimation of food waste annually is about trillion US dollars [18]. The whole world scenario is also alarming in this concern.
There are lots of food processing industries. These industries use some hazardous materials for food processing such as coloring agents, dyes, by-products such as banana peels, coconut husks, and other extraneous bioactive compounds phenols, flavonoids, flavanols, anthocyanins always evolved in the processing industries as by-products (Table 2). Heavy and rapid disposal is required for this kind of wastes. If it is not disposed with the time, then it will appear as a biggest threat for human survival and environmental balance. Higher emissions of pollutant make the environment more vulnerable. So, without utilizing these types of compounds it can be delectable enough to make our environment polluted.
Biowaste | Bioactive compounds |
---|---|
Avocado peel and seed | Phenols, carotenoids |
Tomato peel | Flavonols, phenolic acid, flanones, carotenoids |
Banana peel | Phenols, carotenoids, flavonols, flavonoids |
Mango peel and seed | Phenolic acids, flavonoids, flavonols, gallotanins, carotenoids, bioactive lipids |
Pineapple by products | Phenols, cinnamic acid, amino acids, proteins |
Citrus peel and seed | Flavonones |
Pomegranate peel and seed | Bioactive lipids, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid |
Orange peel | Phenolic acids |
Watermelon peel | Anthocyanins |
Apple peel | Flavonoids and anthocyanin |
Papaya peel | Carotenoids, amino acids, proteins |
Apple pomace | Flavonoid and anthocyanin |
Carrot pomace | Carotenoids |
Onion waste | Quercetin |
Red beet waste | Betalins |
Potato peel | Phenolic acids |
Tomato peel | Lycopene |
Environment day by day is threatened with the undisposed wastes derived from various sources of horticultural sectors, from both farming and industrial perspective. Air, water, and soil are major three components of the environment that get affected by the pollutants derived from the horticultural wastes.
Sometimes, we disposed some waste with the burning. But these types of waste management are not fruitful always as burning of crop stubbles possesses some hazardous emissions of many harmful gaseous components. As a result, the atmosphere represents monoxide, nitrogen oxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, methane associated with other toxic hydrocarbons. These types of dangerous gases and particulate matters make a negative impact on air and are harmful for both human and animal health (Table 3) [21, 22, 23].
Category | Pollutantsx | Source |
---|---|---|
Particulates | SPM (PM100) | Incomplete combustion of in organic material, particle on burnt soil |
RPM (PM10) FPM (PM25) | Condensation after combustion of gases and incomplete combustion of organic matter | |
Gases | CO | Incomplete combustion of organic matter |
NO2 and N2O | Oxidation of N2 in air at high temperature | |
O3 | Secondary pollutant, form due to Nitrogen Oxide and Hydrocarbon | |
CH4/Benzene PAH5 | Incomplete combustion of organic matter Incomplete combustion of organic matter |
Major air pollutants emitted during crop residue burning [24].
SPM small particulate matter, PM particulate matter; FPM fine particulate matter.
Besides burning of crop stubbles, nitrous oxide is derived from microbial processes in cultivated soil and manures. Machineries used in crop cultivation require fuel combustion resulting in the rapid production of CO2. The ultimate result of air pollution leads to the temperature rising, ecological disbalance, and degradable sustainability of the environment.
Only the industrial solid wastes with heavy metals are not the headache for water contamination today. Agricultural wastes, more specifically the horticultural wastes within horticultural cultivation system and processing by-products, can hamper the water quality in various ways. Fertilizer and other pesticide chemicals are responsible for both ground and surface water contamination. Toxic trace elements make the essential nutrients unavailable, and beneficial soil-borne microorganisms become extinct. Water pollution pyramid (Figure 1) stated that groundwater use has become unsafe for the toxicity of the chemicals. Erosion, sedimentation, salinity are the typical after-effects of continuous cultivation system.
Water pollution pyramid [
Only agricultural field makes the water polluted about 70% worldwide [26]. Besides, different intercultural operations have the major influence in water contamination (Table 4).
Impacts | ||
---|---|---|
Farm activities | surface water | Groundwater |
Tillage/plowing | Sediment/turbidity: sediments carry phosphorus and pesticides adsorbed to sediment particles; siltation of river beds and loss of habitat, spawning ground, etc. | |
Fertilizing | Runoff of nutrients, especially phosphorus, leading to eutrophication causing taste and odor in public water supply, excess algae growth leading to deoxygenation of water and fish kills. | Leaching of nitrate to groundwater; excessive levels are a threat to public health |
Manure spreading | Carried out as a fertilizer activity; spreading on frozen ground results in high levels of contamination of receiving waters by pathogens, metals, phosphorus and nitrogen, leading to eutrophication and potential contamination | Contamination of groundwater, especially by nitrogen. |
Pesticides | Runoff of pesticides leads to contamination of surface water and biota; dysfunction of ecological system in surface waters by loss of top predators due to growth inhibition and reproductive failure; public health impacts from eating contaminated fish. Pesticides are carried as dust by wind over very long distances and contaminate aquatic systems thousands of miles away (e.g. tropical/subtropical pesticides found in Arctic mammals). | Some pesticides may leach into groundwater causing human health problems from contaminated wells. |
Feedlots/animal corrals | Contamination of surface water with many pathogens (bacteria, viruses, etc.) leading to chronic public health problems. Also, contamination by metals contained in urine and feces. | Potential leaching of nitrogen, metals, etc. to groundwater |
Irrigation | Runoff of salts leading to salinization of surface waters; runoff of fertilizers and pesticides to surface waters with ecological damage, bioaccumulation in edible fish species, etc. High levels of trace elements such as selenium can occur with serious ecological damage and potential human health impacts | Enrichment of groundwater with salts, nutrients (especially nitrate). |
Clear cutting | Erosion of land, leading to high levels of turbidity in rivers, siltation of bottom habitat, etc. Disruption and change of hydrologic regime, often with loss of perennial streams; causes public health problems due to loss of potable water. | Erosion of land, leading to high levels of turbidity in rivers, siltation of bottom habitat, etc. Disruption and change of hydrologic regime, often with loss of perennial streams; causes public health problems due to loss of potable water |
Wastes effect in different horticultural operation on water pollution [27].
Long-term fertilization and indecomposable plastics solid waste make the soil barren for the crop cultivation. Besides, some plant residues contain the toxic chemicals (secondary metabolites, volatile terpenes, phenolic compounds), which can suppress the growth and production of other crops. This type of phenomenon is addressed as crop-crop allelopathy. Postharvest residues are mainly the source of this kind of allelopathic effects [28].
Horticultural waste such as the peels, seeds, and other constituents of vegetables and fruits that contain high amount of phytochemical compounds and essential nutrients are used to produce different industrial products. It can be utilized to extract as well as obtain bioactive compounds that can be used in food, textile, and pharmaceutical industries as shown in Figure 2.
Utilization of fruits and vegetable peel-based waste into novel industrial products [
The techniques of horticultural wastes management consist of different applied strategies for different kinds of wastes. Generally chemical, biological, biofuels, and thermal strategies are followed throughout the world (Table 5).
From various by-products we find some starch, cellulose; where starch is a white granular, organic compound with soft, tasteless powdery appearance insoluble in cold water, alcohol or different solvents, and cellulose found by peeling of horticultural crops as it is available in primary cell wall of green plants [30] Amylose and amylopectin are the branched form of starch, whereas linear polymer is the simplest one [31] Starch nowadays is produced from banana peels, corn, pea, potato, cassava roots. Banana peels can be processed for bioplastic production and sometimes sodium metabisulfite used as antimicrobial agent, glycerol used for more flexibility. Degradation of bioplastics produced from starch starts after 3–4 months date of production [32] By this, starch-producing strategies can give the commercial aspects for many emerging entrepreneurships. This is also nonhazardous for the environment because it is readily disposable after a short period of time. Not only banana but also cassava will completely be degraded on the ninth day after production of bioplastic [33] On the contrary, plastic materials are nondegradable products that can hamper the balance of the environment. Cellulose sometimes coverts into starch or glucose by decomposing called cellulolysis with the help of microbes such as
Chemical | Biological | Biofuels | Thermal |
---|---|---|---|
|
|
|
|
Strategies for horticultural wastes management [19].
Food product | By-product | Formulation/Storage conditions | Dietary fiber/prebiotic compound | Optimal dosage (s) | Impact on senzorial characteristics | Other impacts |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cake | Potato peels | Powder (drying- > grinding) | Dietary fiber | 5% | No major changes in the product were noticed, just more darkness color. | Increasing the strength and elasticity of the dough. |
Donut | Carrot pomace | Powder (drying- > grinding- > sift) | Dietary fiber: pectin, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose | 6.45% | The sample showed a smaller volume. Consumers have suggested adding a glaze. | Significant impairment of physico- chemical properties. |
Biscuits | Carrot pomace | Powder (whitening-grinding-sif) | Dietary fiber: pectin, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose | 10% | — | Neutralization of free radicals |
Eriste (Turkish noodle) | Grapes, pomegranates, rosehips seeds | Powder (grinding- > sift) | Dietary fiber | 10% | The sample enriched with pomegranate seed powder obtained the highest appreciations from a sensory point of view. | Increase in antioxidant activity. |
Corn chips | Mango peels | Powder (freeze drying) | Dietary fiber | 10–15% | Improving and maintaining the smell, texture, color and aroma. | Increasing the content of total phenolic compounds. |
Ice cream | Red pitaya peels | Powder (grinding- > sift) | Dietary fiber: pectin, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose | 1% | Melting rate and color were not affected. | Improving rheological qualities and increasing nutritional value. |
Ice cream | Grapefruit peels | Stem-shaped crystals | Nanofibril cellulose | 0.4% | Texture improvement. | Reducing caloric intake. |
Agitated type yogurt | Carrot pomace | Powder | Dietary fiber: pectin, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose | 1% | The color and smell of the sample were affected and strawberry flavor was added to improve them. | Reducing syneresis. |
Chocolate | Grapes pomace | Powder (drying- > grinding- > sift) | Dietary fiber and prebiotic compound: lignin, cellulose, oligosaccha- ride | 3–5% | At a higher dosage there is a slightly bitter taste due to phenols. The greatest impact on the product occurred in the particle size. | Water activity and stability increased. |
Instant drinks | Mango peels | Powder (bleaching- > drying with hot air) | Prebiotic compound | 5 g/250 mL | During storage, the sensory characteristics decrease. | Improvement of phyto- chemical parameters and stability increases during storage. |
Vienna sausages | Pineapple pomace | Powder (pressure steaming− + lyophilized or hot air dried) | Dietary fiber: lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose | The educing effect on nitrites, moisture, shear strength and shrinkage was obtained in sausages, while carotenoids and antioxidant polyphenols increased. Increased | ||
Buffalo meat | Apple pomace | Powder | Dietary fiber: lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose | 6% | The firmness increased, and the color became redder and darker. | Cooking efficiency, water retention capacity, pasta diameter. |
Flour | Feijoa peels | Steam discoloration-rice bath- > drying in a convective oven- > grinding | Dietary fiber: lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose | — | — | Alternative source of bioactive ingredients. |
Powder | Olive pomace | Liquid-enriched pomace powder (the liquid fraction was lyophilized and the solid fraction was dried) | Dietary fiber: pectin, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose | — | Food preservative and source of mannitol. |
Recent (last 5 years) report of utilization of fruits and vegetable wastes, dietary fibers, and prebiotic compounds in different food products [35].
Animal feed can be the good approach for productive waste disposal. That can provide manures, which influence reduction of synthetic fertilizer use tendency. Fermentation industries are established on the basis of wastes types (Table 7). This provides the ultimate economic outcome without creating the environment hazards in nature.
Plant origin | Fermentation industry |
---|---|
Bran | Grain |
Waste flour | Sugarcane industry (molasses, bagasse) |
Wastes from grain-cleaning process | Potato distillers soluble |
Wheat | Brewery waste |
Corn | Bacteria and fungi biomass |
Rye germs | Winemaking industry (grape pomace) |
By-products of oil industry | Citrus by-products (molasses, citrus-activated sludge) |
By-products of sugar and starch industry | Anthocyanins |
By-products of fruit and vegetable industry | Effluents from biogas production |
Plant by-products (husk and pods) | Dairy industry |
Horticultural wastes were used in animal feed [19].
Compost is most demandable nutrient source in the crop field. This approach allows growers to spend less money for their initial cultivation inputs. Also, higher yield will be observed by using compost instead of synthetic fertilizer [36]. Different types of composting methods are used on the basis of grower’s choice and wastes types (Figure 3).
Different composting methods [
Waste can be disposed through converting the wastes and by-products into biofuels. Bioethanol and biogas production nowadays appears as the most sustainable waste management program, which has some significant economic values.
Bioethanol can be processed through horticultural by-products such as carrot peels, banana peels, and other crops parts, which previously can be dried in the sun. The product can be ground and sieved for further processing. After that, the products can be pretreated with 1 N NaOH for 2 hours. Then draining or in other words alkali subsequent washing can be done. Enzymatic hydrolysis by cellulase enzyme leads to saccharification. Then the inoculation of
Flow chart for bioethanol production by cellulase enzyme [
The other way for wastes disposal as the biofuel source is biogas production. Nowadays we can see the rapid adaptation of this disposal system in our rural areas also.
In case of biofuel products, horticultural by-products can be utilized in effective way. Different content of organic matters can yield the sufficient amount of methane gas (Table 8).
Substrate | Organic dry matter in % | Methane yield in Nm3/t ODM |
---|---|---|
Banana peel | 87–94 | 243,322 |
Citrus waste | 89–97 | 433,732 |
Coriander waste | 80–86 | 283,325 |
Mango peel | 89–98 | 370–523 |
Oil palm fiber | 94 | 183 |
EFB | 79–84 | 200–400 |
Onion peels | 88 | 400 |
Pine apple waste | 93–95 | 355,357 |
Pomegranate | 87–97 | 312–430 |
Sapot peels | 96 | 244 |
Tomato waste | 93–98 | 211–384 |
Water hyacinth | 81 | 211–310 |
Coffee waste (pulp) | 380 (biogas yield) |
Biogas generation rate from the horticultural by-products [39].
Combustion of wastes materials to achieve waste to energy is called incineration. High-temperature thermal treatment converts wastes into ash, flue gas, and heat. It requires localized combined heat and power facilities to encourage its heating process. Japan, Denmark, Singapore, and Netherlands follow this technique usually to dispose the wastes [40]. This method can reduce wastes up to 90%; but this is one type of waste reduction process rather than the disposal process as it is associated with the fire disaster and production of greenhouse gases [41]. Energy produced as coal could save about 2.26 MT of CO2 eq/year [42].
Waste composition can determine the effectiveness of pyrolysis. It has several advantages comparing the incineration process. Lower temperature is preferable, and the plant for pyrolysis more flexible enough; product derived from pyrolysis can be converted through alternating the temperature and heating performance [43]. The pollutant emissions are lower in this disposal process as there is absence of oxygen and with low processing temperature, although emissions of other compounds simultaneously could increase with lower oxygen ratio [44]. Biochar production can be done by fruits and vegetable peels and other residues from, for example, spinach, bananas, peas, and tomatoes [45]. There are two types of pyrolysis, i.e., slow and fast. For biochar and gas production, slow pyrolysis is preferable, and bio-oil can be produced better in fast pyrolysis (Figure 5).
Bar diagram of pyrolysis produced product. (a) Fast pyrolysis and (b) slow pyrolysis [
It is obvious that waste disposal is not an easy task as it requires bigger margin of resources and right methods to minimize its after-effects. All the techniques or methods of repealing wastes are not efficient enough always. Food recovery hierarchy published by US EPA showed that there are different methods or approaches are proficient at different level. Landfilling and incineration (combustion of the waste materials) are the last resort of wastes disposal, because sometimes it is harmful for our environment. Soil pollution and abundance of toxic gases are visible by this kind of disposal system. Then the composting creates a nutrient-rich soil amendment. It requires specialized area away from the home, and it requires more time for disposal. Industrial uses of wastes are just above from the composting in that pyramid as it provides waste oils for rendering and duel conversion and food scraps for digestion to recover energy. Lots of commercial industries are developing today with the new hope with horticultural by-product establishing. Although some wastes also are considered developing the industries but commercial exposure may be spread rapidly. Main effective approach will be the source reduction and sometimes we waste food more than we consume so that extra food can be donated to food banks, shelters can reduce the possibility food wasting. Public awareness is the big thing for food waste management in horticultural sectors also (Figure 6).
Food recovery or management hierarchy [
Various environmental concerns and some economic benefits demand the appropriate disposal of horticultural wastes. Minimizing of wastes can maximize the environmental stability. However, people are not so aware about the impact of horticultural wastes. So, the proper awareness with the effective implementation of wastes is a crying need for today. Meanwhile, sustainability can be brought through adapting the modern disposal methods with longer effects and economic flexibility. In addition, the growth of the wastes disposal industries also gives the new dimension for the sustainable waste management. Finally, it can be enunciated that waste management provides green ecology, which can serve environmental stability with industrial prosperity.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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