\r\n\tSalmonella has changed its characteristics over time becoming the etiologic agent of many pathological processes such as cancer development, inflammatory process and immune-pathogenesis other than typhoid, paratyphoid and foodborne infections . \r\n\tListeria should be thoroughly studied as the most important cause of newborn meningitis and gynecological infection which can interfere with the pregnancy outcome. Listeria monocytogenes is the most important species in these pathologies. \r\n\tE. coli is a worldwide saprophyte microorganism which in specific situations can become pathogenic by secreting a large variety of exotoxins. Its antibiotic-resistance can be mediated by a strong ESBL especially found in retail meat products and in food-production cattle.
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Coli Infections, Multidrug Resistance, Cattle E.coli, Meat Products",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 8th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 29th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 30th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 18th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 17th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"156556",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Mascellino",slug:"maria-teresa-mascellino",fullName:"Maria Teresa Mascellino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156556/images/system/156556.jpg",biography:"Maria Teresa Mascellino has completed her MD at the age of 25 years in Rome during the period of 1980 and specialization studies in Microbiology and Infectious Diseases from Sapienza University of Rome (Italy). She works as aggregate professor in the Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases. She is responsible for the Simple Operative Unit 'Microbiological analyses in the immunocompromised hosts”. She has published more than 100 papers in reputed journals and has been serving as an editorial board member of repute. She is the editor of the book 'Bacterial and Mycotic infections in immunocompromised hosts: microbiological and clinical aspects” and a reviewer for many important scientific international Journals and Research Projects. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"57839",title:"Numerically and Analytically Forecasting the Coal Burst Using Energy Based Approach Methods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71879",slug:"numerically-and-analytically-forecasting-the-coal-burst-using-energy-based-approach-methods",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
One of the critical engineering problems faced by the coal mining industry is coal burst. It is caused by a dynamic release of energy within the overstressed rock mass/coal during the mining process. It occurs under the effects of complex environments of geology, stress and mining conditions. It has been recognised that the unstable releases of potential energy of the rock around the excavations, mainly in the form of kinetic energy, contributes to the coal burst occurrence. Interactions between the coal and rock interface, as well as the confinement, can completely determine the failure mode and the ultimate bearing capacity of coal pillars, influencing the amount of stored energy within a pillar. Many authors define rock/coal burst as a sudden, rapid rupture of the rock mass with a violent, explosive release of elastic/strain energy from the surface of an excavation, which is generally associated with a seismic event and produces rock particle ejections [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The coal burst source is the mechanism that triggers or induces the damage mechanism visible on the excavation surface. The coal burst source is generally associated with a seismic event that can be performed at a wide range of local magnitudes, normally ranging from undetectable up to 5 [6]. Indeed, mining-induced seismicity can reach moderate values of ground velocity and acceleration, and in some cases its effects on the surface can be compared with low-intensity earthquakes [7]. The mechanism that produces the seismic event is a sudden release of the strain energy that has been stored above a critical level within the rock/coal mass. Some portion of this energy is demolished by crack development, and the rest of the energy is converted into the kinetic energy [8, 9]. When the energy source is located near the roadway, the released energy may lead to coal fragmentation. At the place of the source of the energy, where it is located in a plane of weakness inside the coal mass, the released energy provokes shear displacement along the plane, which in revolve generate vibrations that persuade coal ejections when they are situated near the excavation boundaries [7]. Tarasov and Randolph [6] have explained a number of special and inconsistent behaviours of hard rock at the significant depth that are directly related to rock failure mechanisms in deep excavations. They determined that the procedures of the shear failure, with respect to the significant low friction, can be classified as the main reason to release energy. Based on the suggested frictionless mechanism, the level of the brittleness of the confined rock/coal masses might be increased under high stress conditions. This may result in reducing the overall ductility which would in line with the abrupt fracture failure. Under an energy-balance approach, the methods to predict coal burst risk are based on energy indexes such as energy release rate (ERR) [8, 9, 10], energy storage rate (ESR), strain energy storage index (WET) [11], potential energy of elastic strain (PES) or strain energy density (SED) (i.e., the elastic strain energy in a unit volume of the coal mass, which can be computed by the uni-axial compressive strength of the coal and the relevant unloading tangential modulus), and burst potential index (BPI). A combination of both analytical as well as numerical methods, where they can comprehensively evaluate the structural performance of the mine scale, would be broadly addressed in the current research. Thus, the following aims explicitly will be addressed.
Develop a full 2D and 3D finite element as well as discrete element models to compute the inducted energies in a single pillar with different high to width ratios. In this approach, different loading conditions varying from the static, quasi-static as well as dynamic loading will be exclusively examined.
Considering the effect of the energy transformations between the rock/coal layers due to the different contact/joint properties.
Suggest empirical equations to predict the amount of the released strain energy due to the mining activities.
\n
The main novelty of this research is to simulate the effect of the failure and post-failure of the engaged material as well as joint/contact properties on the energy transformation.
\n
\n
\n
2. Numerical modelling strategy
\n
Numerical simulations can be considered as an individual tool to predict possible failure modes and the actual capacity of the mining setting. It is mostly useful to undertake parametric and sensitivity analyses to gain better understanding the nature and level of indecision, or remaining hazard, associated with design process.
\n
First, a finite element model is developed by taking advantage from the commercial software package ABAQUS/Explicit. All the geotechnical components, including the rock and coal, were modelled by the eight-node linear brick element (C3D8R) available in the ABAQUS library. Element C3D8R relies on reducing integration and hourglass control. The assigned meshes were established by using the structured technique available in ABAQUS. The solution to the nonlinear problem was sought using the explicit dynamic analysis procedure available in ABAQUS. In the current study, Figure 1 presents a quarter of a single pillar.
\n
Figure 1.
Illustration of a typical single pillar model using ABAQUS/Explicit.
\n
Thus, by taking advantage from the symmetrical boundary conditions, a finer mesh was assigned to the model. Finding the right input material properties would be a significant assumption, which has not been appropriately studied in the available literature. Modelling of mechanical behaviour of the coal under both compression and shear stresses would be very complicated, since there are no articulated reports which might be concerned with the uni-axial and tri-axial behaviour of coal under both static and dynamic loading conditions. According to the elastic analysis, the stress analysis and energy computations were organised in line with the linear relationship between the stress and the strain in coal and overburden properties. The peak and post-peak behaviour of coal and surrounding rock masses will be ignored. Therefore, in the current literature, the computed stress, strain and kinetic energy have been noticeably overestimated. At the second stage, a combination of the 2D and 3D discrete element models using UDEC and 3DEC was developed. Figure 2 illustrates the pillar model incorporating half of coal, roof and floor along the symmetrical centre-line of the pillar. The height of the roof and floor was 20 m and the mining height was fixed at 3 m, while the pillar widths varied in order to simulate the pillars with width to height (w/h) ratios from 1 to 5.
\n
Figure 2.
Geometry and zoning of coal pillar model using UDEC.
\n
Figure 3.
Geometry and zoning of coal pillar model using 3DEC.
\n
A Mohr-Coulomb (MC) material that presents a constant strength after failure and a Mohr-Coulomb strain-softening material that can reach the peak strength and then decrease to a residual strength have been considered. A quasi-static loading condition as a velocity was applied on the top and bottom of the model. The applied velocity was started with a very small, constant velocity to represent a relative loading system to promote a model of a coal failure that progresses slowly. Simulating a proper loading/displacement condition is significantly crucial, specifically, gaining a sound understanding of the structural reaction of a single coal sample under dynamic or quasi-static loading conditions. Consideration was also given to defining a joint interface. A Coulomb Slip (CS) joint interface property, where it is represented by displacement softening parameters, was taken into account to simulate the interface properties between the different joints.
\n
The uniform zone size of 0.1 m was applied to the coal, and a smooth variation of zoning from the coal to the boundaries was used for roof and floor with appropriate aspect ratios to avoid numerical instability. Roller boundaries were applied along the side of the roof and floor, the bottom of the floor and the vertical line. The same trend was applied to develop the three-dimensional discrete element using 3DEC (see Figure 3).
\n
\n
\n
3. Analytical approach
\n
An analytical method is developed to evaluate shear stress and strain distributions between the engaged surfaces throughout different joint layers by considering the beam theory method in different directions with respect to the different planes, where it can independently calculate shear forces between the different layers and shear strain as well as the curvature distribution along the different layers that have been extracted. The main concept to derive the following equations was extracted from [12, 13]. The cross-sectional analysis is based on the assumption of the Euler-Bernoulli beam model. The strain distribution across the section can be calculated by \n\nε\n=\n\nε\nr\n\n−\ny\n×\nκ\n\n, where \n\n\nε\nr\n\n\n is the strain at the reference point (which can be determined at any point), \n\ny\n\n is the distance between the selected point and location of the neutral axis of the cross-section and \n\nκ\n\n is the curvature across the section in different strata layers. A vector can be introduced by \n\nK\n\nD\n\n\n which will be included in the internal action \n\nN\n\n (axial forces) and \n\nM\n\n (internal moment). External loads, which might be due to the effect of the self-weight of the strata layers as well as the possible applied forces due to the vertical or horizontal displacement in the different layers, can induce the external axial force \n\n\nN\ne\n\n\n and external moment \n\n\nM\ne\n\n\n. The relationship between the internal and external actions can be presented by:
The partial derivatives of \n\nN\n\n and \n\nM\n\n with respect to \n\n\nε\nr\n\n\n and \n\nκ\n\n can be re-arranged in a more practical form, recalling the definitions of internal actions as:
Thus, by calculating stress and strain at the different points in the different layers of the overburden, the internal axial forces as well as internal moments can be calculated. It was assumed that the strain energy can be calculated by:
where \n\n\nσ\nxx\n\n×\n\nε\nxx\n\n,\n…\n…\n,\n\nσ\nyz\n\n×\n\nε\nyz\n\n\n can be calculated, according to the principal of the virtual work and virtual deformation \n\nδA\n=\nδ\n\nR\n1\n\n+\nδ\n\nR\n2\n\n\n, when the induced stresses and strains cannot be directly extracted from the simulated model.
\n
\n
\n
4. Energy calculation based on the numerical approach
\n
According to Xie et al. [14], the coal burst proneness of a coal can be determined by the coal burst proneness assessments. Special attentions were devoted by the number of researchers to develop coal burst proneness indexes, which are broadly utilised, such as elastic energy, impact energy, dynamic failure time as well as elastic deformation and stiffness ratio indexes. The elastic energy index WET is defined as the ratio of the elastic strain energy and the strain energy dissipation at point E (75–85% of the peak strength). As shown in Figure 4, the ratio of the area SEAC (between the unloaded line EA and the strain axis) and the area SEOA (between the load and unload line) is the elastic energy index
Failure mode of a single pillar with the different w/h ratios.
\n
The impact energy index KE is defined as the ratio of the pre-peak area and the post-peak area, KE namely, the ratio of energy in the pre-peak stage and the energy released in the post-peak stage.\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Energy calculation based on the analytical approach
\n
According to Xie et al. [14], dissipated and released energy can play a significant role which may result in coal deformation and failure. Based on the failure mechanism, the fracture procedure of a coal mass might be started from a partial fracture which would be followed by local damage. This procedure will be finally resulting in collapsing the mining structures. The failure process is thermodynamically permanent, which includes released and dissipated energy. The dissipated energy can cause damage as well as a permanent deformation of the coal mass, which is followed by weakening of strength. A sudden release of the strain energy may lead to a catastrophic failure, which clearly indicates a certain condition where the coal mass collapses. The released and dissipated energy from the coal mass, individually, plays an essential role in the relevant sudden failure, which would be one of the major requirements to investigate the procedure of the deformation and failure of a coal mass. Figure 5 is a typical compression curve of coal under a constant displacement.
\n
Figure 4.
A typical stress-strain curve.
\n
Figure 5 explicitly demonstrates the calculation of the dissipated, released and residual energies. With respect to the constant development of the inner micro-defects, energy dissipation is an indispensable characteristic of the deformation and failure of the coal mass. The evolution declines the strength of the coal, which may result in total failure. In this content, the dissipated energy is directly concerned with the damage as well as mitigating strength of the coal.
\n
\n\n\nu\n\nd\n1\n\n\n=\n\n∫\n0\n\nε\n1\n\n\n\n\n\nσ\na\n\ndε\n\n\n=\n\n∑\n0\n\nε\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nε\n\n1\n\ni\n\n\n\n−\n\nε\n\n1\n\n\ni\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n\n×\n\n\n\n\nσ\n\na\n\ni\n\n\n\n+\n\nσ\n\na\n\n\ni\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n4\n\n\n\n\n\nDissipated energy before peak\n\nE59
\n
\n\n\nu\n\nd\n2\n\n\n=\n\n∫\n\nε\n3\n\n\nε\n4\n\n\n\n\n\nσ\nc\n\ndε\n\n\n=\n\n∑\n\nε\n3\n\n\nε\n4\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nε\n\nj\n\n\n−\n\nε\n\n\nj\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n×\n\n\n\n\nσ\n\nc\n\nj\n\n\n\n+\n\nσ\n\nc\n\n\nj\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n4\n\n\n\n\n\nDissipated energy after peak\n\nE60
Tables 1 and 2 presents a comparison between the different elastic and post-failure energy components using UDEC and 3DEC output results as well as semi-close form solutions. As it can be found, there is a good agreement between the suggested semi-analytical methods as well as the calculated key energy components which were extracted from the UDEC and 3DEC output results.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
Elastic strain energy (kJ/m3)
\n
Dissipated elastic strain energy (kJ/m3)
\n
The amount of the energy in the pre-peak stage (kJ/m3)
\n
The energy released in the post-peak stage (kJ/m3)
\n
\n
\n
Ratio (w/h)
\n
UDEC
\n
Analytic
\n
UDEC
\n
Analytic
\n
UDEC
\n
Analytic
\n
UDEC
\n
Analytic
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
1.56
\n
1.63
\n
0.78
\n
0.77
\n
3.61
\n
3.73
\n
12.47
\n
10.59
\n
\n
\n
1.5
\n
1.92
\n
1.35
\n
0.8
\n
0.78
\n
7.89
\n
7.44
\n
12.48
\n
11.03
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
2.0621
\n
2.004
\n
0.991
\n
0.92
\n
10.22
\n
9.83
\n
18.31
\n
17.09
\n
\n
\n
2.5
\n
4.70
\n
4.82
\n
1.16
\n
1.11
\n
14.47
\n
13.43
\n
21.17
\n
23.14
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
11.13
\n
10.58
\n
2.51
\n
2.41
\n
35.825
\n
32.87
\n
11.73
\n
10.6
\n
\n
\n
4
\n
14.72
\n
13.27
\n
4.07
\n
4.60
\n
60.26
\n
55.00
\n
56.34
\n
70.02
\n
\n
\n
5
\n
16.63
\n
16.24
\n
5.334
\n
5.37
\n
75.83
\n
73.67
\n
91.19
\n
84.04
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
A comparison between the different energy components (UDEC and the analytical solution).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
Elastic strain energy (kJ/m3)
\n
Dissipated elastic strain energy (kJ/m3)
\n
The amount of the energy in the pre-peak stage (kJ/m3)
\n
The energy released in the post-peak stage (kJ/m3)
\n
\n
\n
Ratio (w/h)
\n
3DEC
\n
Analytic
\n
3DEC
\n
Analytic
\n
3DEC
\n
Analytic
\n
3DEC
\n
Analytic
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
2.58
\n
2.65
\n
1.767
\n
1.55
\n
4.91
\n
4.77
\n
14.87
\n
14.77
\n
\n
\n
1.5
\n
2.94
\n
2.37
\n
1.88
\n
0.78
\n
8.88
\n
8.46
\n
16.56
\n
15.23
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
4.24
\n
4.01
\n
2.891
\n
2.92
\n
12.55
\n
11.98
\n
21.23
\n
20.14
\n
\n
\n
2.5
\n
6.72
\n
6.84
\n
3.18
\n
3.11
\n
15.37
\n
15.41
\n
24.35
\n
23.99
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
13.15
\n
12.62
\n
5.51
\n
5.44
\n
37.15
\n
36.87
\n
28.45
\n
27.68
\n
\n
\n
4
\n
16.76
\n
16.27
\n
7.07
\n
7.20
\n
60.26
\n
62.33
\n
59.11
\n
57.88
\n
\n
\n
5
\n
19.83
\n
19.28
\n
8.334
\n
8.22
\n
76.22
\n
75.12
\n
96.54
\n
92.66
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
A comparison between the different energy components (3DEC and the analytical solution).
\n
\n
\n
6. Progress of the failure in different pillar ratios
\n
Different loading conditions varying from the quasi-static to dynamic loading has been applied to the coal pillar with the different width to height (w/h) ratio to determine the pillar capability as well as the possible observed failure modes. A strain-based criterion, as a major failure criterion, was implemented in the ABAQUS/Explicit to predict of the cracking path due to the different applied loadings as well as different pillar geometrical properties. A quarter coal pillar model based on the symmetrical boundary conditions with respect to the different width by height (w/h) ratios of 1–10 were developed. It was observed that when the w/h ratios are less than 4, the failure mode of pillar can be either a double or a single diagonal shear failure in which the trajectory cracking starts from the edges and progresses towards the centre of the pillar. While the w/h ratios are greater than 4, the obtained possible failure mode would be a combination of the shear and compression failure modes. Thus, the trajectory of the cracking due to the pure compression failure would be propagated from the centre to the corners where a pillar gradually starts towards fully squashed (see Figure 6).
\n
Figure 5.
Analytically calculation of dissipated energy and released energy (Xie et al. [14]).
\n
\n
\n
7. Remarkable conclusions
\n
Analytical method is an important part of coal burst evaluation and forecasting. Analytical forecasting methods, either alone or combined with numerical simulations, can be used to estimate both in situ stress and induced stress, which leads to the prediction of failure-prone areas and calculation of critical values of the energies. The behaviour of a single pillar under different applied loads ranging from the quasi-static towards the dynamic loading conditions was simulated using commercial finite element package ABAQUS/Explicit. A strain-based failure condition was evaluated to determine the failure modes in a single pillar by respecting to the different w/h ratios. The observed numerical failure modes can be classified by shear and compression failures as well as a combination of both shear and compression were comprehensively illustrated. The released energy or residual energy is either transferred into kinetic energy or dissipated energy in non-elastic behaviour such as joint shear and fracturing. The unstable release of potential energy of the coal around the excavations, mainly in the form of kinetic energy, causes coal burst.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"analytical modelling, numerical modelling, released energy, coal burst, failure mechanism",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57839.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/57839.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57839",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57839",totalDownloads:511,totalViews:166,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 22nd 2017",dateReviewed:"October 23rd 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"February 28th 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Coal burst is referred to as the violent failure of overstressed coal, which has been recognised as one of the most critical dynamic failures in coal mines. This chapter aims to analytically and numerically evaluate the energy transformation between the different strata and coal layers. An accurate closed-form solution is developed. Due to the complexity of the causes and mechanisms contributing to the coal burst occurrence, 3D finite element modelling as well as discrete element models will be developed to validate the suggested analytical assessments of rock/coal burst occurrence. The energy concept is emphasised in order to improve the understanding of the underlying mechanisms of coal burst. Only with enhanced understanding of the driving mechanisms, a reliable coal burst risk assessment can be achieved.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57839",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57839",book:{slug:"finite-element-method-simulation-numerical-analysis-and-solution-techniques"},signatures:"Faham Tahmasebinia, Chengguo Zhang, Ismet Canbulat, Onur\nVardar and Serkan Saydam",authors:[{id:"138736",title:"Prof.",name:"Serkan",middleName:null,surname:"Saydam",fullName:"Serkan Saydam",slug:"serkan-saydam",email:"s.saydam@unsw.edu.au",position:null,institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"211659",title:"Dr.",name:"Faham",middleName:null,surname:"Tahmasebinia",fullName:"Faham Tahmasebinia",slug:"faham-tahmasebinia",email:"faham.tahmasebinia@sydney.edu.au",position:null,institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"211777",title:"Dr.",name:"Chengguo",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Chengguo Zhang",slug:"chengguo-zhang",email:"chengguo.zhang@unsw.edu.au",position:null,institution:null},{id:"211778",title:"Prof.",name:"Ismet",middleName:null,surname:"Canbulat",fullName:"Ismet Canbulat",slug:"ismet-canbulat",email:"i.canbulat@unsw.edu.au",position:null,institution:null},{id:"211779",title:"Mr.",name:"Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Vardar",fullName:"Onur Vardar",slug:"onur-vardar",email:"o.vardar@student.unsw.edu.au",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Numerical modelling strategy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Analytical approach",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Energy calculation based on the numerical approach",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Energy calculation based on the analytical approach",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Progress of the failure in different pillar ratios",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Remarkable conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Linkov AM. Rockbursts and the instability of rock masses. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts. 1996;33(7):727-732\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Gong QM, Yin LJ, SY W, Zhao J, Ting Y. Rock burst and slabbing failure and its influence on TBM excavation at headrace tunnels in Jinping II hydropower station. Engineering Geology. 2012;124(1):98-108\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Li S, Feng XT, Li Z, Chen B, Zhang C, Zhou H. In situ monitoring of rockburst nucleation and evolution in the deeply buried tunnels of Jinping II hydropower station. Engineering Geology. 2012;137–138:85-96\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Cai M. Principles of rock support in burst-prone ground. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology. 2013;36:46-56\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Ortlepp WD, Stacey TR. Rockburst mechanisms in tunnels and shafts. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology. 1994;9(1):59-65\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Tarasov BG, Randolph MF. Frictionless shear at great depth and other paradoxes of hard rocks. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences. 2008;45(3):316-328\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Wang JA, Park HD. Comprehensive prediction of rockburst based on analysis of strain energy in rocks. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology. 2001;16(1):49-57\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Cook NGW. Origin of rockbursts. In: Richards L, editor. Rockbursts; Prediction and Control. London: Institute of Mining and Metallurgy; 1983. pp. 1-9\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Wattimena RK, Sirait B, Widodo NP, Matsui K. Evaluation of rockburst potential in a cut-and-fill mine using energy balance. International Journal of the Japanese Committee for Rock Mechanics. 2012;8(1):19-23\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Mitri HS, Tang B, Simon R. FE modelling of mining-induced energy release and storage rates. The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. 1999;99(2):103-110\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Novozhilov VV. Foundations of the Nonlinear Theory of Elasticity. Graylock. Mineola, New York; 1999\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Ranzi G, Gilbert R. Structural Analysis: Principles, Methods and Modelling. Boca Raton. Florida: CRC Press; 2015\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Ranzi G, Dall Asta A, Ragni L, Zona A. A geometric nonlinear model for composite beams with partial interaction. Engineering Structures. 2010;32(5):1384-1396\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Xie HP, Li L, Peng R, Ju Y. Energy analysis and criteria for structural failure of rocks. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. 2009;1(1):11-12\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Faham Tahmasebinia",address:"faham.tahmasebinia@sydney.edu.au",affiliation:'
School of Mining Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
School of Mining Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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1. Introduction
Magnesium is one of the most common elements in nature. It constitutes 2.7% of the earth’s crust and can be found in the form of minerals, such as dolomite, magnesite or kainite [1]. The mechanical properties of pure magnesium are poor, therefore alloying additives are introduced to improve them. Magnesium alloys, in which the major additive is aluminum – typically 6–10% – are the most widely used industrial alloys of magnesium. Zinc or manganese [2, 3] are added to improve corrosion resistance of magnesium alloys. Initially, magnesium alloys were produced mainly for military purposes. Due to the high specific strength and vibration damping capacity, magnesium alloys are mainly used in the automotive industry [3, 4].
Currently, research is carried out mainly on new groups of magnesium alloys, such as Mg-Ca, Mg-Zn and Mg-Zn-Ca, which have not been produced on an industrial scale so far. Studies are carried out on the use of these alloy groups as materials for implants, especially orthopedic ones. Injuries of the osteoarticular system, as well as diseases of the musculoskeletal system, including the continuous increase in the incidence of bone cancer, are the main and the most common threat to the health of modern society. 2,710,000 cases of orthopedic fractures were noted in Poland in 2010. Due to the aging of the population, it is predicted that, in 2025, their number will reach 3,239,564, and 10 years later – over 4 million. In 2017, 85,488 joint arthroplasties (partial or total) were performed in Poland, including 56,688 of the hip and 27,653 of the knee. Surgical joining of broken bones through their correct connection and immobilization is performed with the use of bone plates, wires, clamps and/or screws. The use of these elements results in bone union and obtaining the correct bone structure, which, in turn, allows the patient to move, and thus return to basic life activity [5, 6, 7, 8].
In medical practice, both long-term implants (e.g. joint prostheses) and short-term implants (e.g. plates, bone screws), used to stabilize broken bones, are produced from titanium alloys, cobalt alloys or stainless steel. Implants made of those are classified as neutral, i.e. neutral to the body, as long as protective layers (usually oxide) remain on their surface. Unfortunately, after some time, these layers become corroded and damaged, and implant components – which are usually biologically incompatible (toxic to the body) – pass into the human body, and thus are a threat to health and life. Resorbable biomaterials are an alternative to the metal alloys used so far for short-term orthopedic implants. The resorbable biomaterials used in medical practice so far include oxide glasses (composed of Na, K, Mg, Ca, Si and P oxides), ceramics based on calcium phosphates, e.g. hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2] and polymers, such as polylactide, polyglycolide or copolymers of these materials. Unfortunately, their use in orthopedic implantology is limited. They are mainly used as fillers for bone defects, elements of dentures or coatings for medical implants [9, 10, 11]. This is due to poor mechanical properties of resorbable biomaterials. Mechanical strength of the resorbable materials used in medicine is 30–100 MPa [10, 12]. Consequently, mechanical properties of resorbable polymers and ceramics are a barrier to their use as biomaterial for implants, such as short-term orthopedic implants. Accordingly, resorbable metallic biomaterials that can be used for orthopedic implants are necessary. Resorbable metallic biomaterials are an alternative to the metal alloys previously used for short-term orthopedic implants. Magnesium alloys are appropriate materials for resorbable metallic biomaterials.
This chapter presents the role of magnesium in the human body and its use in medicine. It presents the concept and potential applications of magnesium alloys in medicine, as well as classification of magnesium alloys as potential biomaterials due to the structure (amorphous, crystalline) and alloying elements (rare earth elements, noble metals etc.). The chapter also describes mechanisms and degradation behavior (in vitro) of magnesium alloys due to their structure. The impact of alloy additives (rare earth elements, noble metals) and protective coatings on the degradation process of magnesium alloys for biomedical applications in in vitro conditions has also been assessed.
2. The role of magnesium in the human body and its application in medicine
Magnesium is called an element of life, because it participates in many processes of the human body. It is necessary to maintain proper homeostasis, i.e. the proper functioning of the human body. It is estimated that there are approximately 22–26 g of magnesium in the human body [13]. It should be mentioned, that both the value and the range of the concentration of an element in the human body depends on the age, sex, absorption of the elements or even diet. The World Health Organization (WHO) has issued standards defining the daily demand for the element [14, 15]. Similarly, demand for magnesium is different for a certain age. Table 1 shows the daily magnesium requirement depending on age.
DEMAND FOR MAGNESIUM [mg/24 h]
Infants
kids < 6 years old
kids 6–9 years old
youth 10–18 years old
adults 19–60 years old
adults < 60 years old
40–60
80–120
170
270–400
280–350
280–350
Table 1.
Daily recommended dose of magnesium for kids, youth and adults [16].
Magnesium is distributed in the body (in the skeletal system: approx. 60%; in skeletal muscles: approx. 20% and other soft tissues: approx. 19%). Magnesium in acidic form, absorbed from food, in about 30%, can be found predominantly in the small intestine. The daily recommended dose of magnesium depends on the age, gender and current condition of the body. It has been proven, that the average dose for an adult human is about 300–400 mg. Approximately 30% of magnesium is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Absorption of this element is influenced, among others, by the amount of consumed protein, fiber and phosphates. The normal blood magnesium level of a healthy person is 0.75–0.95 mmol/dm3, and its homeostasis is maintained by the kidneys.
Magnesium has a lot of functions in the human body. For example, it:
regulates the activity of about 300 enzymes involved in metabolic changes,
is necessary for proper bone mineralization. It has been confirmed that magnesium deficiency disturbs bone mineralization processes, increasing the incidence of postmenopausal osteoporosis [17],
is involved in nerve conduction and muscle contractility. It is likely that magnesium could be used to treat affective disorders and depression. A positive effect of magnesium on depression symptoms has been demonstrated in patients with low levels of magnesium in erythrocytes [18],
plays a vital role in most hormonal responses. Magnesium has been shown to influence insulin synthesis, catecholamine storage and parathyroid hormone release,
participates in the regulation of blood pressure,
regulates muscle tension,
regulates the thyroid gland and widens the airways, supporting the treatment of asthma and bronchitis.
Magnesium has been used in treatment of various diseases. Figure 1 presents the main uses of magnesium for treatment of diseases.
Figure 1.
The most important uses of magnesium in treatment of diseases [19].
Symptoms of magnesium deficiency influence every system in the human body. The most common symptoms are not very specific – they include fatigue, poor concentration and memory, as well as increased susceptibility to stress. Excessive loss of magnesium can be caused by serious diseases of the gastrointestinal tract (e.g. fistulas, pancreatitis), urinary tract disorders, endocrine disorders (primary hyperparathyroidism, intensive insulin therapy), D3 hypervitaminosis, use of immunosuppressants, increased sympathetic nervous system tension or alcoholism.
3. The concept and potential applications of magnesium alloys in medicine (advantages and limitations)
The progress of both the medicine and materials engineering results in an intensification of research works on new biomaterials. Nowadays, magnesium alloys are considered potential resorbable metallic biomaterials. Furthermore, it is assumed that a magnesium alloy as a resorbable biomaterial should gradually degrade in the human body until the bone fuses. Degradation products of a resorbable implant would be processed, absorbed or excreted from the patient’s tissues and body fluids. The use of implants designed according to this concept does not require re-operation and it allows the foreign object (implant) to stay in the human body. Apart from good mechanical properties and biocompatibility, magnesium has a number of other advantages, such as [20, 21]:
good strength-to-weight ratio. Pure magnesium has 158 kNm/kg; however, its alloys can reach up to 490 kNm/kg. This is twice as much as the most commonly used titanium alloys (260 kNm/kg), therefore, less material is needed to obtain similar mechanical properties.
ease of processing magnesium and creating complex shapes, which is extremely important in medical applications, because every person is different and, therefore, it is possible to design a custom-made implant for a specific patient.
safe degradation – titanium, stainless steel and Co-Cr alloys do not ensure safe degradation. All surgically implanted alloys are subject to electrochemical degradation, as they are in a corrosive environment. Additionally, they are subject to significant wear. Implant particles can be released into the surrounding tissue, causing discomfort and potential health hazards. Magnesium and its alloys can minimize these problems during the degradation process. It is possible that, after a controlled period of time, the implant completely degrades in the human body.
The main problems and research limitations of this concept are as follows:
production of implants with good mechanical properties, which guarantee the appropriate time (allowing bones to fuse) of the implant’s activity in human bodily fluids,
high degradation of an implant with very intense release of hydrogen, which is harmful to the body. In addition, there is possible exceeding the daily demand for the element (also biocompatible), introducing into the body. Metal alloys used for resorbable biomaterials should only include elements that are already present in the human body in high concentration and are macro- or microelements.
The major problem concerning all metal biomaterials consists in the adjustment of their mechanical properties to those of the reconstructed tissues. The density of steel is approx. 4 times higher than the density of bone tissue. Steel has several times higher yield point and tensile strength, higher elongation and about 10 times higher Young’s modulus. The differences in the mechanical properties of materials and those of the tissues they replace result in inappropriate loading of the tissues surrounding the implant, causing pain and discomfort in patients [22].
The density of magnesium alloys is similar to the density of the human bones, therefore, there is no possibility of stress shielding, as in the case of the previously used implant materials, based on stainless steel and titanium. Stress shielding is a process, in which the bone mass and density decrease near the implant, because it transfers the loads. The density of magnesium alloys is three times lower than that of titanium alloys and five times lower than that of stainless steel and Co-Cr alloys. The modulus of elasticity and fracture resistance are much lower than for the biomaterials used so far [23, 24]. In the 19th and 20th centuries, magnesium alloys were used in medicine (Table 2). They were used in the form of scaffolds and to improve healing of wounds or organs. In addition, magnesium and its alloys have been used in orthopedic surgery for such elements as screws, plates, fasteners or as stents in the cardiovascular system.
Author
Application date
Mg/Mg alloys
Application
Huse
1878
Pure magnesium
Stitches
Payr
1892–1905
Pure magnesium
Nerve’s linkers
Hopfner
1903
Pure magnesium
Vessels’ linkers
Lambotte
1906–1932
Pure magnesium
Bone screws and plates
Lespinasse
1910
Pure magnesium
Bone plates
Groves
1913
Pure magnesium
Bone pits
Andrews
1917
Mg-Al/Zn
Bone wires
Seelig
1924
Pure magnesium
Bone wires
Verbrugge
1933–1937
Mg-Al6-Zn3-Mn
Bone screws and plates
McBride
1938
Mg-Mn
Bone wires and plates
Maier
1940
Pure magnesium
Stitches
Stone
1951
Mg-Al (2 wt.%)
Bone wires
Wexler
1980
Mg-Al (2 wt.%)
Bone wires
Hussl
1981
Pure magnesium
Vascular wires
Table 2.
Applications of magnesium and its alloys in medicine [25].
At present, magnesium alloys are mainly considered as potential materials for applications in orthopedic implantology, vascular surgery and laryngeal microsurgery [26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. As regards orthopedic implantology, Mg alloys are used as compression screws. MAGNEZIX is the trade name of biodegradable orthopedic screws for human osteosynthesis application [31]. In the literature, there are some reports [32, 33, 34] on resorbable stents made of magnesium alloys (their trade name is Lekton Magic, produced by Biotronik company). This material is composed of zirconium (< 5 wt.%), yttrium (< 5 wt.%) and rare earth elements (< 5 wt.%). The stents degrade in a living body with time, but their location can still be identified. Finally, the stent material completely degrades and the space around it is filled with a calcium-apatite complex with an admixture of phosphate elements. The stents were implanted in 20 people and good flow in the implanted blood vessel was achieved after one month. In 2013, Biotronik, a German company, has obtained the CE mark for biodegradable coronary stents made of Mg alloy. It was the leader in development of biodegradable metal coronary stents. The areas of potential applications of magnesium and its alloys in implantology are presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Potential applications of Mg and its alloys in implantology [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22].
4. Classification of magnesium alloys considered as potential biomaterials due to their structure (amorphous or crystalline) and alloying elements (rare earth elements, noble metals etc.)
In the context of resorbable orthopedic implants, research was initially carried out on technical magnesium alloys, for example AZ31, AZ91, WE43, LAE442. Unfortunately, magnesium alloys containing aluminum (AZ31) and heavy metals have been excluded as biomaterials because these additives have a toxic effect on the human body. The research was limited to alloys containing biocompatible elements and/or small amounts of rare earth elements, that are tolerated by the human body in appropriate concentrations [15].
As regards magnesium alloys for resorbable implants with a crystalline structure, the following groups of alloys has been examined: Mg-Ca, Mg-Zn, Mg-Zn-Ca, Mg-Mn, Mg-Si, Mg-Zr, Mg-Zn-Zr, Mg-Zn-Y, Mg-Zn-Zr-Y, Mg-Zn-Mn.
Rare earth elements (REE) are added in order to improve mechanical properties and creep resistance at elevated temperatures [35, 36]. Gadolin (Gd) and yttrium (Y) increase the strength properties during precipitation hardening. Neodymium (Nd) improves tensile strength at ambient and elevated temperatures. Yttrium and strontium (Sr) reduce the texture, and thus anisotropy, in rolled and extruded semi-finished products [35].
Magnesium alloys with the addition of rare earth elements, such as Mg-Y, Mg-Gd [37] and Mg-Nd, have been designed for use as biomaterials. ZW21 and WZ21 alloys (with the addition of Y and Zn) show promising mechanical and corrosion properties. For example, they are ductile (up to 20% elongation) and their tensile strength ≈ 270 MPa. Alloys such as AE21 and WE43 are used for stents [38, 39].
Noble metals as an additive to magnesium and calcium alloys have been studied mainly by the authors of this chapter [12, 40]. There is no information in the literature on the influence of Au and Pt addition on the degradation rate and mechanical properties of magnesium alloys. There are several sources for adding silver to magnesium alloys [41, 42].
The mechanical and corrosion properties of the alloy can be regulated by the structural and chemical composition of the alloy. Compared to their crystalline counterparts, magnesium-based metallic glasses may be more resistant to corrosion, due to their single-phase structure, which may result in a more uniform alloy corrosion. An example confirming the higher corrosion resistance of the amorphous material in physical fluid compared to the crystalline material with the same chemical composition is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Results of structural tests of Mg36.6Cu36.2Ca27.2 alloy with amorphous structure (a) and crystalline structure (b) and surface images after 1.5 h of immersion in physiological fluid with amorphous structure (c) and crystalline structure (d) [43].
Magnesium alloys with amorphous structure, such as bulk metallic glasses (e.g. rods, plates) in the following phase systems: Mg-Cu-Y (-Ag, -Pd, -Gd), Mg-Ni-Y (-Nd), Mg-Cu-Gd (-Zn, -Y), Mg-Zn-Ca were obtained. In addition, studies are also carried out on Mg-based metallic glass without rare earth elements. The Laws [44] obtained bulk metallic glasses based on Mg-Cu-Ca, Mg-Ag-Ca, Mg-Cu-Ag-Ca alloy systems. However, for applications in implantology, magnesium alloys should have a biocompatible chemical composition. Therefore, the group of alloys based on the Mg-Zn-Ca phase system is most frequently considered as a new biomaterial for resorbable orthopedic implants [45]. In 2005, Gu et al. were the first to obtain bulk metallic glass in the Mg-Ca-Zn system, which was characterized by good strength properties and high glass transition capacity [46].
In the process of designing new degradable biomaterials, elements with potential toxicological problems should be omitted whenever possible and, if they are absolutely necessary, they should be reduced to the minimum. Calcium and zinc are essential elements in the human body; therefore, these elements should be the first choice for alloying additives in biomedical magnesium alloys. The concentration of calcium should not exceed 2 wt.%, and zinc – 6 wt.%, due to the corrosive properties of these magnesium alloys [47].
The most commonly used chemical elements for magnesium alloys are: Zn, Zr, Ca, Sr., Yb, Al, Li, Mn and rare earth elements (REEs) (Ce, Er, La, Gd, Nd, Y). The following are the additions, the influence of which on the properties of magnesium alloys is described in detail:
addition of zinc (< 5 wt.%) reduces the harmful influence of iron and nickel impurities, increases corrosion resistance [48],
addition of zirconium (< 2 wt.%) increases corrosion resistance [48],
addition of strontium (< 2 wt.%) improves corrosion properties and affects the strength of the alloy, which is similar to the natural bone [48, 49]. Optimal content of Zr and Sr. in Mg-based alloys increases surface energy and the ability to simulate contact osteogenesis. Mg-Zr-Sr alloys (2 wt.% Sr) display the best osseointegration and complete biodegradation [50],
addition of ytterbium (at the level of 2 wt.%) improves bending plasticity, corrosion properties and biocompatibility [49],
addition of calcium (> 1 wt.%) in pure Mg reduces corrosion resistance [48]. Calcium in magnesium alloys, without the addition of strontium, reduces surface energy and bone induction [50],
addition of yttrium (> 2 wt.%) decreases corrosion resistance in Mg-Y alloys [48].
Noble metals, such as gold and silver, were used as alloying additives in pure magnesium to increase its ductility. However, the alloys had low tensile strength [51]. Another source mentions that the addition of silver, as a substitute for calcium, improves the corrosion properties, strength and has an anti-bacterial effect [49].
Figure 4 shows variation in the open-circuit potential with time and polarization curves for pure Mg and Mg65Zn20.1Ca1.7Yb13Sr0.2 alloy in Ringer solution at 37°C.
Figure 4.
Variation of the open-circuit potential with time (a) and polarization curves (b) for pure Mg and Mg65Zn20.1Ca1.7Yb13Sr0.2 alloy in Ringer solution at 37°C.
In the OCP plot (Figure 4a), various levels of recorded curves are visible, which results from differences in chemical compositions. The steady-state for pure magnesium is in the range of approx. -1.65 V, while for Mg65Zn20.1Ca1.7Yb13Sr0.2 alloy – slightly above −1.4 V. This shift towards positive values indicates favorable behavior of samples with alloy additions. Potentiodynamic measurements (Figure 4b) also show the differences between the studied alloys. The values of corrosion current density were slightly higher for magnesium alloy, as compared to pure Mg. However, significant differences in Ecorr by approx. 0.25 V are observed, which indicates that it is recommended to use alloying elements to improve corrosion resistance. E. Mostaed et al. [52] showed similar results regarding the differences in electrochemical tests between pure magnesium and the ZK60 alloy.
Designing of magnesium alloys as biomedical materials is a great challenge, due to rapid degradation of Mg in the environment of bodily fluids and insufficient implant-bone connection in orthopedic applications [50]. These disadvantages can be limited due to an appropriate selection of alloying additions. The purpose of optimal chemical composition of a new class of Mg-based biodegradable materials is to obtain optimal strength, ductility, resistance to fatigue and corrosion by modifying the structure and phase distribution [50, 53]. Currently, efforts are being made to select alloying additions that would promote osseointegration, understood as the fusion of the implant with the newly formed bone tissue and biodegradation without adverse effects on the functioning of body organs [50].
5. Mechanisms and in vitro degradation behavior of amorphous and crystalline magnesium alloys
In the case of biomedical engineering, corrosion is the main factor determining the usefulness of implant materials. The tendency of biomaterials to corrode in the human body is, in fact, closely connected to their biocompatibility. Before placing in the human body, the material must be examined for the effects on the body and its properties. Ensuring such experimental conditions is difficult, as it is difficult to recreate the environment of the human tissues. Many parameters related to the production of magnesium-based materials and test parameters have an impact on the degradation results (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Parameters influencing the course of magnesium alloy corrosion process (in vitro) divided into subgroups: Research conditions and material factors [54].
The alloying elements and the processing parameters of Mg have a strong impact on its degradation properties (microstructure of the material described by the grain size, impurity content, type of phases etc.). Calcium as alloying element to Mg alloy is an extremely reactive metal and spontaneously reacts with water generating hydrogen [55].
Moreover, the research methods and conditions can significantly change the corrosion rate, as well as the formation and composition of the degradation layer, and thus determine the corrosion type [56].
Living microorganisms play an important role in the process of implant degradation. Such metabolic activity may directly or indirectly reduce the quality of the implant due to the corrosion process. Cells can act as an electrolyte on the metal surface, thus changing the corrosion resistance of the implant surface or even its composition [6].
Corrosion of magnesium in an aqueous environment occurs as a result of an electrochemical reaction with water, resulting in the formation of magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2 and hydrogen gas, according to reactions (1–3) [54]:
Anodicreaction:Mg→Mg2++2eE1
Cathodicreaction::2H2O+2e−→H2+2OH−E2
Overallreactionsummaryreaction:Mg+2H2O→MgOH2+H2E3
In the initial phase of immersion, the surface of the material is exposed to the electrolyte and the anodic and cathodic reactions begin. Magnesium grains act as an anode and the cathodic reaction takes place in noble regions of alloy, which are grain boundaries, phase separation and precipitation. This leads to the exchange of electrons between the two regions, wherein the magnesium is degraded at the same rate, at which hydrogen is generated as a gas (H2). The cathodic reaction increases the pH by releasing H2 gas, while hydrolysis lowers it [54, 57].
When the concentration of Mg2+ and the increase of pH reach the solubility limit, magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 is precipitated on the surface of alloy Mg [1]. In an environment, such as body fluids, where the concentration of chloride ions is greater than 30 mmol/dm3, the hydroxide formed on the surface of the magnesium alloy converts to highly soluble magnesium chloride. This reduces the level of protection of the surface layer by increasing its activity [58]. The formation of soluble magnesium chloride is described by the reaction (4):
MgOH2+2Cl−→MgCl2+2OH−E4
This process accelerates the degradation of the material and increases the pH of the environment [6]. The presence of Cl− ions initiates pitting corrosion.
It should be mentioned that the structure of magnesium alloys mainly affects the course and rate of the degradation process. The analysis of corrosion tests results and studies of degradation products on the surface of the amorphous Mg64Zn32Ca4 alloy allow to distinguish and link the probable stages of the degradation process for the tested alloy in selected micro-areas, which include [59]:
transformation of the oxide layer into hydroxide,
penetration of the hydroxide layer by chlorides,
release of metallic ions and their transfer to solution,
hydrogen evolution,
creating a protective layer.
It should be noted, that the specified steps are not consecutive, but may occur simultaneously during the immersion of the amorphous Mg64Zn32Ca4 alloy. Therefore, the degradation of the amorphous Mg64Zn32Ca4 alloy can be considered as a total result of the following processes: the release of alloy components and the formation of protective layers. When the sample is immersed in a chloride solution, degradation occurs directly at the surface, due to the rapid release of active Mg and Ca. On the other hand, this results in enrichment of the sample’s surface with less active zinc. With the progress of degradation, zinc is oxidized and accumulates in the vicinity of disturbed chlorides, and therefore protects against further progression of degradation [60, 61]. However, the protective layer is not dense enough to completely prevent degradation. Chlorine ions damage the zinc oxide layer. Damage to the protective layer facilitates the transition to the Ca and Mg ion solution. These mechanisms are repeated until the amorphous magnesium alloy has degraded completely [62].
6. Methods of reducing the degradation rate of magnesium alloys by modifying their surface (application of protective layers)
High corrosion rate of magnesium-based alloys in tissue environment may be limited, in addition to modifying the chemical composition, by surface treatment technologies. The degradation process can be controlled by way of coating the surface or changing its structure [53, 60, 61]. There are two methods of coating: conversion and deposition processes. Conversion coatings are the product of complex interaction of metal dissolution and precipitation, usually during treatment in aqueous solutions, while deposition treatments consist of metallic, inorganic and organic coatings [53, 62, 63]. Modifications in the surface of magnesium alloys by mechanical treatment are also used [62]. The classification of the coating technology for magnesium alloys is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6.
General classification of surface treatment technologies applied on magnesium alloys [62, 63].
Homogeneity of the corrosion process is an important aspect that determines the degradation rate and the physical condition of the implant at a specific treatment stage [63]. Magnesium alloy coatings often have pores and cracks. Corrosion, which begins in these areas, leads to uneven rate of corrosion, accelerates destruction of the coating and premature degradation of the implant [63, 64]. Therefore, it is important to minimize the porosity of the coating by adjusting the parameters of the application process or the appropriate preparation of the substrate’s surface [62, 65]. In addition, protective coatings on biodegradable magnesium alloys should be adapted to specific applications – e.g. vascular stents have different surface requirements than orthopedic implants, where osseointegration with newly formed bone is important [62, 63]. Selected technologies of forming coatings on magnesium alloys are discussed below with regard to their advantages and disadvantages in terms of use, with an aim to reduce the corrosion rate:
Chemical conversion treatment – coatings based on Mg(OH)2 and fluorine are the most commonly used coatings developed with this technique, increasing corrosion resistance, while remaining non-toxic for the surrounding tissues [63, 66]. Their main advantage is good adhesion [67]. Chemical conversion treatment is still considered an economically viable technique [63, 66].
Micro-arc oxidation (MAO) – is considered the most cost-effective technology in the production of protective coatings against corrosion on Mg-based alloys. Surface pores and cracks, which accelerate the corrosion rate, are a significant disadvantage of this technology [60, 63].
Electrochemical deposition (ED) – is one of the most widely used methods. It has the ability to create homogeneous, dense protective layers, preventing further corrosion of the magnesium alloy substrate. Its great advantages, from technological point of view, are reproducibility and low temperatures of deposition [63, 66, 67].
Anodization – the quality of the coating obtained in this technique is strongly dependent on the parameters of the process: electrolytic composition, applied constant voltage or current, quality of the alloy surface and concentration of the alloying elements. The obtained 5–200 μm thick oxide layer creates functional corrosion protection with excellent adhesion [63, 67]. The main disadvantage of anodization is low wear resistance [67]. The technique makes it possible to obtain nano-tubular porous layers. However, this kind of surface structure is not suitable for some applications, e.g. stents [62, 63].
Ion Implantation – thin layers, resulting from the process, do not provide the required corrosion resistance. Despite many advantages of this technique, like modification of physical, chemical and electrical properties, ion implantation is expensive and is not suitable for complex geometries of implant components [62, 63, 67].
Physical/Chemical Vapor Deposition (PVD/CVD) – known, widely used technologies [63]. PVD enables the formation of hard coatings, resistant to tribological wear, but from the perspective of corrosion resistance, the layers are too thin and have pores. CVD is energy-efficient and does not manifest toxicity, but has the disadvantages of complicated layer growth and requires high temperatures [67].
In choice of the coating technology, one should always take into account preservation of the alloy’s biocompatibility, due to the potential toxicity of the elements introduced in coating treatments. In addition to coating, an alternative solution is mechanical treatment (shot peening, machining, burnishing, deep rolling), which solves the toxicity problem. The literature also describes hybrid techniques, which combine mechanical treatment with coating, as a promising solution for controlling the corrosion rate and mechanical properties at individual stages of treatment [63]. Biomimetic coatings are also noteworthy, as they are of biological origin and ensure excellent biocompatibility, but further work is required to improve their low adhesion to the substrate alloy [63, 67].
The types of protection coatings used to delay/reduce the degradation rate of magnesium alloys are shown in Figure 7. Besides phosphate and fluoride, most of the proposed ceramic coatings are non-resorbable. In the case of resorbable materials, considered polymeric coatings include PLA, PLGA and copolymers. Composite coatings increasing the corrosion resistance of magnesium alloys, tested by several researchers, include the following types of coatings: ceramic-metallic and ceramic-polymer.
Figure 7.
Types of protective coatings used to delay/reduce the degradation rate of magnesium alloys [68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77].
As part of the authors’ own research, tests of phosphate coatings on magnesium alloys were carried out. In this work [78], the chemical method was used for Ca-P coatings preparation. NaOH and ZnSO4 as accelerators were added to phosphatizing baths, with an aim to form a dense and uniform protective phosphate coating. It should be noted, that NaOH and ZnSO4 are used to improve corrosion resistance of Mg alloys. The results of microscopic observations and phase identification of the obtained phosphate coatings (with the use of chemical composition of the phosphating bath) are shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8.
X-ray diffraction patterns and SEM images of Ca-P coatings on Mg alloy [78].
XRD results indicate that obtained protection layers included dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (CaHPO4·2H2O). Both NaOH and ZnSO4 formed the morphology of the produced layers. The coating obtained by immersion in a phosphatizing bath with ZnSO4 addition (ZnAM50 sample) consisted of petals. The coating obtained by immersion in a bath with NaOH addition (NaAM50 sample) showed plate-like morphology.
The degradation tests of magnesium alloys with Ca-P layers were also performed (Figure 9a and b) in Ringer’s solution at 37°C. The results of electrochemical tests indicated that coated samples have more positive value of Ecorr than non-coated AM50 sample (Figure 9a). In addition, the cathodic part of potentiodynamic curve determined for the coated samples is located in a low current range, which indicated a low cathodic activity. It corresponds with the immersion tests results (Figure 9b). The volume of evolved hydrogen (hydrogen is a result of cathodic reactions) in an uncoated sample was higher than its level in coated samples.
Figure 9.
Results of degradation tests of Mg alloys with calcium phosphate coatings in Ringer’s solution at 37°C: (a) polarization curves, (b) hydrogen evolution [78].
The degradation rate of ceramic material determines the occurrence of defects, cracks and flaws in technology. Defected ceramics can be destroyed in contact with water. Inclusions of other phases are equally disadvantageous to ceramic materials, that lead to their degradation. In contact with water, these inclusions accelerate aging and increase volume. These processes also have a direct impact on deterioration of the mechanical properties of ceramic materials [79].
7. Conclusions
Magnesium is a very important macroelement for the human body and serves a lot of functions. Its deficiency can cause many disorders and health ailments. Accordingly, magnesium is widely used in therapy, primarily for the treatment of heart disease, cardiovascular system or respiratory system. This became a premise for the use of magnesium and its alloys in medicine as a potential biomaterial for medical implants. The concept of using magnesium alloys as resorbable medical implants assumes that it will be non-toxic to the human body. The alloy components will also be elements present in the human body. The resorbable biomaterial of a magnesium alloy would be an alternative to the previously used implants, mainly orthopedic ones. Unfortunately, the high degradation rate of the magnesium alloy and the release of hydrogen gas in the environment of physiological fluids limit the use of these alloys as a biomaterial. Therefore, the research community continues to test different types of surface treatment for magnesium alloys, to protect it from rapid degradation. Taking into account the results of the global research and the authors’ own research, this seems to be the right way to obtain a resorbable biomaterial of magnesium alloy.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"magnesium alloys, metallic glasses, resorbable implants, in vitro degradation behavior, protection coatings",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74199.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74199.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74199",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74199",totalDownloads:25,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 28th 2020",dateReviewed:"November 5th 2020",datePrePublished:"December 16th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"November 25th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Amorphous and crystalline magnesium alloys, developed for medical applications – especially implantology – present the characteristics of biocompatible magnesium alloys (Mg-Zn, Mg-Zn-Ca, Mg-Ca etc.). This chapter provides a brief description of the role of magnesium in the human body and the use of Mg in medicine. It presents the concept of using magnesium alloys in medicine (advantages and limitations) and the scope of their potential applications (orthopedic implantology, cardiac surgery etc.). The chapter shows classification of magnesium alloys as potential biomaterials, due to their structure (amorphous, crystalline) and alloying elements (rare earth elements, noble metals etc.). The mechanism and in vitro degradation behavior of magnesium alloys with amorphous and crystalline structures are described. The chapter also discusses the influence of alloying elements (rare earth elements, noble metals) on the in vitro degradation process. It also presents the methods of reducing the degradation rate of magnesium alloys by modifying their surface (application of protective layers).",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74199",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74199",signatures:"Katarzyna Cesarz-Andraczke, Aneta Kania, Katarzyna Młynarek and Rafał Babilas",book:{id:"9926",title:"Magnesium Alloys",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Magnesium Alloys",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Tomasz Arkadiusz Tański and Dr. Pawel Jarka",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9926.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"15700",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz Arkadiusz",middleName:null,surname:"Tański",slug:"tomasz-arkadiusz-tanski",fullName:"Tomasz Arkadiusz Tański"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The role of magnesium in the human body and its application in medicine",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The concept and potential applications of magnesium alloys in medicine (advantages and limitations)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Classification of magnesium alloys considered as potential biomaterials due to their structure (amorphous or crystalline) and alloying elements (rare earth elements, noble metals etc.)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Mechanisms and in vitro degradation behavior of amorphous and crystalline magnesium alloys",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Methods of reducing the degradation rate of magnesium alloys by modifying their surface (application of protective layers)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Braszczyńska-Malik KN. Magnesium alloys and composites based on their matrix. 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The Journal of The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society. 2016;68:1177-1182. DOI: 10.1007/s11837-015-1773-1'},{id:"B32",body:'Ilnicka M, Wawrzyńska M, Biały D. Biodegradable coronary stents – overview. Acta BioOptica et Informatica Medica. 2009;15;369-372. DOI: polona.pl/item/37787964'},{id:"B33",body:'Lobodzinski SS. Bioabsorbable coronary stents. Folia Cardiologica Excerpta. 2009;4:247-250'},{id:"B34",body:'Barlis P, Tanigawa J, Di Mario C. Coronary bioabsorbable magnesium stent: 15-month intravascular ultrasound and optical coherence tomography findings. European Heart Journal. 2007;28:2319-2325. DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehm119'},{id:"B35",body:'Pekguleryuz M, Kainer K, Kaya A. Fundamentals of magnesium alloy metallurgy. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited; 2013.'},{id:"B36",body:'Rokhlin LL, Nikitina NI. Recovery after ageing of Mg-Y and Mg-Gd alloys. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 1998;279/2:166-170. DOI: 10.1016/S0925-8388(98)00655-0'},{id:"B37",body:'Kania A, Nowosielski R, Gawlas-Mucha A, Babilas R. Mechanical and corrosion properties of Mg-based alloys with Gd addition. Materials. 2019;12/11:1775. DOI: 10.3390/ma12111775'},{id:"B38",body:'Hanzi AC, Gerber I, Schinhammer M, Loffler JF, Uggowitzer PJ. On the in vitro and in vivo degradation performance and biological response of new biodegradable Mg-Y-Zn alloys. Acta Biomaterialia. 2010;6/5:1824-1833. DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2009.10.008'},{id:"B39",body:'Heublein B, Rohde R, Kaese V, Niemeyer M, Hartung W, Haverich A. Biocorrosion of magnesium alloys: a new principle in cardiovascular implant technology? Heart. 2003;89/6:651-656. DOI: 10.1136/heart.89.6.651'},{id:"B40",body:'Cesarz-Andraczke K, Nowosielski R, Babilas R. Corrosion properties of Mg-Zn-Ca-(Cu,Au) metallic glasses in artificial physiological fluid. Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. 2019;19/3:716-723. DOI: 10.1016/j.acme.2019.02.008'},{id:"B41",body:'Wang L, Qin G, Sun S, Ren Y, Li S. Effect of solid solution treatment on in vitro degradation rate of as-extruded Mg-Zn-Ag alloys. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China. 2017;27/12:2607-2612. DOI: 10.1016/S1003-6326(17)60288-7'},{id:"B42",body:'Feng Y, Zhu S, Wang L, Chang L, Guan S. Fabrication and characterization of biodegradable Mg-Zn-Y-Nd-Ag alloy: Microstructure, mechanical properties, corrosion behavior and antibacterial activities. Bioactive Materials. 2018;3/3:225-235. DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2018.02.002'},{id:"B43",body:'Nowosielski R, Cesarz K, Nawrat G, Maciej A, Babilas R. Corrosion tests of amorphous and crystalline Mg36.6Cu36.2Ca27.2 alloy in physiological fluid. Corrosion Protection. 2013;4:144-151'},{id:"B44",body:'Laws K, Shamlaye K, Wong K, Gun B, Ferry M. Prediction of glass-forming compositions in metallic systems: Copper-based bulk metallic glasses in the Cu-Mg-Ca system. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions. 2010;41A:1699-1705. DOI: 10.1007/s11661-010-0274-7'},{id:"B45",body:'Gu X, Zheng Y, Zhong S, Xi T, Wang J. Wang W. Corrosion of, and cellular responses to Mg-Zn-Ca bulk metallic glasses. Biomaterials. 2010;31:1093-1104. DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.11.015'},{id:"B46",body:'Li Q, Weng H, Suo Z, Ren Y, Yuan X, Qiu K. Microstructure and mechanical properties of bulk Mg-Zn-Ca amorphous alloys and amorphous matrix composites. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2008;487:301-308. DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2007.10.027'},{id:"B47",body:'Park JB, Bronzino JD. Biomaterials: principles and applications. Florida: CRC Press; 2003.'},{id:"B48",body:'Ding Y, Wen C, Hodgson P, Li Y. Effects of alloying elements on the corrosion behavior and biocompatibility of biodegradable magnesium alloys: A review. Journal of Materials Chemistry B. 2014;2:1912-1933. DOI: 10.1039/c3tb21746a'},{id:"B49",body:'Meagher P, O’Cearbhaill ED, Byrne JH, Browne DJ. Bulk metallic glasses for implantable medical devices and surgical tools. Advanced Materials. 2016;28:5755-5762. DOI: 10.1002/adma.201505347'},{id:"B50",body:'Mushahary D, Sravanthi R, Li Y, Kumar MJ, Harishankar N, Hodgson PD, Wen C, Pande G. Zirconium, calcium, and strontium contents in magnesium based biodegradable alloys modulate the efficiency of implant-induced osseointegration. International Journal of Nanomedicine. 2013;8:2887-2902. DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S47378'},{id:"B51",body:'Pogorielov M, Husak E, Solodivnik A, Zhdanov S. Magnesium-based biodegradable alloys: Degradation, application, and alloying elements. Interventional Medicine and Applied Science. 2017;9:27-38. DOI: 10.1556/1646.9.2017.1.04'},{id:"B52",body:'Mostaed E, Vedani M, Hashempour M, Bestetti M. Influence of ECAP process on mechanical and corrosion properties of pure Mg and ZK60 magnesium alloy for biodegradable stent applications. Biomatter. 2014;4:e28283. DOI: 10.4161/biom.28283'},{id:"B53",body:'Liu C, Ren Z, Xu Y, Pang S, Zhao X, Zhao Y. Biodegradable magnesium alloys developed as bone repair materials: A review. Scanning. 2018;2018. DOI: 10.1155/2018/9216314'},{id:"B54",body:'Degradation testing of magnesium and its alloys aiming at biodegradable implant applications [Internet]. 2016. Available from: https://lirias.kuleuven.be/bitstream/123456789/552754/1/PhD+thesis+manuscript+-+I%C3%B1igo+Marco.pdf [Accessed: 2020-09-14]'},{id:"B55",body:'Babilas, R.ł., Cesarz-Andraczke, K., Babilas, D., Simka, W. Structure and Corrosion Resistance of Ca50Mg20Cu30 Bulk Metallic Glasses. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2015; 24/1: 167-174. DOI: 10.1007/s11665-014-1308-x'},{id:"B56",body:'Schweitzer PA. Fundamentals of metallic corrosion. Atmospheric and media corrosion of metals. New York: CRC Press; 2007.'},{id:"B57",body:'Rad B, Idris MH, Kadir MRA, Farahany S, Fereidouni A, Yahya MY. Characterization and corrosion behavior of biodegradable Mg-Ca and Mg-Ca-Zn implant alloys. Applied Mechanics and Materials. 2012;121-126:568-572. DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.121-126.568'},{id:"B58",body:'Haynes WM. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 97th ed. CRC Press; 2016. 2670 p.'},{id:"B59",body:'Cesarz-Andraczke K. Resorbable Mg-based bulk metallic glasses [Ph.D. thesis]. Gliwice: Silesian University of Technology; 2016.'},{id:"B60",body:'Wu W, Wang Z, Zang S, Yu X, Yang H, Chang S. Research progress on surface treatments of biodegradable Mg Alloys: A Review. ACS Omega. 2020;5:941-947. DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b03423'},{id:"B61",body:'Li Y, Zhao S, Li S, Ge Y, Wang R, Zheng L, Xu J, Sun M, Jiang Q, Zhang Y, Wei H. Surface engineering of biodegradable magnesium alloys for enhanced orthopedic implants. Nano Micro Small. 2019;15:1-10. DOI: 10.1002/smll.201904486'},{id:"B62",body:'Hornberger H, Virtanen S, Boccaccini AR. Biomedical coatings on magnesium alloys - A review. Acta Biomaterialia. 2012;8:2442-2455. DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2012.04.012'},{id:"B63",body:'Uddin MS, Hall C, Murphy P. Surface treatments for controlling corrosion rate of biodegradable Mg and Mg-based alloy implants. Science and Technology of Advanced Materials. 2015;16:53501. DOI: 10.1088/1468-6996/16/5/053501'},{id:"B64",body:'Zeng RC, Yin ZZ, Chen XB, Xu DK. Corrosion types of magnesium alloys. In: Magnesium Alloys - Selected Issue [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/magnesium-alloys-selected-issue/corrosion-types-of-magnesium-alloys [Accessed: 2020-09-14]'},{id:"B65",body:'Zhang P, Zuo Y. Relationship between porosity, pore parameters and properties of microarc oxidation film on AZ91D magnesium alloy. Results in Physics. 2019;12:2044-2054. DOI: 10.1016/j.rinp.2019.01.095'},{id:"B66",body:'Zheng YF, Gu XN, Witte F. Biodegradable metals. Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports. 2014;77:1-34. DOI: 10.1016/j.mser.2014.01.001'},{id:"B67",body:'Echeverry-Rendon M, Allain JP, Robledo SM, Echeverria F, Harmsen MC. Coatings for biodegradable magnesium-based supports for therapy of vascular disease: A general view, Materials Science and Engineering C. 2019;102:150-163. DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2019.04.032'},{id:"B68",body:'Gao Y, Jie M, Liu Y. Mechanical properties of Al2O3 ceramic coatings prepared by plasma spraying on magnesium alloy. Surface and Coatings Technology. 2017;315:214-219. DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2017.02.026'},{id:"B69",body:'Jiang S, Cai S, Lin Y, Bao X, Xu G. Effect of alkali/acid pretreatment on the topography and corrosion resistance of as-deposited CaP coating on magnesium alloys. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2019;793:202-211. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.04.198'},{id:"B70",body:'Feng Y, Zhu S, Wang L, Chang L, Yan B, Song X, Guan S. Characterization and corrosion property of nano-rod-like HA on fluoride coating supported on Mg-Zn-Ca alloy. Bioactive Materials. 2017;2:63-70. DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2017.05.001'},{id:"B71",body:'Shi P, Niu B, Shanshan E, Chen Y, Li Q. Preparation and characterization of PLA coating and PLA/MAO composite coatings on AZ31 magnesium alloy for improvement of corrosion resistance. Surface and Coatings Technology. 2015;262:26-32. DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2014.11.069'},{id:"B72",body:'Manna S, Donnell AM, Kaval N, Marwan F. Improved design and characterization of PLGA/PLA-coated Chitosan based micro-implants for controlled release of hydrophilic drugs. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2018;547/1-2:122-132. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.05.066'},{id:"B73",body:'Reza H, Rad B, Fauzi Ismail A, Aziz M, Hadisi Z, Chen X. Antibacterial activity and corrosion resistance of Ta2O5 thin film and electrospun PCL/MgO-Ag nanofiber coatings on biodegradable Mg alloy. Ceramics International. 2019;45/9:11883-11892. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.03.071'},{id:"B74",body:'Ling L, Cui L, Zeng R, Li S, Chen X, Zheng Y, Kannan MB. Advances in functionalized polymer coatings on biodegradable magnesium alloys - A review. Acta Biomaterialia. 2018;79:23-36. DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.08.030'},{id:"B75",body:'Mashtalyar DV, Sinebryukhov SL, Imshinetskiy IM, Gnedenkov AS, Nadaraia KV, Ustinov AY, Gnedenkov SV. Hard wearproof PEO-coatings formed on Mg alloy using TiN nanoparticles. Applied Surface Science. 2020;503:1-12. DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.144062'},{id:"B76",body:'Wang S, Si N, Xia Y, Liu L. Influence of nano-SiC on microstructure and property of MAO coating formed on AZ91D magnesium alloy. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China. 2015;25:1926-1934. DOI: 10.1016/S1003-6326(15)63800-6'},{id:"B77",body:'Singh B, Singh G, Sidhu BS, Bhatia N. In-vitro assessment of HA-Nb coating on Mg alloy ZK60 for biomedical applications. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2019;231/1:138-149. DOI: 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2019.04.037'},{id:"B78",body:'Cesarz-Andraczke K, Nowosielski R, Basiaga M, Babilas R. Study of the morphology and properties of biocompatible Ca-P coatings on Mg alloy. Materials. 2020;13/2:1-13. DOI: 10.3390/ma13010002'},{id:"B79",body:'Sobczak-Kupiec A, Wzorek Z. Physicochemical properties of calcium orthophosphates important for medicine. Chemistry. 2007;10:309-322.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Katarzyna Cesarz-Andraczke",address:"katarzyna.cesarz-andraczke@polsl.pl",affiliation:'
Department of Engineering Materials and Biomaterials, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
Department of Engineering Materials and Biomaterials, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
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IntechOpen’s team of Scientific Advisors supports the publishing team by providing editorial and academic input and ensuring the highest quality output of free peer-reviewed articles. The Boards consist of independent external collaborators who assist us on a voluntary basis. Their input includes advising on new topics within their field, proposing potential expert collaborators and reviewing book publishing proposals if required. Board members are experts who cover major STEM and HSS fields. All are trusted IntechOpen collaborators and Academic Editors, ensuring that the needs of the scientific community are met.
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Physical Sciences, Technology and Engineering Board
\\n\\n
Chemistry
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Ayben Kilislioglu - Department of Chemical Engineering Istanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey
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Goran Nikolic - Faculty of Technology, University of Nis, Leskovac, Serbia
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Mark T. Stauffer - Associate Professor of Chemistry, The University of Pittsburgh, USA
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Margarita Stoytcheva - Autonomous University of Baja California Engineering Institute Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
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Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
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Earth and Planetary Science
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Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
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İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
\\n\\t
Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
\\n\\t
Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
\\n
\\n\\n
Engineering
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
\\n\\t
Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
\\n\\t
Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
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Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
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Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
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Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
\\n
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Materials Science
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Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
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Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
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Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
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Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
\\n
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Mathematics
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\\n\\t
Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
\\n
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Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
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Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
\\n
\\n\\n
Physics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
\\n\\t
Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
\\n\\t
Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
\\n
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Robotics
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Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
\\n\\t
Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
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Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
\\n
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Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
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\\n\\t
Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
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Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
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Environmental Sciences
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Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
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Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
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Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
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Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
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Immunology and Microbiology
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Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
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Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
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Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
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Medicine
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Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
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Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\\n\\t
Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
\\n\\t
Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
\\n\\t
Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\\n\\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\\n\\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\\n\\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\\n
\\n\\n
Ophthalmology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\\n\\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\\n\\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
\\n\\t
Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
\\n\\t
Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\\n\\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
\\n\\t
Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\\n\\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\\n
\\n\\n
Gastroenterology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\\n\\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\\n\\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\\n\\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n\\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\\n\\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\\n
\\n\\n
Hematology
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\\n\\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\\n\\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\\n\\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\\n\\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\\n\\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\\n
\\n\\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\\n\\n
Business, Management and Economics
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Joao Luis Garcia Rosa - Associate Professor Bio-inspired Computing Laboratory (BioCom) Department of Computer Science University of Sao Paulo (USP) at Sao Carlos, Brazil
\n\t
Jan Valdman - Institute of Mathematics and Biomathematics, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation of the ASCR, Prague, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Earth and Planetary Science
\n\n
\n\t
Jill S. M. Coleman - Department of Geography, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
\n\t
İbrahim Küçük Erciyes - Üniversitesi Department of Astronomy and Space Sciences Melikgazi, Kayseri, Turkey
\n\t
Pasquale Imperatore - Electromagnetic Environmental Sensing (IREA), Italian National Council of Research (CNR), Naples, Italy
\n\t
Mohammad Mokhtari - Director of National Center for Earthquake Prediction International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
\n
\n\n
Engineering
\n\n
\n\t
Narottam Das - University of Southern Queensland, Australia
\n\t
Jose Ignacio Huertas - Energy and Climate Change Research Group; Instituto Tecnológico y Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico
Likun Pan - Engineering Research Center for Nanophotonics and Advanced Instrument, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, East China Normal University, China
\n\t
Mukul Chandra Paul - Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute Jadavpur, Kolkata, India
\n\t
Stephen E. Saddow - Electrical Engineering Department, University of South Florida, USA
\n\t
Ali Demir Sezer - Marmara University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, İstanbul, Turkey
\n\t
Krzysztof Zboinski - Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Warsaw, Poland
\n
\n\n
Materials Science
\n\n
\n\t
Vadim Glebovsky - Senior Researcher, Institute of Solid State Physics, Chernogolovka, Russia Expert of the Russian Fund for Basic Research, Moscow, Russia
\n\t
Jianjun Liu - State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure of Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
\n\t
Pietro Mandracci - Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
\n\t
Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro - Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares Materials Science and Technology Center (MSTC) São Paulo, SP, Brazil
Toshio Ogawa - Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shizuoka Institute of Science and Technology, Toyosawa, Fukuroi, Shizuoka, Japan
\n
\n\n
Mathematics
\n\n
\n\t
Paul Bracken - Department of Mathematics University of Texas, Edinburg, TX, USA
\n
\n\n
Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
\n\n
\n\t
Muhammad Akhyar - Farrukh Nano-Chemistry Lab. Registrar, GC University Lahore, Pakistan
\n\t
Khan Maaz - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China & The Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, Pakistan
\n
\n\n
Physics
\n\n
\n\t
Izabela Naydenova - Lecturer, School of Physics Principal Investigator, IEO Centre College of Sciences and Health Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin, Ireland
\n\t
Mitsuru Nenoi - National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
\n\t
Christos Volos - Physics Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
\n
\n\n
Robotics
\n\n
\n\t
Alejandra Barrera - Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, México
\n\t
Dusan M. Stipanovic - Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
\n\t
Andrzej Zak - Polish Naval Academy Faculty of Navigation and Naval Weapons Institute of Naval Weapons and Computer Science, Gdynia, Poland
Petr Konvalina - Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
\n
\n\n
Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology
\n\n
\n\t
Chunfa Huang - Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, USA
\n\t
Michael Kormann - University Children's Clinic Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Infectiology & Immunology, Translational Genomics and Gene Therapy in Pediatrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
\n\t
Bin WU - Ph.D. HCLD Scientific Laboratory Director, Assisted Reproductive Technology Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility Tucson, Arizona , USA
\n
\n\n
Environmental Sciences
\n\n
\n\t
Juan A. Blanco - Senior Researcher & Marie Curie Research Fellow Dep. Ciencias del Medio Natural, Universidad Publica de Navarra Campus de Arrosadia, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
\n\t
Mikkola Heimo - University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
\n\t
Bernardo Llamas Moya - Politechnical University of Madrid, Spain
\n\t
Toonika Rinken - Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Tartu, Estonia
\n
\n\n
Immunology and Microbiology
\n\n
\n\t
Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran - Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, India
Isabel Gigli - Facultad de Agronomia-UNLPam, Argentina
\n\t
Milad Manafi - Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
\n\t
Rita Payan-Carreira - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Portugal
\n
\n\n
Medicine
\n\n
\n\t
Mazen Almasri - King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Dentistry Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Dentistry
\n\t
Craig Atwood - University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Oreste Capelli - Clinical Governance, Local Health Authority, Modena, Italy Public Health
\n\t
Michael Firstenberg - Assistant Professor of Surgery and Integrative Medicine NorthEast Ohio Medical University, USA & Akron City Hospital - Summa Health System, USA Surgery
\n\t
Parul Ichhpujani - MD Government Medical College & Hospital, Department of Ophthalmology, India
Amidou Samie - University of Venda, SA Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Shailendra K. Saxena - CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India Infectious Diseases
\n\t
Dan T. Simionescu - Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson SC, USA Stem Cell Research, Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
\n\t
Ke Xu - Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute Tianjin Medical University General Hospital Tianjin, China Oncology
\n
\n\n
Ophthalmology
\n\n
\n\t
Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar - University Hospital Bonn Department of Nuclear Medicine Bonn, Germany Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Miroslav Blumenberg - Department of Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, NY, USA Dermatology
\n\t
Wilfred Bonney - University of Dundee, Scotland, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Christakis Constantinides - Department of Cardiovascular Medicine University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Medical Diagnostics, Engineering Technology and Telemedicine
\n\t
Atef Mohamed Mostafa Darwish - Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Egypt Gynecology
\n\t
Ana Polona Mivšek - University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia Midwifery
\n\t
Gyula Mozsik - First Department of Medicine, Medical and Health Centre, University of Pécs, Hungary
\n\t
Shimon Rumelt - Western Galilee-Nahariya Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel Ophthalmology
\n\t
Marcelo Saad - S. Paulo Medical College of Acupuncture, SP, Brazil Complementary and Alternative Medicine
\n\t
Minoru Tomizawa - National Hospital Organization Shimoshizu Hospital, Japan Gastroenterology
\n\t
Pierre Vereecken - Centre Hospitalier Valida and Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Belgium Dermatology
\n
\n\n
Gastroenterology
\n\n
\n\t
Hany Aly - Director, Division of Newborn Services The George Washington University Hospital Washington, USA Pediatrics
\n\t
Yannis Dionyssiotis - National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Alina Gonzales- Quevedo Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía Havana, Cuba Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Margarita Guenova - National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Bulgaria
\n\t
Eliska Potlukova - Clinic of Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Switzerland Edocrinology
\n\t
Raymond L. Rosales -The Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines & Metropolitan Medical Center, Manila, Philippines & St. Luke's Medical Center International Institute in Neuroscience, Quezon City, Philippines Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n\t
Alessandro Rozim - Zorzi University of Campinas, Departamento de Ortopedia e Traumatologia, Campinas, SP, Brazil Orthopedics, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine
\n\t
Dieter Schoepf - University of Bonn, Germany Mental and Behavioural Disorders and Diseases of the Nervous System
\n
\n\n
Hematology
\n\n
\n\t
Hesham Abd El-Dayem - National Liver Institute, Menoufeyia University, Egypt Hepatology
\n\t
Fayez Bahmad - Health Science Faculty of the University of Brasilia Instructor of Otology at Brasilia University Hospital Brasilia, Brazil Otorhinolaryngology
\n\t
Peter A. Clark - Saint Joseph's University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Bioethics
\n\t
Celso Pereira - Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal Immunology, Allergology and Rheumatology
\n\t
Luis Rodrigo - Asturias Central University Hospital (HUCA) School of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain Hepatology & Gastroenterology
\n\t
Dennis Wat - Liverpool Heart and Chest Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, UK Pulmonology
\n
\n\n
Social Sciences and Humanities Board
\n\n
Business, Management and Economics
\n\n
\n\t
Vito Bobek - University of Applied Sciences, FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria
Denis Erasga - De La Salle University, Phillippines
\n\t
Rosario Laratta - Associate Professor of Social Policy and Development Graduate School of Governance Studies, Meiji University, Japan
\n
\n\n
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