",isbn:"978-1-83962-718-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-717-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-754-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",bookSignature:"Dr. Yajuan Zhu, Dr. Qinghong Luo and Dr. Yuguo Liu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",keywords:"Water Cycle, Water Use Strategy, Vegetation Dynamics, Plant Community, Precipitation, Carbon Emission, Soil Respiration, Autotrophic Respiration, Algae Crust, Wind, Temperature, Vegetation Stability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 26th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 24th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 13th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Zhu holds a Ph.D. in Ecology and is currently an Associate Research Professor at the Chinese Academy of Forestry at the Institute of Desertification Studies, she has led a number of national projects while working there.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Luo holds a Ph.D. in Physical Geography and is currently a Research Professor at the Institute of Afforestation and Sand Control, Xinjiang Academy of Forestry. She is a holder of several technological patents in her area of research.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Liu holds a Ph.D. in Ecology and is currently an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Desertification Studies, Chinese Academy of Forestry. He has published several international works that have been recognized.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180427",title:"Dr.",name:"Yajuan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yajuan-zhu",fullName:"Yajuan Zhu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180427/images/system/180427.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yajuan Zhu obtained her Bachelor's degree in Agriculture from Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University in 2002 and PhD in Ecology from Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2007. She was a postdoctoral fellow working on the topic of land desertification control in the Research Institute of Forestry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, followed by her appointment as an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Desertification Studies, Chinese Academy of Forestry and currently she is an Associate Research Professor at the same institute. She is a Master's supervisor with interests in plant ecology in deserts, biodiversity, stable isotope ecology, isohydrology and desertification control.",institutionString:"Chinese Academy of Forestry",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Chinese Academy of Forestry",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"340564",title:"Dr.",name:"Qinghong",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"qinghong-luo",fullName:"Qinghong Luo",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000032N5e7QAC/Profile_Picture_1605773886590",biography:"Dr. Qinghong Luo holds a Master's degree from Life Science College, Shihezi University (2006) and PhD in Physical geography from Xinjiang Ecology and Geography Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences (2018). She was initially an Assistant Research Professor at Institute of Afforestation and Sand Control, Xinjiang Academy of Forestry, after an Associate Research Professor and currently she is a Research Professor at the same institute. Her research interests include desert vegetation dynamics, plant-soil interaction and desertification control among others. She has participated in a number of funded and non funded projects and is a holder of several patents.",institutionString:"Xinjiang Academy of Forestry",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Xinjiang Academy of Forestry",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"340567",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuguo",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"yuguo-liu",fullName:"Yuguo Liu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000032N5hEQAS/Profile_Picture_1605774524148",biography:"Dr. Yuguo Liu obtained his bachelor's degree, majoring in Environmental Sciences from Inner Mongolia University in 2007 and doctoral degree, majoring in Ecology from Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2013. He has been working as an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Desertification Studies, Chinese Academy of Forestry ever since. His research interests include ecological protection and restoration of fragile areas, and karst vegetation and rocky desertification control.",institutionString:"Chinese Academy of Forestry",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Chinese Academy of Forestry",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194667",firstName:"Marijana",lastName:"Francetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194667/images/4752_n.jpg",email:"marijana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5962",title:"Estuary",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43058846a64b270e9167d478e966161a",slug:"estuary",bookSignature:"William Froneman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5962.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109336",title:"Prof.",name:"William",surname:"Froneman",slug:"william-froneman",fullName:"William Froneman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"17478",title:"Nanotech Biofuels and Fuel Additives",doi:"10.5772/16955",slug:"nanotech-biofuels-and-fuel-additives",body:'
1. Introduction
This chapter was inspired by an invited presentation of the author at the Chemindix conference in Bahrain in October 2010. This was the 8th. International Conference & Exhibition on Chemistry in Industry, promoted by the Saudi Chapter of the American Chemical Society and Aramco. The focus is on reviewing the application of nanotechnology to biofuels production and to the utilization of fuel additives, some of which are derived from renewable materials.
To introduce the topic, the broader context of petroleum fuels and biofuels is presented. A smart future of oil refining would be to increasingly utilize margins to finance a transition away from oil towards future alternative providers of mobility, in particular biofuels.
Future scenarios of liquid biofuels involve the market penetration of second and further generations of technologies and the continuous improvement of first generation processes. On the other hand, nanotechnologies are among the candidate technologies for the biofuels of the future. The nanotechnology field is vast and its applications unbound.
This is followed by a brief review of nanotechnology developments, especially as they apply to liquid particles, beyond the more common solid particle applications.
Algae growth, harvesting and conversion are presented and discussed, given the immense potential of their contribution towards an energy future where biofuels play a significant role.
Most of the current effort in second generation conversion to liquid biofuels is based on biomass cellulosics to ethanol and biodiesel. Nano processes are being pursued and will be reviewed in the chapter.
Likewise, the presently used processes to convert oils and animal fat into biodiesel are based on trans-esterification with methanol or ethanol, which inevitably generates glycerol, which must find a market or get disposed properly. Nano processes may be useful in addressing this issue.
Speculative considerations are made about the role of liquid nanoparticles of fuel additives in enhancing the performance of additized biofuel/fuel blends, in connection with surface and combustion effects.
Public concerns over the impacts of nanotechnologies on security, health and the environment are also mentioned and discussed. But, a cautionary optimistic view is presented on the huge benefits of a careful penetration of nanotechnologies in the realm of biofuels and fuel additives, and in many more applications, especially those dealing with human health.
2. The future of oil refining [1] and the oil transition to alternatives [2]
Crucial challenges to the oil industry are evolving, as the demand for energy services (mobility, lighting, rotary movement, heating and cooling) increases, which with the current technology setup, is translated into expanding demand for liquid fossil fuels. Oil producers and refiners face difficulties finding sufficient good quality crude oil in adequate amounts and reasonable costs to meet growing demand over the long run, while users and the public at large are pushing for environmental improvements, such as better air quality in the immediate future. Moreover, concerns about the impacts of climate change caused by increased greenhouse gases emissions from the production and use of liquid hydrocarbons may eventually force a transition to climate friendly energy services providing systems. This offers biofuels a market penetration opportunity in the transition towards a yet undefined new energy future.
Under this background, the oil refining industry in the USA and the European Union has been stagnant. It has been immobilized by environmental obstacles posed by an articulated public, augmented by a “not in my backyard” attitude that makes it difficult to build new refineries. In addition, declining margins for refined products may have led major players to focus more on the upstream.
On the other hand, refining is expanding in other parts of the world, such as India, China, Brazil and the Middle East, as these countries develop and the oil producers attempt to add more value to their resources. An evidence of the shift of refining towards developing economies is the fact that the largest refinery in the world is in India and belongs to Reliance.
But, all over the world, the increase in the long-term marginal cost of oil combined with environmental pressures and stricter government regulations and mandates are likely to lead to the decline of the centrality of oil in the global energy mix in favor of natural gas. This shift in dominance happened to wood and coal over the past two centuries and is now happening to oil. Oil companies are increasingly calling themselves energy companies. Some of them will leverage their current oil production margins to make a smooth transition to alternatives over time. A profitable transition to alternatives in the oil economy would require a gradual transfer of oil profits into green investments and the stretching of current oil supplies.
3. Liquid biofuels issues [3]
The enormous global daily consumption of liquid fuels is of the order of 80 million barrels/day (e equivalent of 12.7 million m3/day). The sugar cane area required to produce the same volume of ethanol is about 700 million hectares, assuming a yield of 6.5 m3/ha/year of ethanol. This area is equivalent to 100 times the sugar cane cultivated area in Brazil, the second largest bio-ethanol producer in the world. Biofuels definitely face an issue of scale. In 2010, fuel ethanol and biodiesel combined displaced a mere 3% of oil in the world.
Figure 1[4] below illustrates the scale issue by showing how much land it would take for the USA to grow its own fuel.
It appears that algae require the least area to meet the large scale demand of liquid fuels in the USA, whereas the area required by soybeans is larger than the USA’s 48 continental states. The area required by corn is substantial. This suggests that the current biofuels production base of the USA would not be able to meet demand, and imports would be required to meet the colossal American energy appetite.
Figure 1.
How much land would it take for the USA to grow its own fuel?
The scale challenge posed to biofuels relates to the labour, management, land, water and sunshine required to produce the biomass and the processing that originates them. These are scarce resources that are also needed to grow food, feed and fibre to ultimately meet various human demands. These are resources that have an opportunity cost from competing markets. To develop biofuels in the scale of commercial liquid fuels require massive financing, a resource that may have alternative uses as well. The mobilization of private capital under a perception of market and other uncertainties is another issue that biofuels have to resolve in order to thrive.
The production of biofuels is accompanied by local environmental issues that need addressing. For instance, in the case of sugar cane ethanol, stillage the liquid residue of distillation, has a high chemical and biological oxygen demand and requires appropriate processing before final disposal. From a global climate change perspective, designed and managed properly, a biofuels production system would add minimally to greenhouse gas emissions. But, in practice, many biofuel production systems in the world are contributing net GHG emissions.
A bone of contention in the development of the biofuels industry is the present competition for feedstocks between the food and fuel industries. In the case of biodiesel, all commercial vegetable oils that are used in preparing food are also convertible to biodiesel. A similar situation exists with respect to fuel ethanol, especially for the starch-based feedstocks (corn and wheat). However, the hike in food prices that happened globally in 2007/8 and is happening in 2010/1 derive mostly from other causes such as droughts and other climate related phenomena, higher oil prices and market speculation.
Since the cost of biofuels is dominated by feedstocks cost, access to feedstocks in the required amounts, timing and at adequate prices is key to the success of the biofuels economy. The combination of the food versus fuel conundrum with the need to have reliable and economic access to feedstocks is shifting the industry towards non-food feedstocks and to the market penetration of second generation technologies to convert cellulosic biomass into liquid biofuels.
Concern in important consuming markets about the sustainability of biofuels producing systems is putting pressure on suppliers to abide by sustainability protocols subject to certification. The sustainability of biofuels is actually linked to freer international trade, which would tend to phase out unsustainably produced biofuels in favour of regions of the world that can meet sustainable production requirements. A valuable discussion on this matter was hosted by the Rockefeller Foundation in 2008 at its Bellagio Centre and produced a sustainable biofuels consensus. The objective was to understand the many drivers for sustainable trade, consumption and production of biofuels, and the comparative advantage of supplying regions combined with demand and technology from consuming regions [5].
However, much remains to be done to achieve free international trade of biofuels. The World Trade Organization Doha rounds have reached an impasse. Currently, biodiesel is considered an industrial product, whereas fuel ethanol is categorized as an agricultural product, which allows more protectionism. What is needed is a unified treatment of biofuels, where they are classified under environmental goods and services. But, irrespective of these drawbacks, a sign pointing to a larger role for biofuels in the future are the new biofuels technology initiatives by large oil companies, such as BP, Chevron, Exxon and Shell.
The development of the international trade in biofuels is likely to distribute more evenly the production and consumption of biofuels in the world. For the time being, biofuels production is overwhelmingly concentrated in the USA, Brazil and the European Union, as shown in Fig. 2 below[6].
4. The vastness of nanotechnology
Nanotechnology can be simply defined as the discipline of building machines/devices on the scale of molecules, a few Nanometers (10-9m) wide, way smaller than a cell. Table 1 below show some practical applications of nanotechnologies and confirms the vastness of their domain [7]:
In the practically important area of polymers, nanotechnologies originate nano-structured polymers, where applications can be found in support structures; manufacturing processes; diagnostics and therapy; pharmaceuticals; medical and dental prosthesis; and thin films for surface treatment. The main chemicals involved in nano-structured polymers are: poly-oxides; poly-acrylates; poly-vinylics; poly-saccharides; and poly-ethylenes. The main materials incorporated into polymer nano-matrices are silicon, chromium and carbon[8]
Figure 2.
World’s biofuels production is concentrated in the US, Brazil and the EU
As shown in Fig. 1, biofuels derived from algae offer a great potential in view of the possible high yields and smaller area requirements. In addition, algae can play a role in carbon mitigation, as one way of growing algae is to feed them carbon-dioxide (CO2), besides water and sunlight. Algae can be fed other substrates as well, because to grow, cost-effectively, on carbon dioxide there would be a need of concentrated sources of the gas, such as found in combustion off-gases from fossil fueled power plants.
Oil can form up to 50% of the algae mass, in contrast with the best oil-bearing plants – oil palm trees – where less than 20% of the biomass is made out of foil. Algae carbohydrates can also be made into ethanol or gasified into bio-gas, or methane or hydrogen [9].
But, algae development into biofuels must overcome a number of challenges before algae can become significant sources of commercial biofuels. Since algae also need water to grow, expansion of algae production may create a dilemma of water versus fuel, similar to food versus fuel dilemma discussed previously. Another challenge is the low natural carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere, hence the consideration of additional sources of carbon for algal growth in a commercial biofuels system. One response to these challenges may include the use of nanotechnology to turn algae into biofuels.
As way of examples, in 2009, the company QuantumSphere received a grant from the California Energy Commission to develop a nano-catalyzed algae biogasification. Also in California, the Salton Sea receives large amounts of agricultural runoff, which sometimes create large algae blooms. These algae and similar biomass have been turned experimentally into methane, hydrogen and other gases [10].
One nanotechnology relevant to algae development is the use of nanoparticles as no-harm harvesters of biofuel oils from algae, as illustrated in Fig. 3 [11]. The nano particles are shown on the left hand side of the photograph before the oil pregnant algae are added. The right hand side shows the contacting between the algae and the nano particles, which results in extracting the oil without harming the algae. Maintaining the algae alive can dramatically reduce production costs and the generation cycle.
Figure 3.
Nano-particles harvesting oil from algae without harming the organism
One possible downside of the nano-harvesters is the risk that they may be released into the environment, although the spherical nano-particles are made of calcium compounds and sand [12]. The pores of the spheres are lined with chemicals, which extract algal oil without breaking the cell membrane. Nevertheless, prior to commercial market penetration of nano-harvesting, there would be a need to carry out due diligence to ensure the safety of these processes.
6. Nanotechnology applied to landfill facilities[13]
The organic matter in landfills tend to undergo anaerobic fermentation yielding methane and CO2 [14], which if naturally vented into the atmosphere would add to the greenhouse emissions that warm the climate. And the climate change impact of methane is 25 times larger than that of carbon dioxide for a time horizon of 100 years [15]. Thus, there is a need to sequester the carbon present in landfill methane. Nano-catalysts can crack methane into elemental carbon and hydrogen. The carbon can be produced in high-purity nano-graphite for use in aerospace, automobile, batteries, etc. This approach to handling methane can considerably improve the economics of landfills as well as of anaerobic digester plants that generate electricity from biogas fueled electricity.
7. Nanotechnology to convert biomass into biofuels
Delinking biofuels production from food crops is a necessary condition to expand the scale of the market penetration of biofuels globally. Among the challenges this strategy faces is the inherent resistance of cellulosic feedstocks to conversion to simpler sugars that can be fermented into ethanol. Here, the promise lies in nano-particles used as immobilizing beds for expensive enzymes that can be used over and over again to breakdown the long chain cellulose polymers into simpler fermentable sugars [16].
The Louisiana Tech University is one among many organizations worldwide engaged in this endeavour, through the work of Dr. James Palmer, in collaborating with fellow professors Dr. Yuri Lvov, Dr. Dale Snow, and Dr. Hisham Hegab [17]. The focus is on non-edible cellulosic biomass, such as wood, grass, stalks, etc, to be converted into ethanol. This approach to produce ethanol can reduce GHG emissions by some 86% over fossils fuels.
The broader field of nanotechnology research into converting biomass into biofuels is growing fast. For example, in 2007 the oil company BP has granted a research fund of $500 million to the University of California, at Berkeley, and the University of Illinois, to explore the conversion of corn, plant material, algae and switch grass into fuel [18].
In the past, Berkeley had used nanotechnology in research for cost-effective solar panels [19]. But, the new Energy Biosciences Institute – EBI created at Berkeley will focus on fuel production with minimum environmental impacts and carbon emissions. A three pronged approach is being employed that begins with technologies for better crop production, improved feedstocks processing and development of new biofuels. The application of this approach aims at developing better feedstocks, breaking down plant material into sugars and their conversion to ethanol. Success along this pathway is expected to lead EBI to investigate the use of nanotechnology to develop other alternative fuels, such as butanol and renewable hydrocarbon fuels.
Another relevant application of nanotechnology is the use of nano-catalysts for the trans-esterification of fatty esters from vegetable oils or animal fats into biodiesel and glycerol [20]. The nano-catalyst spheres replace the commonly used sodium methoxide. The spheres are loaded with acidic catalysts to react with the free fatty acids and basic catalysts to react with the oils. This approach eliminates several production steps of the conventional process, including acid neutralization, water washes and separations. All those steps dissolve the sodium methoxide catalyst so it can\'t be used again. In contrast, the catalytic nanospheres can be recovered and recycled. The overall result is a cheaper, simpler and leaner process. In summary, the process claims to be economical, recyclable, to react at mild temperatures and pressures, with both low and high FFA (free fatty acid) feedstock, producing cleaner biodiesel and cleaner glycerol, greatly reducing water consumption and environmental contaminants, and can be used in existing facilities.
8. Nanotech liquid additives
All previous presentation and discussion referred to solid nano-particles playing a catalytic role in the obtaining biofuels from algae, landfill methane and biomass. The following segments will examine the practical opportunities that exist for liquid nano-particles or droplets [21]. Consider multifunctional surface active liquid additives, whose lubricity enhancement is achieved via the formation of a monolayer over the surfaces in contact with additized fuel. [22] The treat rate for lubricity is determined by the adsorption saturation concentration. Speculate that the improved detergency and water co-solvency is obtained by the formation of nano emulsions. Also, postulate that the more complete combustion and consequent fuel efficiency increase is the result of the behaviour of nano droplets. These nano droplets result from the surfactant action of the additive in the fuel formulation and the presence of some water in all commercial fuel systems, usually due to evening condensation.
Research by Wulff and colleagues [23] has shown that nano emulsions, which the authors call micro emulsions, with fuel (biofuel included most likely), water and surfactant are:
Thermodynamically stable and
Microscopically isotropic, and
Nano-structured (thus, nano emulsions).
Their research concluded that:
The use of these nano structures with fuel, water and surfactant is able to break the usual trade off between reduction of soot and NOx emissions, by achieving them simultaneously, and
For the same fuel consumption, higher efficiency is obtained.
Strey and collaborators filed patent applications for what they call micro-emulsions used as fuel [24]. The interpretation offered for the behaviour of stable diesel (and most likely biodiesel)-water-surfactant nano emulsions is as follows:
The surfactant components –oleic acid and nitrogen containing compounds (amines) – dissolve readily in diesel (and possibly in biodiesel) fuel and bind water to it without stirring;
The water droplets are as small as a nanometer across, helping stabilize the emulsion
The result is a “liquid sponge”, can be stored indefinitely, like ordinary diesel fuel, without risk of phase separation
This fuel formulation, when burned, results in the near-complete elimination of soot, and a reduction of up to 80% in nitrogen-oxide emissions
The surfactant in the formulation also burns without creating emissions beyond water, carbon dioxide and nitrogen
9. Public concerns over nanotechnology: security, health and the environment
As with all new technologies, there may be cause to concern about impacts, such as on security, health and the environment. Nanotechnologies have been the subject of many assessments seeking to anticipate possible consequences of their deployment, to humans and to the environment. For instance, the Woodrow Wilson Center carried out a Nanotechnology project [25] from 2005. The project managers said that “manipulating materials at the atomic level can have astronomic repercussions, both positive and negative. The problem is no one really knows exactly what these effects may be.” This was the motivation for the Project on Emerging Nanotechnology at the Woodrow Wilson Center.
Another initiative came from the International Risk Governance Council – IRGC’s Nanotechnology project [26]. Two expert workshops were held. The first in May 2005 focused on how to frame nanotechnology, its risks and its benefits. A distinction was made between the nanotechnologies of the so-called Frame One (passive or classical technology assessment) and Frame Two (active or the social desirability of innovation). The second, in January 2006, concentrated on identifying gaps in nanotechnology risk governance and developing recommendations for improved risk governance.
A symposium on the subject took place in Zurich in July 2006. A presentation by Ortwin Renn[27] discussed the policy implications of Frame One, referred to in Fig. 4. The fact is that “most people have no clear associations when it comes to nanotech. They expect economic benefits but no revolutionary technological breakthroughs. Risks are often not explicitly mentioned but there is a concern for unforeseen side effects. There is a latent concern about industry, science and politics building a coalition against public interest. And one negative incident could have a major negative impact on public attitudes.”
Figure 4.
Frames of reference of nanotechnology generations
The IRGC’s Nanotechnology project concluded[28], among other things, that “communication about nanotechnology’s benefits and risks should reflect the distinction between passive and active nano-materials and products, stressing that different approaches to managing risks are required for each. Care should also be taken to ensure that potential societal concerns about the possible impacts of Frame Two active nano-materials do not have the effect of unnecessarily increasing anxiety regarding Frame One products using only passive nanostructures.” This is further expounded by Renn [29] as follows: “Frame One passive nanostructures are found, for example, in easy-to-clean surfaces, paints or in cosmetics. Frame Two refers to active nanostructures and molecular systems which could be able to interact actively or could be understood as evolutionary biosystems which change their properties in an autonomous process.”
In reality, nanotechnologies are already facing challenges. Man-made nano-materials have been banned by the UK Soil Association from all its certified organic products. The 2008 annual report of the Soil Association of the UK contains the following statement [30]: “The Soil Association published the world’s first standards banning nanotechnology. The risks of nanotechnology are still largely unknown, untested and unpredictable. Initial scientific studies show negative effects on living organisms, and three years ago scientists warned the Government that the release of nanoparticles should be ‘avoided as far as possible’. There are many parallels with GM in the way nanotechnology is developing, particularly because commercial opportunities have run ahead of scientific understanding and regulatory control. What’s more, while nano-substances are being rapidly introduced to the market, there is no official assessment process or labeling of the products – which is even worse than GM.
Health and beauty products that use nanoparticles are of concern for their potential toxicity if they get under the skin. Similar concerns exist regarding food and textiles. Definitely, more studies about health and environmental impacts are needed, to alleviate public concerns.
On the other hand, there is so much potential for nanotechnologies to do good, that Frame One and Two assessments should proceed as new applications evolve, including for instance more effective delivery of drugs to fight human and animal disease.
Fig. 5 showing a RNA nano-particle created by Peixuan Guo of Purdue University, illustrates the point. Strands are spliced together from two kinds of RNA – a scaffold and a hunter to find cancer cells. This nano-structure has proven effective against cancer growth in living mice as well as lab-grown human nasopharyngeal carcinoma and breast cancer cells.
10. Conclusions
Increasing demand for energy services in the decades ahead will require an expanding supply of liquid fuels, despite efforts at improving energy efficiency and diversification of energy systems, including growing use of electricity in transportation. Biofuels have a key role to play in this scenario. However, the future supply of biofuels must be of such a scale that non-food feedstocks and new technologies are intensively employed. Nanotechnologies are primary candidates to play a prominent role in this energy future. They will help bring to markets liquid biofuels, including renewable hydrocarbons, from algae, carbohydrates, fatty esters and biogas. Nanotechnologies will also play a role in augmenting the efficiency of using current and future liquid fuels, especially biofuels, by providing improved
Figure 5.
RNA nano-particle created by Peixuan Guo, Purdue University [31]
combustion of nanodroplets. While there are risks in each and every new technology, the world today is much better equipped to assess risks and act accordingly, that it seems possible to advance nanotechnologies applied to biofuels, without jeopardizing security, public health or the environment. But, the reach of nanotechnologies is vast and goes much beyond biofuels and offer hopes in so many areas, including importantly, human health.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/17478.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/17478.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/17478",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/17478",totalDownloads:6319,totalViews:491,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"October 17th 2010",dateReviewed:"March 16th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 1st 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/17478",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/17478",book:{slug:"biofuel-s-engineering-process-technology"},signatures:"Sergio C. Trindade",authors:[{id:"26784",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"C",surname:"Trindade",fullName:"Sergio Trindade",slug:"sergio-trindade",email:"strindade@alum.mit.edu",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The future of oil refining [1] and the oil transition to alternatives [2]",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Liquid biofuels issues [3]",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The vastness of nanotechnology ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Turning algae into biofuels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Nanotechnology applied to landfill facilities[13]",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Nanotechnology to convert biomass into biofuels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Nanotech liquid additives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Public concerns over nanotechnology: security, health and the environment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'TrindadeS. C.2010Refining will definitely survive. Pipeline Magazine, 29 August 2010'},{id:"B2",body:'TrindadeS. C.2010Renewable Energy Perspective- a profitable pathway from oil, Exploration and Processing, Fall 2010 [89Sep.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'TrindadeS. C.2010International Biofuels Trade: Issues and Options. International Biofuels Conference_São Paulo, 2628May.'},{id:"B4",body:'SantanaG.QuirkS.2009Growing Green: An In-Depth Look at the Emerging Algae Industry, Greener Dawn Research, 22 July, 16p.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B5",body:'SustainableA.BiofuelsConsensus.2008Statement from a conference hosted by the Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio Study and Conference Center, Bellagio, Italy, 2428March 2008'},{id:"B6",body:'www.defra.gsi.gov.uk2007In: F.O. Lichts’s World Ethanol and Biofuels Report, 4365 and Vol4\n\t\t\t\t\t17 p.391, Turnbridge Wells, U.K.: F.O. Licht, 2006.'},{id:"B7",body:'Carvalhoda.SilvaF.daP. R.CostaBrum. T. N.dosSantos.2005Nanotechnology/Nanoscience Knowledge Managament emphasizing nanostructured polymers. Presentation, School of Chemistry, UFRJ, Brazil.'},{id:"B8",body:'BorschiverS.GuimarãesM. J. O. C.dosT. N.SantosF. C.daSilva. P. R. C.Brum2005Patenteamento em Nanotecnologia: Estudo do Setor de Materiais Poliméricos Nanoestruturados., Polímeros: Ciência e Tecnologia, 15n° 4, 245248\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B9",body:'http://ecolocalizer.com/2009/04/23/nanotechnology-to-aid-the-commercial-viability-of-algal-bio-fuel-production, 2009'},{id:"B10",body:'http://www.qsinano.com/news/releases/2009_02_24.php'},{id:"B11",body:'http://www.ameslab.gov/news/news-releases/nanofarming-technology-extracts-biofuel-oil-without-harming-algae'},{id:"B12",body:'http://www.ameslab.gov/news/news-releases/nanofarming-technology-extracts-biofuel-oil-without-harming-algae'},{id:"B13",body:'http://biomassmagazine.com/articles/2354/dudek-catalyx-nanotech-to-build-landfill-facilities'},{id:"B14",body:'http://journalstar.com/news/local/article_6d5b6a34-e86f-11df-ae58-001cc4c002e0.html2010'},{id:"B15",body:'http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming_potential'},{id:"B16",body:'http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091008131858.htm'},{id:"B17",body:'Nanotechnology Used In Biofuel Process to Save Money, Environment Science Daily (Oct.2009'},{id:"B18",body:'http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2007/02/01_ebi.shtml'},{id:"B19",body:'U.S. Department of Energy.Berkeley Lab Helios Project. (n.d.) Helios Solar Energy Research Center. Goals and challenges. Retrieved December 10, 2009from http://www.lbl.gov/LBL-Programs/heliosserc/html/goals.html\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'http://www.public.iastate.edu/~nscentral/news/2007/jun/catilin.shtml'},{id:"B21",body:'Cleaner diesel engines- pouring water on troubled oils, The Economist, June 3rd,201086http://www.economist.com/node/16271415'},{id:"B22",body:'http://www.internationalfuel.com'},{id:"B23",body:'WulffP.LadaB.EngelskirchenS.StreyR.2008Water-biofuel microemulsions. Institute for Physical Chemistry, University of Cologne.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B24",body:'http://strey.unikoeln.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Download/WATER___BIOFUEL_MICROEMULSIONS.pdf\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'http://strey.uni-koeln.de/333.html?&L=1'},{id:"B26",body:'StreyR.et al.2007Microemulsions and use thereof as a fuel. US Patent Application 2007/028507, Feb. 8. http://www.rexresearch.com/strey/strey.htm'},{id:"B27",body:'http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.htm?programID=05-P13-00050&segmentID=3'},{id:"B28",body:'http://www.irgc.org/-Nanotechnology-.html'},{id:"B29",body:'http://www.yasni.ch/ext.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irgc.org%2FIMG%2Fpdf%2FOrtwin_Renn_Nanotechnology_Frame_1_Policy_Implications_.pdf&name=Ortwin+Renn&cat=document&showads=1'},{id:"B30",body:'http://www.irgc.org/Policy-Recommendations,188.html'},{id:"B31",body:'http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/documents/ev_20081002_rep_en.pdf, p.14'},{id:"B32",body:'http://www.soilassociation.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=Moyw3Q7H%2Fp4%3Dtaid=303,22\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B33",body:'http://www.eng.uc.edu/nanomedicine/Papers/1NCI.pdf'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sergio C. Trindade",address:"",affiliation:'
SE2T International, Ltd. and International Fuel Technology, Inc., USA
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"450",title:"Biofuel's Engineering Process Technology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biofuel's Engineering Process Technology",slug:"biofuel-s-engineering-process-technology",publishedDate:"August 1st 2011",bookSignature:"Marco Aurélio dos Santos Bernardes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/450.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6625",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Aurelio",middleName:null,surname:"Dos Santos Bernardes",slug:"marco-aurelio-dos-santos-bernardes",fullName:"Marco Aurelio Dos Santos Bernardes"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"17474",title:"The Effect of Thermal Pretreatment Process on Bio-Fuel Conversion",slug:"the-effect-of-thermal-pretreatment-process-on-bio-fuel-conversion",totalDownloads:2715,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Aleksander Ryzhkov, Vadim Silin, Tatyana Bogatova, Aleksander Popov and Galina Usova",authors:[{id:"27414",title:"Dr.",name:"Vadim",middleName:null,surname:"Silin",fullName:"Vadim Silin",slug:"vadim-silin"},{id:"43073",title:"Mr.",name:"Aleksander",middleName:null,surname:"Popov",fullName:"Aleksander Popov",slug:"aleksander-popov"},{id:"43074",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatyana",middleName:null,surname:"Bogatova",fullName:"Tatyana Bogatova",slug:"tatyana-bogatova"},{id:"43075",title:"Ms.",name:"Galina",middleName:null,surname:"Usova",fullName:"Galina Usova",slug:"galina-usova"},{id:"43077",title:"Mr",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Ryzhkov",fullName:"Alexander Ryzhkov",slug:"alexander-ryzhkov"}]},{id:"17475",title:"The Challenge of Bioenergies: An Overview",slug:"the-challenge-of-bioenergies-an-overview",totalDownloads:2442,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Nicolas Carels",authors:[{id:"24968",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",middleName:null,surname:"Carels",fullName:"Nicolas Carels",slug:"nicolas-carels"}]},{id:"17476",title:"Biogas Upgrading by Pressure Swing Adsorption",slug:"biogas-upgrading-by-pressure-swing-adsorption",totalDownloads:8751,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Carlos A. Grande",authors:[{id:"31487",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"Adolfo",surname:"Grande",fullName:"Carlos Grande",slug:"carlos-grande"}]},{id:"17477",title:"Use of Rapeseed Straight Vegetable Oil as Fuel Produced in Small-Scale Exploitations",slug:"use-of-rapeseed-straight-vegetable-oil-as-fuel-produced-in-small-scale-exploitations",totalDownloads:2580,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Grau Baquero, Bernat Esteban, Jordi-Roger Riba, Rita Puig and Antoni Rius",authors:[{id:"30674",title:"Dr.",name:"Jordi-Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Riba",fullName:"Jordi-Roger Riba",slug:"jordi-roger-riba"},{id:"30684",title:"MSc.",name:"Bernat",middleName:null,surname:"Esteban",fullName:"Bernat Esteban",slug:"bernat-esteban"},{id:"30685",title:"Dr.",name:"Grau",middleName:null,surname:"Baquero",fullName:"Grau Baquero",slug:"grau-baquero"},{id:"30686",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Puig",fullName:"Rita Puig",slug:"rita-puig"},{id:"30687",title:"Dr.",name:"Antoni",middleName:null,surname:"Rius",fullName:"Antoni Rius",slug:"antoni-rius"}]},{id:"17478",title:"Nanotech Biofuels and Fuel Additives",slug:"nanotech-biofuels-and-fuel-additives",totalDownloads:6319,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Sergio C. Trindade",authors:[{id:"26784",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"C",surname:"Trindade",fullName:"Sergio Trindade",slug:"sergio-trindade"}]},{id:"17479",title:"Bioresources for Third-Generation Biofuels",slug:"bioresources-for-third-generation-biofuels",totalDownloads:3911,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Rafael Picazo-Espinosa, Jesús González-López and Maximino Manzanera",authors:[{id:"27371",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximino",middleName:null,surname:"Manzanera",fullName:"Maximino Manzanera",slug:"maximino-manzanera"},{id:"34626",title:"Mr",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Picazo-Espinosa",fullName:"Rafael Picazo-Espinosa",slug:"rafael-picazo-espinosa"},{id:"87059",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"González-López",fullName:"Jesús González-López",slug:"jesus-gonzalez-lopez"}]},{id:"17480",title:"Overview of Corn-Based Fuel Ethanol Coproducts: Production and Use",slug:"overview-of-corn-based-fuel-ethanol-coproducts-production-and-use",totalDownloads:4447,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Kurt A. Rosentrater",authors:[{id:"27500",title:"Dr.",name:"Kurt",middleName:"A.",surname:"Rosentrater",fullName:"Kurt Rosentrater",slug:"kurt-rosentrater"}]},{id:"17481",title:"Biorefinery Processes for Biomass Conversion to Liquid Fuel",slug:"biorefinery-processes-for-biomass-conversion-to-liquid-fuel",totalDownloads:6088,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Shuangning Xiu, Bo Zhang and Abolghasem Shahbazi",authors:[{id:"25012",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuangning",middleName:null,surname:"Xiu",fullName:"Shuangning Xiu",slug:"shuangning-xiu"},{id:"38668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghasem",middleName:null,surname:"Shahbazi",fullName:"Ghasem Shahbazi",slug:"ghasem-shahbazi"},{id:"80440",title:"Dr.",name:"Bo",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Bo Zhang",slug:"bo-zhang"}]},{id:"17482",title:"Utilisation of Waste from Digesters for Biogas Production",slug:"utilisation-of-waste-from-digesters-for-biogas-production",totalDownloads:2823,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Ladislav Kolář, Stanislav Kužel, Jiří Peterka and Jana Borová-Batt",authors:[{id:"27030",title:"Dr.",name:"Ladislav",middleName:null,surname:"Kolar",fullName:"Ladislav Kolar",slug:"ladislav-kolar"},{id:"33954",title:"Mr.",name:"Stanislav",middleName:null,surname:"Kuzel",fullName:"Stanislav Kuzel",slug:"stanislav-kuzel"},{id:"33955",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jiří",middleName:null,surname:"Peterka",fullName:"Jiří Peterka",slug:"jiri-peterka"},{id:"33956",title:"Mrs",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Borová-Batt",fullName:"Jana Borová-Batt",slug:"jana-borova-batt"}]},{id:"17483",title:"Biodiesel Production and Quality",slug:"biodiesel-production-and-quality",totalDownloads:8061,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Roseli Ap. Ferrari, Anna Leticia M. Turtelli Pighinelli and Kil Jin Park",authors:[{id:"27184",title:"Dr.",name:"ROSELI",middleName:null,surname:"FERRARI",fullName:"ROSELI FERRARI",slug:"roseli-ferrari"},{id:"29629",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Leticia",middleName:null,surname:"M. Turtelli Pighinelli",fullName:"Anna Leticia M. Turtelli Pighinelli",slug:"anna-leticia-m.-turtelli-pighinelli"},{id:"29630",title:"Dr.",name:"Kil",middleName:null,surname:"Jin Park",fullName:"Kil Jin Park",slug:"kil-jin-park"}]},{id:"17484",title:"Perspectives of Biobutanol Production and Use",slug:"perspectives-of-biobutanol-production-and-use",totalDownloads:5817,totalCrossrefCites:8,signatures:"Petra Patakova, Daniel Maxa, Mojmir Rychtera, Michaela Linhova, Petr Fribert, Zlata Muzikova, Jakub Lipovsky, Leona Paulova, Milan Pospisil, Gustav Sebor and Karel Melzoch",authors:[{id:"25189",title:"Prof.",name:"Petra",middleName:null,surname:"Patakova",fullName:"Petra Patakova",slug:"petra-patakova"},{id:"38039",title:"Prof.",name:"Milan",middleName:null,surname:"Pospíšil",fullName:"Milan Pospíšil",slug:"milan-pospisil"},{id:"38040",title:"MSc",name:"Michaela",middleName:null,surname:"Linhova",fullName:"Michaela Linhova",slug:"michaela-linhova"},{id:"38041",title:"Prof.",name:"Jakub",middleName:null,surname:"Lipovsky",fullName:"Jakub Lipovsky",slug:"jakub-lipovsky"},{id:"38042",title:"MSc",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Fribert",fullName:"Petr Fribert",slug:"petr-fribert"},{id:"38043",title:"Prof.",name:"Leona",middleName:null,surname:"Paulova",fullName:"Leona Paulova",slug:"leona-paulova"},{id:"38044",title:"Prof.",name:"Mojmir",middleName:null,surname:"Rychtera",fullName:"Mojmir Rychtera",slug:"mojmir-rychtera"},{id:"38045",title:"Prof.",name:"Karel",middleName:null,surname:"Melzoch",fullName:"Karel Melzoch",slug:"karel-melzoch"},{id:"38046",title:"Prof.",name:"Zlata",middleName:null,surname:"Muzikova",fullName:"Zlata Muzikova",slug:"zlata-muzikova"},{id:"38047",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Maxa",fullName:"Daniel Maxa",slug:"daniel-maxa"},{id:"38048",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustav",middleName:null,surname:"Sebor",fullName:"Gustav Sebor",slug:"gustav-sebor"}]},{id:"17485",title:"Paving the Road to Algal Biofuels with the Development of a Genetic Infrastructure",slug:"paving-the-road-to-algal-biofuels-with-the-development-of-a-genetic-infrastructure",totalDownloads:2880,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Julian N. Rosenberg, Michael J. Betenbaugh and George A. Oyler",authors:[{id:"27484",title:"Mr",name:"Julian",middleName:null,surname:"Rosenberg",fullName:"Julian Rosenberg",slug:"julian-rosenberg"},{id:"28230",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Betenbaugh",fullName:"Michael Betenbaugh",slug:"michael-betenbaugh"},{id:"28231",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Oyler",fullName:"George Oyler",slug:"george-oyler"}]},{id:"17486",title:"Rheological Characterization of Bio-Oils from Pilot Scale Microwave Assisted Pyrolysis",slug:"rheological-characterization-of-bio-oils-from-pilot-scale-microwave-assisted-pyrolysis",totalDownloads:3962,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Chinnadurai Karunanithy and Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan",authors:[{id:"25176",title:"Dr.",name:"Chinnadurai",middleName:null,surname:"Karunanithy",fullName:"Chinnadurai Karunanithy",slug:"chinnadurai-karunanithy"},{id:"28898",title:"Dr.",name:"Kasiviswanathan",middleName:null,surname:"Muthukumarappan",fullName:"Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan",slug:"kasiviswanathan-muthukumarappan"}]},{id:"17487",title:"Co-production of Bioethanol and Power",slug:"co-production-of-bioethanol-and-power",totalDownloads:2685,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Atsushi Tsutsumi and Yasuki Kansha",authors:[{id:"37659",title:"Prof.",name:"Atsushi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",fullName:"Atsushi Tsutsumi",slug:"atsushi-tsutsumi"},{id:"38949",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kansha",fullName:"Yasuki Kansha",slug:"yasuki-kansha"}]},{id:"17488",title:"Conversion of Non-Homogeneous Biomass to Ultraclean Syngas and Catalytic Conversion to Ethanol",slug:"conversion-of-non-homogeneous-biomass-to-ultraclean-syngas-and-catalytic-conversion-to-ethanol",totalDownloads:3690,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Stéphane C. Marie-Rose, Alexis Lemieux Perinet and Jean-Michel Lavoie",authors:[{id:"30688",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Lavoie",fullName:"Jean-Michel Lavoie",slug:"jean-michel-lavoie"},{id:"37198",title:"Dr.",name:"Stéphane",middleName:null,surname:"Marie-Rose",fullName:"Stéphane Marie-Rose",slug:"stephane-marie-rose"},{id:"37199",title:"MSc.",name:"Alexis",middleName:null,surname:"Lemieux Périnet",fullName:"Alexis Lemieux Périnet",slug:"alexis-lemieux-perinet"}]},{id:"17489",title:"Novel Methods in Biodiesel Production",slug:"novel-methods-in-biodiesel-production",totalDownloads:7803,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Didem Özçimen and Sevil Yücel",authors:[{id:"32444",title:"Dr.",name:"Didem",middleName:null,surname:"Özçimen",fullName:"Didem Özçimen",slug:"didem-ozcimen"},{id:"33457",title:"Dr.",name:"Sevil",middleName:null,surname:"Yucel",fullName:"Sevil Yucel",slug:"sevil-yucel"}]},{id:"17490",title:"Pyrolysis Oil Stabilisation by Catalytic Hydrotreatment",slug:"pyrolysis-oil-stabilisation-by-catalytic-hydrotreatment",totalDownloads:4577,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Venderbosch R.H. and Heeres H.J.",authors:[{id:"31524",title:"Dr.",name:"R.H.",middleName:null,surname:"Venderbosch",fullName:"R.H. Venderbosch",slug:"r.h.-venderbosch"},{id:"31525",title:"Dr.",name:"H.J.",middleName:null,surname:"Heeres",fullName:"H.J. Heeres",slug:"h.j.-heeres"}]},{id:"17491",title:"Biomass Feedstock Pre-Processing – Part 1: Pre-Treatment",slug:"biomass-feedstock-pre-processing-part-1-pre-treatment",totalDownloads:8529,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Lope Tabil, Phani Adapa and Mahdi Kashaninejad",authors:[{id:"27220",title:"MSc",name:"Phani",middleName:null,surname:"Adapa",fullName:"Phani Adapa",slug:"phani-adapa"},{id:"31671",title:"Prof.",name:"Lope",middleName:"G.",surname:"Tabil",fullName:"Lope Tabil",slug:"lope-tabil"},{id:"31672",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahdi",middleName:null,surname:"Kashaninejad",fullName:"Mahdi Kashaninejad",slug:"mahdi-kashaninejad"}]},{id:"17492",title:"Biomass Feedstock Pre-Processing – Part 2: Densification",slug:"biomass-feedstock-pre-processing-part-2-densification",totalDownloads:4760,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Lope Tabil, Phani Adapa and Mahdi Kashaninejad",authors:[{id:"27220",title:"MSc",name:"Phani",middleName:null,surname:"Adapa",fullName:"Phani Adapa",slug:"phani-adapa"},{id:"31671",title:"Prof.",name:"Lope",middleName:"G.",surname:"Tabil",fullName:"Lope Tabil",slug:"lope-tabil"},{id:"31672",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahdi",middleName:null,surname:"Kashaninejad",fullName:"Mahdi Kashaninejad",slug:"mahdi-kashaninejad"}]},{id:"17493",title:"Performances of Enzymatic Glucose/O2 Biofuel Cells",slug:"performances-of-enzymatic-glucose-o2-biofuel-cells",totalDownloads:3463,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Habrioux Aurélien, Servat Karine, Tingry Sophie and Kokoh Boniface",authors:[{id:"27529",title:"Dr.",name:"Sophie",middleName:null,surname:"Tingry",fullName:"Sophie Tingry",slug:"sophie-tingry"},{id:"28387",title:"Prof.",name:"Boniface",middleName:null,surname:"Kokoh",fullName:"Boniface Kokoh",slug:"boniface-kokoh"},{id:"29442",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurélien",middleName:null,surname:"Habrioux",fullName:"Aurélien Habrioux",slug:"aurelien-habrioux"},{id:"29443",title:"Dr.",name:"Karine",middleName:null,surname:"Servat",fullName:"Karine Servat",slug:"karine-servat"}]},{id:"17494",title:"Quantifying Bio-Engineering: The Importance of Biophysics in Biofuel Research",slug:"quantifying-bio-engineering-the-importance-of-biophysics-in-biofuel-research",totalDownloads:2286,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Patanjali Varanasi, Lan Sun, Bernhard Knierim, Elena Bosneaga, Purbasha Sarkar, Seema Singh and Manfred Auer",authors:[{id:"30721",title:"Dr.",name:"Manfred",middleName:null,surname:"Auer",fullName:"Manfred Auer",slug:"manfred-auer"},{id:"38806",title:"Ms.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Bosneaga",fullName:"Elena Bosneaga",slug:"elena-bosneaga"},{id:"38807",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernhard",middleName:null,surname:"Knierim",fullName:"Bernhard Knierim",slug:"bernhard-knierim"},{id:"38809",title:"Dr.",name:"Purbasha",middleName:null,surname:"Sakar",fullName:"Purbasha Sakar",slug:"purbasha-sakar"},{id:"38810",title:"Dr.",name:"Lan",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Lan Sun",slug:"lan-sun"},{id:"38811",title:"Dr.",name:"Patanjali",middleName:null,surname:"Varanasi",fullName:"Patanjali Varanasi",slug:"patanjali-varanasi"},{id:"113536",title:"Dr.",name:"Seema",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",fullName:"Seema Singh",slug:"seema-singh"}]},{id:"17495",title:"Kinetic Study on Palm Oil Waste Decomposition",slug:"kinetic-study-on-palm-oil-waste-decomposition",totalDownloads:2572,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Zakir Khan, Suzana Yusup, Murni M. Ahmad, Yoshimitsu Uemura, Vuoi S. Chok, Umer Rashid and Abrar Inayat",authors:[{id:"25173",title:"Prof.",name:"Suzana",middleName:null,surname:"Yusup",fullName:"Suzana Yusup",slug:"suzana-yusup"},{id:"25866",title:"Mr.",name:"Zakir",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Zakir Khan",slug:"zakir-khan"},{id:"25867",title:"Dr.",name:"Murni",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Murni Ahmad",slug:"murni-ahmad"},{id:"25869",title:"Mr.",name:"Voi Soon",middleName:null,surname:"Chok",fullName:"Voi Soon Chok",slug:"voi-soon-chok"},{id:"25870",title:"Mr.",name:"Abrar",middleName:null,surname:"Inayat",fullName:"Abrar Inayat",slug:"abrar-inayat"},{id:"25873",title:"Dr.",name:"Umer",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",fullName:"Umer Rashid",slug:"umer-rashid"},{id:"25885",title:"Prof.",name:"Yushimitsu",middleName:null,surname:"Uemura",fullName:"Yushimitsu Uemura",slug:"yushimitsu-uemura"}]},{id:"17496",title:"Biofuels and Energy Self-Sufficiency: Colombian Experience",slug:"biofuels-and-energy-self-sufficiency-colombian-experience",totalDownloads:2247,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Elkin Alonso Cortés-Marín and Héctor José Ciro-Velázquez",authors:[{id:"27552",title:"Prof.",name:"Elkin Alonso",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes Marin",fullName:"Elkin Alonso Cortes Marin",slug:"elkin-alonso-cortes-marin"},{id:"36917",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Ciro Velasquez",fullName:"Hector Jose Ciro Velasquez",slug:"hector-jose-ciro-velasquez"}]},{id:"17497",title:"Enzyme-Based Microfluidic Biofuel Cell to Generate Micropower",slug:"enzyme-based-microfluidic-biofuel-cell-to-generate-micropower",totalDownloads:2625,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"A.Zebda, C. Innocent, L. Renaud, M. Cretin, F. Pichot, R. Ferrigno and S. Tingry",authors:[{id:"27529",title:"Dr.",name:"Sophie",middleName:null,surname:"Tingry",fullName:"Sophie Tingry",slug:"sophie-tingry"},{id:"27557",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelkadder",middleName:null,surname:"Zebda",fullName:"Abdelkadder Zebda",slug:"abdelkadder-zebda"},{id:"27558",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Innocent",fullName:"Christophe Innocent",slug:"christophe-innocent"},{id:"27559",title:"Dr.",name:"Louis",middleName:null,surname:"Renaud",fullName:"Louis Renaud",slug:"louis-renaud"},{id:"27560",title:"Dr.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Cretin",fullName:"Marc Cretin",slug:"marc-cretin"},{id:"27561",title:"Dr.",name:"Frédéric",middleName:null,surname:"Pichot",fullName:"Frédéric Pichot",slug:"frederic-pichot"},{id:"27562",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosaria",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrigno",fullName:"Rosaria Ferrigno",slug:"rosaria-ferrigno"}]},{id:"17498",title:"Energy Paths due to Blue Tower Process",slug:"energy-paths-due-to-blue-tower-process",totalDownloads:2433,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Kiyoshi Dowaki",authors:[{id:"29883",title:"Dr.",name:"Kiyoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Dowaki",fullName:"Kiyoshi Dowaki",slug:"kiyoshi-dowaki"}]},{id:"17499",title:"Advances in the Development of Bioethanol: A Review",slug:"advances-in-the-development-of-bioethanol-a-review",totalDownloads:3319,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Giovanni Di Nicola, Eleonora Santecchia, Giulio Santori and Fabio Polonara",authors:[{id:"47975",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Di Nicola",fullName:"Giovanni Di Nicola",slug:"giovanni-di-nicola"}]},{id:"17500",title:"Effect of Fried Dishes Assortment on Chosen Properties of Used Plant Oils as Raw Materials for Production of Diesel Fuel Substitute",slug:"effect-of-fried-dishes-assortment-on-chosen-properties-of-used-plant-oils-as-raw-materials-for-produ",totalDownloads:2197,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Marek Szmigielski, Barbara Maniak, Wiesław Piekarski and Grzegorz Zając",authors:[{id:"31304",title:"Dr.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Szmigielski",fullName:"Marek Szmigielski",slug:"marek-szmigielski"},{id:"86571",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:"Anna",surname:"Maniak",fullName:"Barbara Maniak",slug:"barbara-maniak"},{id:"86577",title:"Prof.",name:"Wiesław",middleName:null,surname:"Piekarski",fullName:"Wiesław Piekarski",slug:"wieslaw-piekarski"},{id:"86582",title:"Dr.",name:"Grzegorz",middleName:null,surname:"Zając",fullName:"Grzegorz Zając",slug:"grzegorz-zajac"}]},{id:"17501",title:"Recent Development of Miniatured Enzymatic Biofuel Cells 657",slug:"recent-development-of-miniatured-enzymatic-biofuel-cells-657",totalDownloads:3519,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Yin Song, Varun Penmasta and Chunlei Wang",authors:[{id:"28377",title:"Prof.",name:"Chunlei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Chunlei Wang",slug:"chunlei-wang"},{id:"46854",title:"Ms",name:"Yin",middleName:null,surname:"Song",fullName:"Yin Song",slug:"yin-song"},{id:"46858",title:"Mr",name:"Varun",middleName:null,surname:"Penmatsa",fullName:"Varun Penmatsa",slug:"varun-penmatsa"}]},{id:"17502",title:"Biorefining Lignocellulosic Biomass via the Feedstock Impregnation Rapid and Sequential Steam Treatment",slug:"biorefining-lignocellulosic-biomass-via-the-feedstock-impregnation-rapid-and-sequential-steam-treatm",totalDownloads:2943,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Jean-Michel Lavoie, Romain Beauchet, Véronique Berberi and Michel Chornet",authors:[{id:"30688",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Lavoie",fullName:"Jean-Michel Lavoie",slug:"jean-michel-lavoie"},{id:"37167",title:"Dr.",name:"Romain",middleName:null,surname:"Beauchet",fullName:"Romain Beauchet",slug:"romain-beauchet"},{id:"37168",title:"MSc.",name:"Véronique",middleName:null,surname:"Berberi",fullName:"Véronique Berberi",slug:"veronique-berberi"},{id:"37169",title:"Mr.",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Chornet",fullName:"Michel Chornet",slug:"michel-chornet"}]},{id:"17503",title:"Biomethanol Production from Forage Grasses, Trees, and Crop Residues",slug:"biomethanol-production-from-forage-grasses-trees-and-crop-residues",totalDownloads:4249,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Hitoshi Nakagawa, Masayasu Sakai, Toshirou Harada, Toshimitsu Ichinose, Keiji Takeno, Shinji Matsumoto, Makoto Kobayashi,Keigo Matsumoto and Kenichi Yakushido",authors:[{id:"30632",title:"Dr.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Nakagawa",fullName:"Hitoshi Nakagawa",slug:"hitoshi-nakagawa"},{id:"35449",title:"Prof.",name:"Msayasu",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",fullName:"Msayasu Sakai",slug:"msayasu-sakai"},{id:"35450",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshirou",middleName:null,surname:"Harada",fullName:"Toshirou Harada",slug:"toshirou-harada"},{id:"35451",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshimitsu",middleName:null,surname:"Ichinose",fullName:"Toshimitsu Ichinose",slug:"toshimitsu-ichinose"},{id:"35452",title:"Dr.",name:"Keiji",middleName:null,surname:"Takeno",fullName:"Keiji Takeno",slug:"keiji-takeno"},{id:"35453",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenichi",middleName:null,surname:"Yakushido",fullName:"Kenichi Yakushido",slug:"kenichi-yakushido"},{id:"35454",title:"Mr",name:"Makoto",middleName:null,surname:"Kobayashi",fullName:"Makoto Kobayashi",slug:"makoto-kobayashi"},{id:"35512",title:"Mr",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Matsumoto",fullName:"Shinji Matsumoto",slug:"shinji-matsumoto"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"448",title:"Biofuel Production",subtitle:"Recent Developments and Prospects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c74ec286656d475a34445a835eee296d",slug:"biofuel-production-recent-developments-and-prospects",bookSignature:"Marco Aurelio dos Santos Bernardes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/448.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6625",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Aurelio",surname:"Dos Santos Bernardes",slug:"marco-aurelio-dos-santos-bernardes",fullName:"Marco Aurelio Dos Santos Bernardes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"20054",title:"Abiotic Stress Diagnosis via Laser Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence Analysis in Plants for Biofuel",slug:"abiotic-stress-diagnosis-via-laser-induced-chlorophyll-fluorescence-analysis-in-plants-for-biofuel",signatures:"Artur S. Gouveia-Neto, Elias Arcanjo da Silva-Jr, Patrícia C. Cunha, Ronaldo A. Oliveira-Filho, Luciana M. H. Silva, Ernande B. da Costa, Terezinha J. R. Câmara and Lilia G. Willadino",authors:[{id:"25709",title:"Prof.",name:"Artur",middleName:null,surname:"Gouveia-Neto",fullName:"Artur Gouveia-Neto",slug:"artur-gouveia-neto"},{id:"26609",title:"MSc.",name:"Elias",middleName:null,surname:"Arcanjo-Jr",fullName:"Elias Arcanjo-Jr",slug:"elias-arcanjo-jr"},{id:"26610",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Cunha",fullName:"Patricia Cunha",slug:"patricia-cunha"},{id:"26611",title:"Mr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira-Filho",fullName:"Ronaldo Oliveira-Filho",slug:"ronaldo-oliveira-filho"},{id:"26612",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernande",middleName:null,surname:"Costa",fullName:"Ernande Costa",slug:"ernande-costa"},{id:"26613",title:"Prof.",name:"Terezinha",middleName:null,surname:"Camara",fullName:"Terezinha Camara",slug:"terezinha-camara"},{id:"26614",title:"Prof.",name:"Lilia",middleName:null,surname:"Willadino",fullName:"Lilia Willadino",slug:"lilia-willadino"}]},{id:"20055",title:"Is It Possible to Use Biodiesel as a Reference Material?",slug:"is-it-possible-to-use-biodiesel-as-a-reference-material-",signatures:"Dalni Malta do E. Santo Filho, José Renato R. Siqueira, Renata Martins H. Borges, Claudio Roberto da C. Rodrigues, Alex Pablo F. Barbosa, José Júlio P. dos Santos Júnior and Roberto G. Pereira",authors:[{id:"29417",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",fullName:"Roberto Pereira",slug:"roberto-pereira"},{id:"32098",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalni",middleName:null,surname:"Santo Filho",fullName:"Dalni Santo Filho",slug:"dalni-santo-filho"},{id:"37371",title:"Mr.",name:"José Renato",middleName:null,surname:"Siqueira",fullName:"José Renato Siqueira",slug:"jose-renato-siqueira"},{id:"37372",title:"Dr.",name:"Renata",middleName:null,surname:"Borges",fullName:"Renata Borges",slug:"renata-borges"},{id:"37373",title:"BSc.",name:"Claudio Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigues",fullName:"Claudio Roberto Rodrigues",slug:"claudio-roberto-rodrigues"},{id:"37374",title:"BSc.",name:"Alex Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Barbosa",fullName:"Alex Pablo Barbosa",slug:"alex-pablo-barbosa"},{id:"37375",title:"Mr.",name:"José Júlio",middleName:null,surname:"dos Santos Júnior",fullName:"José Júlio dos Santos Júnior",slug:"jose-julio-dos-santos-junior"}]},{id:"20056",title:"First Generation Biodiesel",slug:"first-generation-biodiesel",signatures:"Guomin Xiao and Lijing Gao",authors:[{id:"47601",title:"Prof.",name:"Guomin",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",fullName:"Guomin Xiao",slug:"guomin-xiao"},{id:"47611",title:"Dr.",name:"Lijing",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",fullName:"Lijing Gao",slug:"lijing-gao"}]},{id:"20057",title:"Bioethanol – What Has Brazil Learned About Yeasts Inhabiting the Ethanol Production Processes from Sugar Cane?",slug:"bioethanol-what-has-brazil-learned-about-yeasts-inhabiting-the-ethanol-production-processes-from-sug",signatures:"Maria da Graça Stupiello Andrietta, Sílvio Roberto Andrietta and Érika Nogueira Andrade Stupiello",authors:[{id:"25627",title:"Dr.",name:"Graça",middleName:null,surname:"Andrietta",fullName:"Graça Andrietta",slug:"graca-andrietta"},{id:"34988",title:"Dr.",name:"Sílvio",middleName:null,surname:"Andrietta",fullName:"Sílvio Andrietta",slug:"silvio-andrietta"},{id:"34989",title:"Dr.",name:"Eríka",middleName:null,surname:"Stupiello",fullName:"Eríka Stupiello",slug:"erika-stupiello"}]},{id:"20058",title:"Ethanol Production in Brazil: The Industrial Process and Its Impact on Yeast Fermentation",slug:"ethanol-production-in-brazil-the-industrial-process-and-its-impact-on-yeast-fermentation",signatures:"Luiz Carlos Basso, Thiago Olitta Basso and Saul Nitsche Rocha",authors:[{id:"27097",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Basso",fullName:"Luiz Carlos Basso",slug:"luiz-carlos-basso"},{id:"27117",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago Olitta",middleName:null,surname:"Basso",fullName:"Thiago Olitta Basso",slug:"thiago-olitta-basso"},{id:"84059",title:"Prof.",name:"Saul",middleName:"Nitsche",surname:"Rocha",fullName:"Saul Rocha",slug:"saul-rocha"}]},{id:"20059",title:"Ethanol Reforming in the Dynamic Plasma - Liquid Systems",slug:"ethanol-reforming-in-the-dynamic-plasma-liquid-systems",signatures:"Valeriy Ya. Chernyak, Eugen V. Martysh, Sergei V. Olszewski, Vitalij V. Yukhymenko, Sergei M. Sidoruk, Oleg A. Nedybaliuk, Iryna V. Prysiazhnevych, Anatolij I. Shchedrin and Dmitry S. Levko",authors:[{id:"29627",title:"Prof.",name:"Valeriy",middleName:null,surname:"Chernyak",fullName:"Valeriy Chernyak",slug:"valeriy-chernyak"}]},{id:"20060",title:"Developing Organisms for Consolidated Bioprocessing of Biomass to Ethanol",slug:"developing-organisms-for-consolidated-bioprocessing-of-biomass-to-ethanol",signatures:"Willem H. van Zyl, Riaan den Haan and Daniel C. la Grange",authors:[{id:"30646",title:"Prof.",name:"Willem",middleName:"H",surname:"van Zyl",fullName:"Willem van Zyl",slug:"willem-van-zyl"},{id:"38219",title:"Dr.",name:"Riaan",middleName:null,surname:"den haan",fullName:"Riaan den haan",slug:"riaan-den-haan"},{id:"38222",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel C.",middleName:null,surname:"la Grange",fullName:"Daniel C. la Grange",slug:"daniel-c.-la-grange"}]},{id:"20061",title:"Latest Frontiers in the Biotechnologies for Ethanol Production from Lignocellulosic Biomass",slug:"latest-frontiers-in-the-biotechnologies-for-ethanol-production-from-lignocellulosic-biomass",signatures:"De Canio Paola, De Bari Isabella and Romano Patrizia",authors:[{id:"36344",title:"Dr",name:"Patrizia",middleName:null,surname:"Romano",fullName:"Patrizia Romano",slug:"patrizia-romano"},{id:"84991",title:"Dr",name:"Paola",middleName:null,surname:"De Canio",fullName:"Paola De Canio",slug:"paola-de-canio"},{id:"84992",title:"Dr",name:"Isabella",middleName:null,surname:"De Bari",fullName:"Isabella De Bari",slug:"isabella-de-bari"}]},{id:"20062",title:"Novel Approaches to Improve Cellulase Biosynthesis for Biofuel Production – Adjusting Signal Transduction Pathways in the Biotechnological Workhorse Trichoderma reesei",slug:"novel-approaches-to-improve-cellulase-biosynthesis-for-biofuel-production-adjusting-signal-transduct",signatures:"Doris Tisch and Monika Schmoll",authors:[{id:"24970",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:null,surname:"Schmoll",fullName:"Monika Schmoll",slug:"monika-schmoll"},{id:"36153",title:"Dr.",name:"Doris",middleName:null,surname:"Tisch",fullName:"Doris Tisch",slug:"doris-tisch"}]},{id:"20063",title:"Detoxification of Lignocellulosic Hydrolysates for Improved Bioethanol Production",slug:"detoxification-of-lignocellulosic-hydrolysates-for-improved-bioethanol-production",signatures:"Anuj K. Chandel, Silvio Silvério da Silva and Om V. Singh",authors:[{id:"25160",title:"Prof.",name:"Om",middleName:"V",surname:"Singh",fullName:"Om Singh",slug:"om-singh"},{id:"51540",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvio",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"Silvio Silva",slug:"silvio-silva"},{id:"76898",title:"Dr.",name:"Anuj",middleName:null,surname:"Chandel",fullName:"Anuj Chandel",slug:"anuj-chandel"}]},{id:"20064",title:"Biofuel From Cellulosic Mass with Incentive for Feed Industry Employing Thermophilic Microbes",slug:"biofuel-from-cellulosic-mass-with-incentive-for-feed-industry-employing-thermophilic-microbes",signatures:"Javed Iqbal Qazi, Naureen Chaudhary and Saima Shahzad Mirza",authors:[{id:"25478",title:"Dr.",name:"Javed Iqbal",middleName:null,surname:"Qazi",fullName:"Javed Iqbal Qazi",slug:"javed-iqbal-qazi"},{id:"136682",title:"PhD.",name:"Naureen",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",fullName:"Naureen Chaudhary",slug:"naureen-chaudhary"},{id:"136683",title:"PhD.",name:"Saima Shahzad",middleName:null,surname:"Mirza",fullName:"Saima Shahzad Mirza",slug:"saima-shahzad-mirza"}]},{id:"20065",title:"Kinetic Modelling of Dilute Acid Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass",slug:"kinetic-modelling-of-dilute-acid-hydrolysis-of-lignocellulosic-biomass",signatures:"P. Lenihan, A. Orozco, E. O’Neill, M.N.M. Ahmad, D.W. Rooney, C. Mangwandi and G.M. Walker",authors:[{id:"27361",title:"Dr.",name:"Gavin",middleName:null,surname:"walker",fullName:"Gavin walker",slug:"gavin-walker"}]},{id:"20066",title:"Trichoderma reesei: A Fungal Enzyme Producer for Cellulosic Biofuels",slug:"trichoderma-reesei-a-fungal-enzyme-producer-for-cellulosic-biofuels",signatures:"Bernhard Seiboth, Christa Ivanova and Verena Seidl-Seiboth",authors:[{id:"26474",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernhard",middleName:null,surname:"Seiboth",fullName:"Bernhard Seiboth",slug:"bernhard-seiboth"},{id:"43389",title:"Dr.",name:"Verena",middleName:null,surname:"Seidl-Seiboth",fullName:"Verena Seidl-Seiboth",slug:"verena-seidl-seiboth"},{id:"87418",title:"MSc.",name:"Christa",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanova",fullName:"Christa Ivanova",slug:"christa-ivanova"}]},{id:"20067",title:"Application of Response Surface Methodology to Optimize Alkali Concentration, Corn Stover Particle Size, and Extruder Parameters for Maximum Sugar Recovery",slug:"application-of-response-surface-methodology-to-optimize-alkali-concentration-corn-stover-particle-si",signatures:"Chinnadurai Karunanithy and Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan",authors:[{id:"25176",title:"Dr.",name:"Chinnadurai",middleName:null,surname:"Karunanithy",fullName:"Chinnadurai Karunanithy",slug:"chinnadurai-karunanithy"},{id:"28898",title:"Dr.",name:"Kasiviswanathan",middleName:null,surname:"Muthukumarappan",fullName:"Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan",slug:"kasiviswanathan-muthukumarappan"}]},{id:"20068",title:"Innovative Biological Solutions to Challenges in Sustainable Biofuels Production",slug:"innovative-biological-solutions-to-challenges-in-sustainable-biofuels-production",signatures:"Xiaohan Yang, Ting Li, David Weston, Abhijit Karve, Jessy L. Labbe, Lee E. Gunter, Poornima Sukumar, Anne Borland, Jin-Gui Chen, Stan D. Wullschleger, Timothy J. Tschaplinski and Gerald A. Tuskan",authors:[{id:"28445",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaohan",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Xiaohan Yang",slug:"xiaohan-yang"},{id:"38876",title:"Dr.",name:"Ting",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Ting Li",slug:"ting-li"},{id:"38877",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Weston",fullName:"David Weston",slug:"david-weston"},{id:"38878",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Borland",fullName:"Anne Borland",slug:"anne-borland"},{id:"38879",title:"Dr.",name:"Stan",middleName:null,surname:"Wullschleger",fullName:"Stan Wullschleger",slug:"stan-wullschleger"},{id:"38880",title:"Dr.",name:"Timothy",middleName:null,surname:"Tschaplinski",fullName:"Timothy Tschaplinski",slug:"timothy-tschaplinski"},{id:"38881",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerald",middleName:null,surname:"Tuskan",fullName:"Gerald Tuskan",slug:"gerald-tuskan"},{id:"94926",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhijit",middleName:null,surname:"Karve",fullName:"Abhijit Karve",slug:"abhijit-karve"},{id:"94930",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessy",middleName:null,surname:"Labbe",fullName:"Jessy Labbe",slug:"jessy-labbe"},{id:"94931",title:"Ms.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Gunter",fullName:"Lee Gunter",slug:"lee-gunter"},{id:"94934",title:"Dr.",name:"Jin-Gui",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Jin-Gui Chen",slug:"jin-gui-chen"}]},{id:"20069",title:"Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Biofuels",slug:"microwave-assisted-synthesis-of-biofuels",signatures:"Armando T. Quitain, Shunsaku Katoh and Motonobu Goto",authors:[{id:"31504",title:"Dr.",name:"Motonobu",middleName:null,surname:"Goto",fullName:"Motonobu Goto",slug:"motonobu-goto"},{id:"37904",title:"Dr.",name:"Armando",middleName:"Tibigin",surname:"Quitain",fullName:"Armando Quitain",slug:"armando-quitain"},{id:"37905",title:"Dr.",name:"Shunsaku",middleName:null,surname:"Katoh",fullName:"Shunsaku Katoh",slug:"shunsaku-katoh"}]},{id:"20070",title:"Fertilizer Potential of Biofuel Byproducts",slug:"fertilizer-potential-of-biofuel-byproducts",signatures:"Amber Moore",authors:[{id:"24938",title:"Prof.",name:"Amber",middleName:"Dawn",surname:"Moore",fullName:"Amber Moore",slug:"amber-moore"}]},{id:"20071",title:"The Past, Present, and Future of Biofuels – Biobutanol as Promising Alternative",slug:"the-past-present-and-future-of-biofuels-biobutanol-as-promising-alternative",signatures:"Köpke Michael, Noack Steffi and Dürre Peter",authors:[{id:"37463",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Dürre",fullName:"Peter Dürre",slug:"peter-durre"},{id:"38074",title:"Dr.",name:"Steffi",middleName:null,surname:"Noack",fullName:"Steffi Noack",slug:"steffi-noack"},{id:"38075",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Köpke",fullName:"Michael Köpke",slug:"michael-kopke"}]},{id:"20072",title:"DMF - A New Biofuel Candidate",slug:"dmf-a-new-biofuel-candidate",signatures:"Guohong Tian, Ritchie Daniel and Hongming Xu",authors:[{id:"44550",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongming",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Hongming Xu",slug:"hongming-xu"},{id:"100409",title:"Dr.",name:"Guohong",middleName:null,surname:"Tian",fullName:"Guohong Tian",slug:"guohong-tian"},{id:"100412",title:"Mr.",name:"Ritchie",middleName:null,surname:"Daniel",fullName:"Ritchie Daniel",slug:"ritchie-daniel"}]},{id:"20073",title:"Biofuels: From Hopes to Reality",slug:"biofuels-from-hopes-to-reality",signatures:"Carioca J.O.B., Friedrich, H. and Ehrenberger, S.",authors:[{id:"82687",title:"Dr",name:"José Osvaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Beserra Carioca",fullName:"José Osvaldo Beserra Carioca",slug:"jose-osvaldo-beserra-carioca"},{id:"82693",title:"Dr",name:"Horst",middleName:null,surname:"Friedrich",fullName:"Horst Friedrich",slug:"horst-friedrich"},{id:"82694",title:"Mrs",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Ehrenberger",fullName:"Simone Ehrenberger",slug:"simone-ehrenberger"}]},{id:"20074",title:"Bioproduction of Hydrogen with the Assistance of Electrochemical Technology",slug:"bioproduction-of-hydrogen-with-the-assistance-of-electrochemical-technology",signatures:"Soundarrajan Chandrasekaran and Dachamir Hotza",authors:[{id:"25552",title:"Prof.",name:"Dachamir",middleName:null,surname:"Hotza",fullName:"Dachamir Hotza",slug:"dachamir-hotza"},{id:"44695",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Soundarrajan",middleName:null,surname:"Chandrasekaran",fullName:"Soundarrajan Chandrasekaran",slug:"soundarrajan-chandrasekaran"}]},{id:"20075",title:"A Genetic-Fuzzy System for Modelling of Selected Processes in Diesel Engine Fuelled by Biofuels",slug:"a-genetic-fuzzy-system-for-modelling-of-selected-processes-in-diesel-engine-fuelled-by-biofuels",signatures:"Michał Kekez and Leszek Radziszewski",authors:[{id:"38787",title:"Dr.",name:"Michał",middleName:null,surname:"Kekez",fullName:"Michał Kekez",slug:"michal-kekez"},{id:"38812",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Radziszewski",fullName:"Leszek Radziszewski",slug:"leszek-radziszewski"}]},{id:"20076",title:"Determination of the Impact of Biogas on the Engine Oil Condition Using a Sensor Based on Corrosiveness",slug:"determination-of-the-impact-of-biogas-on-the-engine-oil-condition-using-a-sensor-based-on-corrosiven",signatures:"C. Schneidhofer, S. Sen and N. Dörr",authors:[{id:"38255",title:"MSc",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Schneidhofer",fullName:"Christoph Schneidhofer",slug:"christoph-schneidhofer"},{id:"38280",title:"BSc.",name:"Sedat",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",fullName:"Sedat Sen",slug:"sedat-sen"},{id:"38281",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicole",middleName:null,surname:"Dörr",fullName:"Nicole Dörr",slug:"nicole-dorr"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72707",title:"Rethinking Innovative Learning Opportunities for Teachers in Educational Organizations toward Education 4.0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93153",slug:"rethinking-innovative-learning-opportunities-for-teachers-in-educational-organizations-toward-educat",body:'
1. Introduction
Teacher behaviors play a key role in forming and shaping organizational culture in schools. The current innovative and leadership-based learning objectives introduced by Education 4.0 have made the transformation obligatory from traditional classroom of the industrial society to creation of digital classrooms. The Fourth Industrial Revolution has taken people to an era of new social and unprecedented changes. In all sectors of all industries, today’s hot issue is the Fourth Industrial Revolution. The First Industrial Revolution was based on the mechanization through the steam engine; the Second Industrial Revolution was based on mass production through electric energy; and the Third Industrial Revolution was based on intelligence information revolution through computer and internet. And the ongoing Fourth Industrial Revolution is based on IoT, Cloud, big data, AI, and mobiles. Also, in the near future, we will meet the 5G wireless network era. The speed of 5G is 280 times faster than LTE. And in some countries, this Fourth Industrial Revolution can be called digital transformation. Figure 1 illustrates the advent of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (IR) age.
Figure 1.
The advent of the fourth industrial revolution (IR) age.
The Fourth Industrial Revolution makes three major changes namely intellectualization of human and machine, virtualization of the real and virtual, and hyper connection of human and things. This revolution brings about changes in future society due to technological progress. Technological progress includes infinite increase in data as well as explosive growth of network. This technological progress will bring increase in value of data and according to these changes the future society will evolve toward role change between humans and machines. In particular, we need to note the increasing data value, which will become more important in the near future.
Within this framework, we need to discuss the global change trends to respond to the Fourth Industrial Revolution. First of all, adaptability is more critical to success than ever. In other words, the importance of the user experience is growing and growing. Additionally, as the amount of data increases, big data management and analytics will become more important. For example, in 2027, bitcoin and the blockchain will become very popular in the business fields. With regard to the key success factors, we need to look at three aspects: technology, industry, and society.
From a technological point of view, technology will evolve into “High Intelligence Information Tech” and “High Quality Data Infrastructure” and provide high-quality intelligent information technologies to industry. And with technological assistance, the whole industry will achieve intelligent information.
2. What Education 4.0 proposes
As far as the educational innovation in the Fourth Industrial Revolution era is concerned, these changes have accelerated many things and respective and unique skilled sets of human capital have been required by the different conditions of social economy. The important factor in the future intelligent information society is to cultivate human-tech literacy resources. The importance of development of the required skills lies in people in learning management, to develop the skills as well as knowledge abilities taking the needs of the society into consideration [1]. Leapfrog [2] called the education in this era responding to the agrarian society as Education 1.0, industrial society as Education 2.0, globalization as Education 3.0, and innovation as Education 4.0.
To be able to cultivate human-tech literacy resources in the future intelligent information society, new and creative fusion talents are required. These creative fusion talents should have the following four intelligences: context intelligence, emotional intelligence, social emotion intelligence, and physical intelligence as indicated in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Creative fusion talents for future intelligent information society.
As can be seen in Figure 2, the intelligences traditionally known as multiple intelligences within the theory of multiple intelligences developed in Gardner [3] (logical-mathematical, linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, spatial, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist intelligence) look to have been reshaped and focus has been given on social, physical, context, and emotional intelligence with a new understanding. This shift will bring many changes in learning and teaching theories currently being followed as well.
From today on, we will be discussing creative talent cultivation through fusion education together with the introduction of the importance of these four intelligences with more emphasis on various ICT-based learning models. These learning models will also replace traditionally known learning models used in different educational contexts. These various kinds of learning models are evolving based on mobile. Particularly, in some countries, mobile has become commonplace beyond the PC. Figure 3 describes the diversification of digital learning in the Fourth IR era.
Figure 3.
Diversification of digital learning in fourth IR era.
The learning models given in Figure 3 also include various elements of learning ecosystem to provide optimized learning system to each learner in response to the Fourth Industrial Revolution. This learning ecosystem has to be considered to promote innovative and optimized learning. This innovative and optimized learning introduces change trends of educational digital contents. Nowadays, digital content is evolving in the following six directions. 1. Interactive, 2. Characteristic, 3. Clipped (mobile-based), 4. Global, 5. Realistic (AR/VR embedded), and 6. Emotional.
Almost each of these directions gives a special focus on coding education. In the Fourth Industrial Revolution era, the importance of coding education is emphasized around the world in following ways:
Coding is the building block of the future.
Learning code is your gateway into understanding how to make the future yours.
The coding really determines how it will look on the screen. Learning to code will guarantee that your vision gets carried through to completion.
Behind code is a bunch more 1s and 0s that do the real work inside the brain of the computer. Code is a fascinating world of its own.
Coding will change the way you think.
Code will give you a fresh way to look at problems. Code is a lot like structured poetry and will change the way you see the world through computational thinking.
To sum up, the future education direction is to create a leading country of intelligence information society with creative fusion talents. This change trend also redefines the objectives of future of education in the following reflected ways:
Education to maximize student interest and aptitude
Education for thinking, problem-solving, and creativity
Education to raise key talents in intelligence information technology
Education to focus on people and contribute to social integration.
From the stand point of educational innovation for the intelligent information society, the content and objectives of educational system in the world seem to move beyond rote education to realize problem-solving and critical-thinking centered education. This will require an expansion of SW/STEAM education and fulfilling computational thinking-oriented education and a reorganization of curriculum and system overall for developing autonomous competency and supporting future preparation. Establishing an adaptive learning system using intelligent information technology will also set up an adaptive learning system by analyzing history and level to maximize learning efficacy.
These chain changes will develop intelligence learning platform to support activities for advanced learning according to individual interest and level and create a core personnel specializing in intelligent IT that is capable of leading new industries. These systems are expected to raise intelligence information talents who are good at computer science, data analytics, and SW development (foster talented children in intelligent information area).
Furthermore, these new trends will also have implications for universities. For example, industry-university-research collaboration intensive learning courses with top faculties will be opened and the quality gains of the students registered in these courses will naturally support best graduation schools in intelligence information technology area.
3. A teacher competency development program for the future
Development of direction of cloud-based intelligent personalized learning service will consider new assessments based on individual service, service beneficiary, visualized technology, AI platform technology and resource. For example, in the case of individual service, online activity, analytics, assessment/diagnosis, and so on will be implemented. These will bring new insights into the evaluation of student products and learning outcomes. Because data will be collected based on learner’s use and learning activities, and analytics results are recommended for optimized personalized learning. However, older teachers will hesitate to use new learning methods or new ICT-based devices.
Above all, in order to cultivate future creative convergence talents, a teacher competency development program for the future is needed. Within this framework, we need to rethink innovative learning opportunities for teachers in educational organizations toward Education 4.0. To be able to create these innovative learning environments for teachers, we should train teachers and expand infrastructure for the intelligent information society. Additionally, we should commit customized training of S/W education for teachers’ continuous reinforcement of SW capacity. Doing so, we will also supply wireless internet network in all schools and develop high-tech future school model using AI, AR, and VR. The content and areas of teacher competency development are summarized in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Teacher competency development for educational innovation.
As can be seen in Figure 4, this teacher competency development can be realized with “Training of Leading Teachers,” “Customized Teacher Training,” “Development and Offering of New Teacher Training Programs,” and “Training for Creative Convergence Education.”
4. Innovative teacher supervision models within the teacher competency development for educational innovation
The huge transformation in learning and teaching models, digital classroom, and educational contexts will bring a radical change in teacher behaviors. For the teachers to change, creation of reflective learning communities is required together with a redefinition of the meaning and scope of teacher supervision. Such a change would only be possible through development of new coaching skills, which would require development of reflective and cognitive skills of the teachers themselves and peer coaching environments to be able to survive and cope with their adaptation to Education 4.0 within the educational contexts. Serving teacher development and collaboration for better learning and teaching, this model will also change teacher behaviors and it will help reshaping. Within this framework, three supervision models namely, reflective, cognitive, and peer coaching to be able help teachers survive and cope with their adaptation to Education 4.0 will be discussed.
4.1 Reflective coaching (reflection: a great asset for a teacher competency development for the future)
The fourth industrial based on changes such as intellectualization of human and machine, virtualization of reality and virtual and hyper connection of human and things and its reflections on Education 4.0 are catering to the needs of the learners and teachers in “innovative era.” These require changes in behaviors with certain features of connectivism, parallelism [4], and visualization. The learner’s ability should be developed through this learning management for the sake of applying the new technology. According to Sinlarat [1], the learning management mentioned looks to be a new learning system, which will allow learners to grow with knowledge and skills to survive during their whole life and they will be equipped with the best of their abilities. From this perspective, Education 4.0 would be more than just an education. On the other hand, learning management is expected to cope with the changes in economic and social and environments to serve the human capital need. To be able to achieve this, a change would be needed in learning management, which requires reflection. Through reflection and reflective learning environments, teachers would have a great opportunity to self-evaluate their reflective teaching practices. Because, they can raise their professional development as long as they become more aware of their weaknesses as well as strengths in their actual teaching practices.
From this point of view, reflection could be regarded as a powerful tool to reflect and change and it could be conducted with some methods [5]. According to some scholarly works, it could be achieved through reflective practices, which would allow teachers to grow professionally [6]. Schön [7] named reflective practice as a critical process in refining a person’s artistry and crafting a certain discipline. In other words, this process requires a person to see his or her experiences in practice while being observed and coached by other people. Smyth [8] maintains that there are four serial stages regarding questions, which lead a teacher to critical reflection:
Describing—What do I do?
Informing—What is the meaning of this?
Confronting—How did I come to be like this?
Constructing—In what other ways could I do it?
These types of reflective practices are utilized in both in-service and pre-service education and peer involvement and coaching are regarded as two essential parts of reflective practices observed mostly in pre-service education for teachers [9]. In this study, our focus will be on journals for individual reflective practices, collaborative learning, video or audio recordings of lessons, teacher educator’s feedback, student feedback, action research, study groups for reflective practice of small groups, teacher portfolios, instructional rounds, classroom walk-throughs for school-based reflective practice, and cognitive coaching and peer coaching even though different approaches to each type of reflective practice are available.
4.1.1 Strategies to practice reflection
To have a brief understanding of the content and functions of reflective coaching, one needs to find out the reflective instruments and strategies employed during the teacher evaluation. The preliminary stage before the reflective process is to collect data about what is actually happening in classes. There are some options to do that:
Reflective journals/diaries: This could be regarded as the easiest way to initiate the reflective process because it is completely personal. Through the use of journals to create reflective learning environments, Göker [10] argues that teachers could provide other teachers with some opportunities to reflect on their actual practices. Within this framework, writing diaries is often used in various learning environments. In writing diaries, teachers would basically express his or her feelings, ideas, and reflections considering their own teaching practice. Doing so, teachers could keep notes in learning logs or personal narratives, dialog journals including various reflections providing them with a critical understanding of how they act in classes and assisting them in realizing other alternative strategies to develop their own practice.
Collaborative learning: According to Brookfield [11], an ongoing communication with the peers created in mutually cooperative environment is essential. This type of collaborative work with peers is expected to contribute to development of reflective thought among teachers. Through efficient discussions, teachers could report their experiences and reframe, and check to broaden their vision about the practices. These would bring changes in teacher behaviors and the school culture could change naturally.
Video or audio recordings of lessons: Recording of lessons could present quality data for the reflective practice. After watching these recordings of their own or other peer members, teachers could develop better awareness of their own teaching. Because, many things happen in classes and teachers may not be aware of what is actually happening and teachers may not normally see. Within this perspective, this type of recording could present a clearer picture about the whole process of teaching. Discussions to be made would trigger a teacher’s reflective thought, reflecting on their strengths and weaknesses, thus helping them get some inspiration toward their development in their teaching.
Teacher educator’s feedback: This type of feedback would assist the teachers in reflecting upon their lessons, tasks, and activities in the school culture.
Student feedback: Students in classes could also give more information about what is actually happening in classes. Teachers could ask their students to present information about what is going on in classes, because, students’ perceptions and opinions could present a different and valuable perspective.
Action research: Seeing it as a reflective process, a teacher could find out progressive responses and solutions to problems to understand his or her practice and develop the ways they address issues. This type of reflective process would help teachers to develop more awareness about what is actually happening in classes by means of defining the main problems and speculating on prospective causes and solutions. They would then attempt to initiate a proper action plan.
Study groups for reflective practice of small groups: This type of formation of groups has been utilized since colonial times, the first of which was documented in America by Franklin [12]. The basic aim then was to search for better business practices. These groups were organized and utilized for teacher development to serve the quality of teaching by means of professional reading, dialog in the 1980s [6, 13, 14, 15] (Little, 1981). To achieve their objectives, 5–10 teachers form a group to begin discussions on a defined topic or curriculum, methodology, and testing to be able to compare and review their own experiences and to seek answers to implement new things in their future teaching practices. The members highly value class observations and they come together after observation to discuss the issues targeted before. This approach is still followed during post-conference sessions of today’s cognitive and peer coaching implementations.
Teacher portfolios: They were first initiated and utilized professionally after the formation of a professional model for teachers by the NBPTS (The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards) seeking national certification [16]. To achieve teaching standards, experienced teachers [17] wishing to get the highest honor in teaching profession came together.
Instructional rounds: These rounds have recently been initiated by City et al. [18]. They attempted to adapt and extend on health practices to be able to develop their knowledge and practices through observations, analysis, and discussions conducted with other physicians. School principals and supervisors employed a similar method to create a learning environment serving the progressive solutions to problems to improve instruction together with the teachers and develop their teaching practices. They carried out four different steps consisting of identifying a problem, observing, debriefing, and taking corrective steps [18]. Their aim was to form a reflective culture through the use of a common language among each other. Within this framework, a cultural reflective transformation was targeted to create a reflective learning environment, in which they would reshape teacher behaviors. They did it as a type of reflection-for action because they aimed to improve teaching practices within a system.
Classroom walk-throughs for school-based reflective practice: Classroom walk-through, as a supervisory technique and a type of reflection on action, was first initiated in educational settings in the 1990s [19]. Supervisors visit classes to observe classes and evaluate practices of teaching and learning outcomes. Professional dialogs between supervisors and teachers consist of dialog, focus on what is actually happening in classes are highly valued [18]. Follow-up dialogs conducted in reflective in nature are expected to move teachers to achieve a certain level of reflection and collaboration to teaching practices.
4.2 Cognitive coaching
This type of coaching model was first initiated by Costa and Garmston [20] as a critical and “nonjudgmental mediation of thinking” based on constructivist learning theory. The ultimate goal is to foster a person’s capacity to improve abilities of self-monitoring, self-directedness as well as those of self-modification. Planning conversation, observation, and reflecting conversation basically constitute a three-stage coaching cycle. The model described as a teacher supervision means in this study is mainly based on (a) the theories by Bandura [21] and Vygotsky [22], (b) application of the researcher’s model of peer coaching [9] and model of reflective coaching [10, 23] implemented within different educational contexts, and (c) similar mentoring or coaching studies.
During the coaching process, a competent coach (mentor) is regarded as an essential figure with a capacity to: (1) create interactions with the participants giving priority to produce self-directed learning; (2) seek trust in maintaining coaching relationships; (3) evaluate and intercede the five states of mind; and finally (4) produce new approaches to foster the five states of mind to be able to create a learning environment, in which the trainees could mediate the capacity of their own and that of others to develop. Cognitive coaching, within this process, could also be described as a formative model to promote teacher self-evaluation to help them develop their self-efficacy, identity, and teaching skills. From this perspective, it is important to ease reflective process and possible responses coming from the mentee, the mentor in this study drafts questions. To be able to produce any cognitive development, a good mentor should use paralanguage, structuring as well as meditative questioning response behaviors [20]. The four strategies given above are always utilized during both the planning and reflective conversation sessions to help the mentees give the most suitable decisions about their teaching practices. A teacher could also be provided autonomy to a certain extent and this would ease their professional development conducted through cognitive coaching.
4.3 Peer coaching
Peer coaching is regarded as a part of reflective process and a fruitful tool to create collaborative efforts and it warrants consideration as a potentially serviceable solution for improving teacher effectiveness when implemented both in pre-service and in-service teaching settings. Peer coaching as almost the most basic supervision mode employed in classes is regarded as a clinical and reflective process, in which teacher teams or student teachers regularly observe themselves for the sake of refining teaching practice, encouraging reflective practice, providing assistance, suggestions, and support [9, 24, 25]. This process is considered as a tool for the more experienced teachers to use the skills they gained during their in-service teacher program. Research also advocates the use of peer coaching implementations to empower transfer of training to real teaching practice in classes, supercharging collegiality by means of peers’ exchange of feedback together with reflective development of teachers [9, 25].
The most common way of peer coaching is conducted in the following way: A teacher invites his or her peer to monitor his/her class to collect data about what is really happening in class. This could be done through note taking, checklist, a narrative agreed, a simple observation task, and drawing conclusions. The teacher could ask his/her peer to put emphasis on, for example, what different patterns of interaction occur or which students contribute the most in the lesson. It is better for the observer not to be involved in evaluating the teacher’s lesson for the sake of having a positive evaluation. Coaching benefits and expectations are negotiated between the peers during a pre-conference and post-conference.
Taking the recent developments and changes in Education 4.0, Göker [9] argues that these peer coaching environments could play a key role in creating the required reflective learning communities, in which teachers and teacher candidates would be trained as practitioners to lead to change. Göker [9] further maintains that one strategy for development of teachers mostly suitable for the creation of a reflective learning community is that of peer coaching, described as the process of two peers studying on planning instruction, developing support materials, and monitoring each other’s work with students. Within this framework, peer coaching is regarded as nonjudgmental, based on classroom observation followed by feedback, and intended to develop teaching skills. Openness and trust are the two essential characteristics of peer coaching process and peers need to be sensitive to be non-evaluative or nonjudgmental during the pre/post-conference sessions, in which they discuss, share their own experiences, teaching, and learning behaviors as well as teaching practices.
5. Conclusion
Any change in teacher behavior, which plays a key role in forming and shaping organizational culture in schools, is not an easy task. From the stand point of educational innovation for the intelligent information society, promoting reflective practices and developing professional learning communities through reflective, cognitive, and peer coaching implementations is essential to lead to a teacher change. The current innovative and leadership-based learning objectives introduced by Education 4.0 have made it obligatory for teachers to change. As Education 4.0 environments require future creative convergence talents, teachers should carry out new tasks to take greater ownership of growing creative convergence talents and to change processes of their school culture. This change process could be achieved through creating reflective learning communities together with a redefinition of the meaning and scope of teacher supervision. For the sake of achieving these changes in teacher behaviors, this study discussed a “Teacher Competency Development Model,” in which, innovative learning opportunities for teachers in educational organizations were offered through innovative models in teacher supervision based on cognitive, reflective, and peer coaching and their utilization within the educational contexts. It is obvious that if teachers create a professional and reflective learning community aiming at behavioral change in reflective practices and promoting professional development, learning becomes self-directed and they definitely become empowered thorough learning management, which looks to be an essential task required by Education 4.0. Today, we have a digital society and life style has changed. Learning management needs to respond to the prospective changes of behaviors of both teachers and learners.
\n',keywords:"redefinition of learning opportunities, teacher competency development model, Education 4.0, school culture, peer, cognitive and reflective coaching",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72707.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72707.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72707",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72707",totalDownloads:217,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 25th 2019",dateReviewed:"June 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"July 3rd 2020",datePublished:"January 7th 2021",dateFinished:"July 3rd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Teacher behaviors play a key role in forming and shaping organizational culture in schools. The current innovative and leadership-based learning objectives introduced by Education 4.0 have made the transformation obligatory from traditional classrooms of the industrial society to creation of digital classrooms. This transformation will embrace digital curriculum that might impact learning outcomes and reduce in-class management. How is it different from traditional classrooms? The spaces in a digital classroom are both digital and physical. This environment asks for future creative convergence talents, thus giving teachers new tasks to take greater ownership of change processes of their school culture. This shift also requires creation of reflective learning communities together with a redefinition of the meaning and scope of teacher supervision. This study introduces, a “Teacher Competency Development Model,” in which innovative learning opportunities for teachers in educational organizations toward Education 4.0 are offered through innovative models in teacher supervision based on cognitive, reflective, and peer coaching and their utilization within the educational contexts. Within this framework, the contents and strategies of three supervision models, namely, reflective, cognitive, and peer coaching to be able to help teachers survive and cope with their adaptation to Education 4.0 will be discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72707",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72707",signatures:"Süleyman Davut Göker and Mubeher Ürün Göker",book:{id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",publishedDate:"January 7th 2021",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",email:"gokersd@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Canakkale Onsekiz Mart Universitesi Tip Fakultesi Hastanesi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"324060",title:"Dr.",name:"Mubeher",middleName:null,surname:"Ürün Göker",fullName:"Mubeher Ürün Göker",slug:"mubeher-urun-goker",email:"murungoker@comu.edu.tr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. What Education 4.0 proposes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. A teacher competency development program for the future",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Innovative teacher supervision models within the teacher competency development for educational innovation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Reflective coaching (reflection: a great asset for a teacher competency development for the future)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"4.1.1 Strategies to practice reflection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2 Cognitive coaching",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.3 Peer coaching",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Sinlarat P. Education 4.0 is more than education. In: Annual Academic Seminar of the Teacher’s Council 2016 on the Topic of Research of the Learning Innovation and Sustainable Educational Management. Bangkok: The Secretariat Office of Teacher’s Council; 2016'},{id:"B2",body:'Harkins AM. Leapfrog principles and practices: Core components of education 3.0 and 4.0. Futures Research Quarterly. 2008;24(1):19-31'},{id:"B3",body:'Gardner H. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books; 1983'},{id:"B4",body:'Goldie JGS. Connectivism: A knowledge learning theory for the digital age? Medical Teacher. 2016;38(10):1064-1069. DOI: 10.3109/0142159X.2016.1173661'},{id:"B5",body:'Fullan M. Leadership and Sustainability: System Thinkers in Action. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc; 2005'},{id:"B6",body:'York-Barr J, Sommers WA, Ghere GS, Montie J. Reflective Practice to Improve Schools: An Action Guide for Educators. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.; 2001'},{id:"B7",body:'Schon DA. The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc.; 1983'},{id:"B8",body:'Smyth J. Developing and sustaining critical reflection in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education. 1989;40(2):2-9'},{id:"B9",body:'Göker SD. Impact of peer coaching on self-efficacy and instructional skills in TEFL teacher education. System, And International Journal of Educational Technology and Applied Linguistics. 2006;34(2):239-254'},{id:"B10",body:'Göker SD. Use of reflective journals in development of teachers’ leadership and teaching skills. Universal Journal of Educational Research. 2016;4(12A):63-70. DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2016.041309. Available from: http://www.hrpub.org'},{id:"B11",body:'Brookfield S. Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. San-Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 1995'},{id:"B12",body:'Makibbin SS, Spraque MM. Study groups: Conduit for reform. A paper presented at the meeting of the National Staff Development Council. In: St. Santa CGS, Smith K, editors. Teachers are Researchers: Reflection and Action. Newark, DE: International Reading Association; 1991'},{id:"B13",body:'Cooper C, Boyd J. Creating sustained professional development. In: Brody C, Davidson N, editors. Professional Development for Cooperative Learning: Issues and Approaches. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press; 1998'},{id:"B14",body:'Stigler JW, Hiebert J. The Teaching Gap: Best Ideas from the World’s Teachers for Improving Education in the Classroom. New York, NY: Free Press; 1999'},{id:"B15",body:'Little JW. School Success in Staff Development: The Role of Staff Development in Urban Desegregated Schools. Boulder, CO: Center for Action Research. 1981'},{id:"B16",body:'Bullock AA, Hawk PP. Developing a Teaching Portfolio: A Guide for Preservice and Practicing Teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall; 2005'},{id:"B17",body:'National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. 2009. Available from: http://www.nbpts.org [Accessed: 15 July 2016]'},{id:"B18",body:'City EA, Elmore RF, Fiarman SE, Teitel L. Instructional Rounds in Education: A Network Approach to Improving Teaching and Learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press; 2009'},{id:"B19",body:'Downey C, English F, Frase L, Poston W, Steffy B. The Three-Minute Classroom Walk-through. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press; 2004'},{id:"B20",body:'Costa A, Garmston R. Cognitive Coaching: A Foundation for Renaissance Schools. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers; 2002'},{id:"B21",body:'Bandura A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review. 1997;84:191-215'},{id:"B22",body:'Vygotsky LS. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1978. Available from: http://ouleft.org/wp-content/uploads/Vygotsky-Mind-in-Society.pdf'},{id:"B23",body:'Göker SD. Reflective leadership in EFL. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 2012;2(8):1355-1362'},{id:"B24",body:'Joyce B, Showers B. Improving inservice training: The messages of research. Educational Leadership. 1980;37(1980):379-385'},{id:"B25",body:'Thorn A, McLeod M, Goldsmith M. Peer coaching overview. 2007. Retrieved from: http://www.marshallgoldsmithlibrary.com [Accessed: 13 November 2019]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker",address:"gokersd@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Faculty of Education, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mubeher Ürün Göker",address:null,affiliation:'
School of Foreign Languages, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",publishedDate:"January 7th 2021",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"234678",title:"Dr.",name:"Ning",middleName:null,surname:"Xue",email:"xuening@mail.ie.ac.cn",fullName:"Ning Xue",slug:"ning-xue",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Enzyme Biosensors for Point-of-Care Testing",slug:"enzyme-biosensors-for-point-of-care-testing",abstract:"Biosensors are devices that integrate a variety of technologies, containing biology, electronics, chemistry, physics, medicine, informatics, and correlated technology. Biosensors act as transducer with a biorecognition element and transform a biochemical reaction on the transducer surface directly into a measurable signal. The biosensors have the advantages of rapid analysis, low cost, and high precision, which are widely used in many fields, such as medical care, disease diagnosis, food detection, environmental monitoring, and fermentation industry. The enzyme biosensors show excellent application value owing to the development of fixed technology and the characteristics of specific identification, which can be combined with point-of-care testing (POCT) technology. POCT technology is attracting more and more attention as a very effective method of clinic detection. We outline the recent advances of biosensors in this chapter, focusing on the principle and classification of enzyme biosensor, immobilization method of biorecognition layers, and fabrication of amperometric biosensors, as well as the applications of POCT. A summary of glucose biosensor development and integrated setups is included. The latest applications of enzyme biosensors in diagnostic applications focusing on POCT of biomarkers in real samples were described.",signatures:"Chunxiu Liu, Chenghua Xu, Ning Xue, Jian Hai Sun, Haoyuan Cai,\nTong Li, Yuanyuan Liu and Jun Wang",authors:[{id:"82024",title:"Dr.",name:"Haoyuan",surname:"Cai",fullName:"Haoyuan Cai",slug:"haoyuan-cai",email:"hycai@mail.ie.ac.cn"},{id:"90797",title:"Dr.",name:"Jian Hai",surname:"Sun",fullName:"Jian Hai Sun",slug:"jian-hai-sun",email:"jhsun@mail.ie.ac.cn"},{id:"221306",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunxiu",surname:"Liu",fullName:"Chunxiu Liu",slug:"chunxiu-liu",email:"cxliu@mail.ie.ac.cn"},{id:"234678",title:"Dr.",name:"Ning",surname:"Xue",fullName:"Ning Xue",slug:"ning-xue",email:"xuening@mail.ie.ac.cn"},{id:"234680",title:"Dr.",name:"Tong",surname:"Li",fullName:"Tong Li",slug:"tong-li",email:"tli@mail.ie.ac.cn"},{id:"234681",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuanyuan",surname:"Liu",fullName:"Yuanyuan Liu",slug:"yuanyuan-liu",email:"liuyy@semi.ac.cn"},{id:"235982",title:"Dr.",name:"Jian",surname:"Jia",fullName:"Jian Jia",slug:"jian-jia",email:"jiajian@mail.ie.ac.cn"},{id:"239830",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",surname:"Wang",fullName:"Jun Wang",slug:"jun-wang",email:"wangjun1@bimt.org.cn"},{id:"239833",title:"Dr.",name:"Chenghua",surname:"Xu",fullName:"Chenghua Xu",slug:"chenghua-xu",email:"chxu@mail.ie.ac.cn"}],book:{title:"MEMS Sensors",slug:"mems-sensors-design-and-application",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"82024",title:"Dr.",name:"Haoyuan",surname:"Cai",slug:"haoyuan-cai",fullName:"Haoyuan Cai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institute of Electronics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"90797",title:"Dr.",name:"Jian Hai",surname:"Sun",slug:"jian-hai-sun",fullName:"Jian Hai Sun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institute of Electronics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"221306",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunxiu",surname:"Liu",slug:"chunxiu-liu",fullName:"Chunxiu Liu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"230245",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Bahadir",surname:"Tunaboylu",slug:"bahadir-tunaboylu",fullName:"Bahadir Tunaboylu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"230261",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Murat",surname:"Soydan",slug:"ali-murat-soydan",fullName:"Ali Murat Soydan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"234680",title:"Dr.",name:"Tong",surname:"Li",slug:"tong-li",fullName:"Tong Li",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"234681",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuanyuan",surname:"Liu",slug:"yuanyuan-liu",fullName:"Yuanyuan Liu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"235982",title:"Dr.",name:"Jian",surname:"Jia",slug:"jian-jia",fullName:"Jian Jia",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"239830",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",surname:"Wang",slug:"jun-wang",fullName:"Jun Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"239833",title:"Dr.",name:"Chenghua",surname:"Xu",slug:"chenghua-xu",fullName:"Chenghua Xu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"partnerships",title:"Partnerships",intro:"
IntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
",metaTitle:"Partnerships",metaDescription:"IntechOpen was built by scientists, for scientists. We understand the community we serve, but to bring an even better service to the table for IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we partnered with the leading companies and associations in the industry and beyond.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/partnerships",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
ALPSP
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
\\n
\\n\\n
OASPA
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
\\n
\\n\\n
STM
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
\\n
\\n\\n
COPE
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
\\n
\\n\\n
Creative Commons
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
\\n
\\n\\n
Crossref
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
\\n
\\n\\n
Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
\\n
\\n\\n
CLOCKSS
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
\\n
\\n\\n
Counter
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
\\n
\\n\\n
DORA
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
\\n
\\n\\n
iThenticate
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
\\n
\\n\\n
Enago
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
\\n
\\n\\n
SPi Global
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
SPi Global is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
\\n
\\n\\n
Amazon
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
\\n
\\n\\n
DHL
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
\n
\n\n
OASPA
\n\n
\n\t
The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
\n
\n\n
STM
\n\n
\n\t
The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
\n
\n\n
COPE
\n\n
\n\t
The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
\n
\n\n
Creative Commons
\n\n
\n\t
Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
\n
\n\n
Crossref
\n\n
\n\t
Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
\n
\n\n
Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
\n\n
\n\t
Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
\n
\n\n
CLOCKSS
\n\n
\n\t
CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
\n
\n\n
Counter
\n\n
\n\t
COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
\n
\n\n
DORA
\n\n
\n\t
DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
\n
\n\n
iThenticate
\n\n
\n\t
iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
\n
\n\n
Enago
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
\n\t
IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
\n
\n\n
SPi Global
\n\n
\n\t
SPi Global is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
\n
\n\n
Amazon
\n\n
\n\t
Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
\n
\n\n
DHL
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5228},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15790}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118192},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"23"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10656",title:"Intellectual Property",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"135df9b403b125a6458eba971faab3f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu and Dr. Suriyaprakash TNK",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10656.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"91590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthivel",surname:"Lakshmana Prabu",slug:"sakthivel-lakshmana-prabu",fullName:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10658",title:"Multilingualism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a6bf171e05831c00f8687891ab1b10b5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xiaoming Jiang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10658.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"189844",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",surname:"Jiang",slug:"xiaoming-jiang",fullName:"Xiaoming Jiang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10660",title:"Heritage - New Paradigm",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d0b747909f95bd54d009ed0838c38f84",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Daniela Turcanu-Carutiu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10660.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"176482",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Turcanu-Carutiu",slug:"daniela-turcanu-carutiu",fullName:"Daniela Turcanu-Carutiu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:3},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5238},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"290",title:"Information and Communication",slug:"information-and-communication",parent:{title:"Technology",slug:"technology"},numberOfBooks:19,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:309,numberOfWosCitations:442,numberOfCrossrefCitations:387,numberOfDimensionsCitations:750,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"information-and-communication",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7654",title:"Wearable Devices",subtitle:"the Big Wave of Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"46b13f25dc9a1576e355717c903d81bc",slug:"wearable-devices-the-big-wave-of-innovation",bookSignature:"Noushin Nasiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7654.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"234150",title:"Dr.",name:"Noushin",middleName:null,surname:"Nasiri",slug:"noushin-nasiri",fullName:"Noushin Nasiri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8723",title:"Telecommunication Systems",subtitle:"Principles and Applications of Wireless-Optical Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8bf1ec49936ab44fcdfc9fea042e73d7",slug:"telecommunication-systems-principles-and-applications-of-wireless-optical-technologies",bookSignature:"Isiaka A. Alimi, Paulo P. Monteiro and António L. Teixeira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8723.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"208236",title:"Dr.",name:"Isiaka",middleName:"Ajewale",surname:"Alimi",slug:"isiaka-alimi",fullName:"Isiaka Alimi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8383",title:"Multiplexing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"57b7f473289c825517f17b8e18d893fc",slug:"multiplexing",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8383.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7401",title:"Telecommunication Networks",subtitle:"Trends and Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bbaf96f832d3a8b509e18bf1bdaacc87",slug:"telecommunication-networks-trends-and-developments",bookSignature:"Mohammad Abdul Matin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7401.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12623",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Abdul",middleName:"A",surname:"Matin",slug:"mohammad-abdul-matin",fullName:"Mohammad Abdul Matin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7291",title:"Cognitive Radio in 4G/5G Wireless Communication Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"15cb591deb13165af8e0286da414c1bd",slug:"cognitive-radio-in-4g-5g-wireless-communication-systems",bookSignature:"Shahriar Shirvani Moghaddam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7291.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185038",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahriar",middleName:null,surname:"Shirvani Moghaddam",slug:"shahriar-shirvani-moghaddam",fullName:"Shahriar Shirvani Moghaddam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6321",title:"Broadband Communications Networks",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6e29995cd9dd6193bd198112d9549f32",slug:"broadband-communications-networks-recent-advances-and-lessons-from-practice",bookSignature:"Abdelfatteh Haidine and Abdelhak Aqqal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6321.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"187242",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelfatteh",middleName:null,surname:"Haidine",slug:"abdelfatteh-haidine",fullName:"Abdelfatteh Haidine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5740",title:"Smartphones from an Applied Research Perspective",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10f605202aae0cd293bfc2b4e5027e5c",slug:"smartphones-from-an-applied-research-perspective",bookSignature:"Nawaz Mohamudally",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5740.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"119486",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawaz",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamudally",slug:"nawaz-mohamudally",fullName:"Nawaz Mohamudally"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4646",title:"Cutting Edge Research in Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0c6cc73cb98936693e6e4845a19dfcf",slug:"cutting-edge-research-in-technologies",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4646.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1892",title:"Technological Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3cf7980708feb75306ac4e7fdc678d5c",slug:"technological-change",bookSignature:"Aurora A.C. Teixeira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1892.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"112335",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurora",middleName:"A.C.",surname:"Teixeira",slug:"aurora-teixeira",fullName:"Aurora Teixeira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1914",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:"Emerging Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8587a78f376ef175e1a26fb4f61f79e2",slug:"fuzzy-logic-emerging-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Elmer P. Dadios",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1914.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer",middleName:null,surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-dadios",fullName:"Elmer Dadios"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"577",title:"Assistive Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a96647e24e8f72a97a6df1368e625ebc",slug:"assistive-technologies",bookSignature:"Fernando A. Auat Cheein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/577.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78273",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Auat Cheein",slug:"fernando-auat-cheein",fullName:"Fernando Auat Cheein"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2275",title:"Advanced Topics in Measurements",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c6d7bb8061eb2a15e6af8396da203612",slug:"advanced-topics-in-measurements",bookSignature:"Md. Zahurul Haq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2275.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"104292",title:"Prof.",name:"Md. Zahurul",middleName:null,surname:"Haq",slug:"md.-zahurul-haq",fullName:"Md. Zahurul Haq"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:19,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"31905",doi:"10.5772/38302",title:"Touch Screens for the Older User",slug:"touch-screens-for-the-older-user",totalDownloads:4743,totalCrossrefCites:48,totalDimensionsCites:75,book:{slug:"assistive-technologies",title:"Assistive Technologies",fullTitle:"Assistive Technologies"},signatures:"Niamh Caprani, Noel E. O’Connor and Cathal Gurrin",authors:[{id:"1479",title:"Dr.",name:"Cathal",middleName:null,surname:"Gurrin",slug:"cathal-gurrin",fullName:"Cathal Gurrin"},{id:"116543",title:"Ms.",name:"Niamh",middleName:null,surname:"Caprani",slug:"niamh-caprani",fullName:"Niamh Caprani"},{id:"116548",title:"Prof.",name:"Noel",middleName:null,surname:"E. O'Connor",slug:"noel-e.-o'connor",fullName:"Noel E. O'Connor"}]},{id:"12285",doi:"10.5772/10432",title:"Capabilities and Performances of the Selective Laser Melting Process",slug:"capabilities-and-performances-of-the-selective-laser-melting-process",totalDownloads:5922,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:52,book:{slug:"new-trends-in-technologies--devices--computer--communication-and-industrial-systems",title:"New Trends in Technologies",fullTitle:"New Trends in Technologies: Devices, Computer, Communication and Industrial Systems"},signatures:"Sabina Luisa Campanelli, Nicola Contuzzi, Andrea Angelastro and Antonio Domenico Ludovico",authors:null},{id:"12298",doi:"10.5772/10420",title:"Intelligent Technologies in Modeling and Control of Turbojet Engines",slug:"intelligent-technologies-in-modeling-and-control-of-turbojet-engines",totalDownloads:2610,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:28,book:{slug:"new-trends-in-technologies--control--management--computational-intelligence-and-network-systems",title:"New Trends in Technologies",fullTitle:"New Trends in Technologies: Control, Management, Computational Intelligence and Network Systems"},signatures:"Ladislav Madarász, Rudolf Andoga and Ladislav Fozo",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"9429",title:"ICT Use in VET: The Virtual Training Centre for Shoe Design as a Model",slug:"ict-use-in-vet-the-virtual-training-centre-for-shoe-design-as-a-model",totalDownloads:6789,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"technology-education-and-development",title:"Technology",fullTitle:"Technology, Education and Development"},signatures:"Aura Mihai and Mehmet Sahin",authors:null},{id:"66828",title:"Breathing Monitoring and Pattern Recognition with Wearable Sensors",slug:"breathing-monitoring-and-pattern-recognition-with-wearable-sensors",totalDownloads:1777,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"wearable-devices-the-big-wave-of-innovation",title:"Wearable Devices",fullTitle:"Wearable Devices - the Big Wave of Innovation"},signatures:"Taisa Daiana da Costa, Maria de Fatima Fernandes Vara, Camila Santos Cristino, Tyene Zoraski Zanella, Guilherme Nunes Nogueira Neto and Percy Nohama",authors:[{id:"192464",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Percy",middleName:null,surname:"Nohama",slug:"percy-nohama",fullName:"Percy Nohama"},{id:"285706",title:"MSc.",name:"Taísa Daiana",middleName:null,surname:"Da Costa",slug:"taisa-daiana-da-costa",fullName:"Taísa Daiana Da Costa"},{id:"285707",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria de Fatima Fernandes",middleName:null,surname:"Vara",slug:"maria-de-fatima-fernandes-vara",fullName:"Maria de Fatima Fernandes Vara"},{id:"285708",title:"BSc.",name:"Camila Santos",middleName:null,surname:"Cristino",slug:"camila-santos-cristino",fullName:"Camila Santos Cristino"},{id:"285709",title:"Prof.",name:"Guilherme Nunes",middleName:null,surname:"Nogueira Neto",slug:"guilherme-nunes-nogueira-neto",fullName:"Guilherme Nunes Nogueira Neto"},{id:"293109",title:"BSc.",name:"Tyene",middleName:null,surname:"Zoraski Zanella",slug:"tyene-zoraski-zanella",fullName:"Tyene Zoraski Zanella"}]},{id:"62142",title:"5G Backhaul: Requirements, Challenges, and Emerging Technologies",slug:"5g-backhaul-requirements-challenges-and-emerging-technologies",totalDownloads:2191,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"broadband-communications-networks-recent-advances-and-lessons-from-practice",title:"Broadband Communications Networks",fullTitle:"Broadband Communications Networks - Recent Advances and Lessons from Practice"},signatures:"Md Maruf Ahamed and Saleh Faruque",authors:[{id:"215861",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Md Maruf",middleName:null,surname:"Ahamed",slug:"md-maruf-ahamed",fullName:"Md Maruf Ahamed"},{id:"216864",title:"Prof.",name:"Saleh",middleName:null,surname:"Faruque",slug:"saleh-faruque",fullName:"Saleh Faruque"}]},{id:"56113",title:"Smartphone: The Ultimate IoT and IoE Device",slug:"smartphone-the-ultimate-iot-and-ioe-device",totalDownloads:1938,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:14,book:{slug:"smartphones-from-an-applied-research-perspective",title:"Smartphones from an Applied Research Perspective",fullTitle:"Smartphones from an Applied Research Perspective"},signatures:"Mehdia Ajana El Khaddar and Mohammed Boulmalf",authors:[{id:"26677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehdia",middleName:null,surname:"Ajana El Khaddar",slug:"mehdia-ajana-el-khaddar",fullName:"Mehdia Ajana El Khaddar"},{id:"209424",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Boulmalf",slug:"mohammed-boulmalf",fullName:"Mohammed Boulmalf"}]},{id:"8696",title:"Graph Theory and Analysis of Biological Data in Computational Biology",slug:"graph-theory-and-analysis-of-biological-data-in-computational-biology",totalDownloads:3665,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"advanced-technologies",title:"Advanced Technologies",fullTitle:"Advanced Technologies"},signatures:"Shih-Yi Chao",authors:null},{id:"49017",title:"Weaving Complex Patterns — From Weaving Looms to Weaving Machines",slug:"weaving-complex-patterns-from-weaving-looms-to-weaving-machines",totalDownloads:3537,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"cutting-edge-research-in-technologies",title:"Cutting Edge Research in Technologies",fullTitle:"Cutting Edge Research in Technologies"},signatures:"Stana Kovačević and Ivana Schwarz",authors:[{id:"97687",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivana",middleName:null,surname:"Schwarz",slug:"ivana-schwarz",fullName:"Ivana Schwarz"}]},{id:"56004",title:"Smartphone as a Portable Detector, Analytical Device, or Instrument Interface",slug:"smartphone-as-a-portable-detector-analytical-device-or-instrument-interface",totalDownloads:1682,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"smartphones-from-an-applied-research-perspective",title:"Smartphones from an Applied Research Perspective",fullTitle:"Smartphones from an Applied Research Perspective"},signatures:"Diana Bueno Hernández, Jean Louis Marty and Roberto Muñoz\nGuerrero",authors:[{id:"6218",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Louis",middleName:null,surname:"Marty",slug:"jean-louis-marty",fullName:"Jean-Louis Marty"},{id:"23084",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Munoz",slug:"roberto-munoz",fullName:"Roberto Munoz"},{id:"196112",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Bueno",slug:"diana-bueno",fullName:"Diana Bueno"}]},{id:"9437",title:"Use of Audio Files Improves Students' Performance in Higher Education",slug:"use-of-audio-files-improves-students-performance-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:1761,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"technology-education-and-development",title:"Technology",fullTitle:"Technology, Education and Development"},signatures:"Itziar Alonso-Arbiol",authors:null},{id:"66803",title:"Coherent Receiver for Turbo Coded Single-User Massive MIMO-OFDM with Retransmissions",slug:"coherent-receiver-for-turbo-coded-single-user-massive-mimo-ofdm-with-retransmissions",totalDownloads:561,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"multiplexing",title:"Multiplexing",fullTitle:"Multiplexing"},signatures:"K. Vasudevan, Shivani Singh and A. Phani Kumar Reddy",authors:[{id:"284388",title:"Prof.",name:"Kasturi",middleName:null,surname:"Vasudevan",slug:"kasturi-vasudevan",fullName:"Kasturi Vasudevan"},{id:"284392",title:"Ms.",name:"Shivani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"shivani-singh",fullName:"Shivani Singh"},{id:"284393",title:"Mr.",name:"A. Phani Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Reddy",slug:"a.-phani-kumar-reddy",fullName:"A. Phani Kumar Reddy"}]},{id:"35183",title:"Quantitative Technology Forecasting Techniques",slug:"quantitative-technology-forecasting-techniques",totalDownloads:11773,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"technological-change",title:"Technological Change",fullTitle:"Technological Change"},signatures:"Steven R. Walk",authors:[{id:"115236",title:"Prof.",name:"Steven",middleName:"Robert",surname:"Walk",slug:"steven-walk",fullName:"Steven Walk"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"information-and-communication",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/234678/ning-xue",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"234678",slug:"ning-xue"},fullPath:"/profiles/234678/ning-xue",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()