Extent of tests for various failure rate and the number of failed pieces.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"447",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Electric Vehicles - Modelling and Simulations",title:"Electric Vehicles",subtitle:"Modelling and Simulations",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In this book, modeling and simulation of electric vehicles and their components have been emphasized chapter by chapter with valuable contribution of many researchers who work on both technical and regulatory sides of the field. Mathematical models for electrical vehicles and their components were introduced and merged together to make this book a guide for industry, academia and policy makers.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-477-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6046-5",doi:"10.5772/958",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"electric-vehicles-modelling-and-simulations",numberOfPages:480,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Seref Soylu",publishedDate:"September 12th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/447.jpg",numberOfDownloads:143328,numberOfWosCitations:93,numberOfCrossrefCitations:88,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:24,numberOfDimensionsCitations:152,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:21,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:333,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 13th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 10th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 17th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 16th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 15th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"12153",title:"Dr.",name:"Seref",middleName:null,surname:"Soylu",slug:"seref-soylu",fullName:"Seref Soylu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12153/images/system/12153.jpg",biography:"Dr. Seref Soylu received his Ph.D degree in Mechanical Engineering from Iowa State University in 2001. His Ph.D. research work mostly focused on internal combustion engines and thermodynamic engine modeling that were supported by John Deere Product Engineering Center. Through end of his Ph.D. study, he also worked for Caterpillar Inc. as an analytical engineer in their technical center in Peoria, IL for the development of the advanced diesel engines. After receiving his Ph.D. degree in 2001, Dr. Soylu joined to Sakarya University to perform research and teach thermal science courses. His research interests centered on the development of environmentally friendly road transport vehicles including hybrid electrical vehicles. Dr. Soylu also worked as a visiting scientist in the Joint Research Center of European Commission for a year from November 2004 to November 2005 to provide technical and scientific support to the policymakers of the Commission for their legislative works. His work in the Joint Research Center focused on fuels for internal combustion engines, exhaust emission measurement techniques for zero emission vehicles, portable emission measurement systems, and small engines. Dr. Soylu has also worked as independent expert for European Commission in the field of Energy and Transport to evaluate and review Framework Programme (6 & 7th) projects on behalf of the Commission. \nDr. Soylu is currently an Associate Professor of Sakarya University. 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Head of the research program in sustainable management of date palm pests at the Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu El-Shafie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192142/images/system/192142.jpg",biography:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie is an Associate Professor of Entomology and a senior research entomologist at the Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. He is the head of the sustainable pest management research program at Date Palm. He obtained his BSc and MSc from the University of Khartoum, Sudan, in 1988 and 1993, respectively. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Giessen, Institute of Phytopathology and Applied Entomology, Germany, in 2001. In 2008, Dr. El-Shafie was appointed head of the Crop Protection Department, and then deputy dean for academic affairs at the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum, Sudan. He supervised twenty-five MSc students and five Ph.D. students at the University of Khartoum. His research interest focuses on the sustainable management of field crop pests using biopesticides and semiochemical-based technologies. He has more than twelve years of experience in the management of the invasive red palm weevil and other date palm pests of major significance. He has published seventy research papers in international peer-reviewed journals and seventeen book chapters with international publishers. He has also edited two books. Dr. El-Shafie has participated in more than thirty international conferences in the field of entomology. 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The material properties, needed in design, can only sometimes be found in data sheets. If they are not available, they must be obtained by testing, for example the strength of a new alloy or concrete or the fatigue resistance of a vehicle part. Also, the manufacturers of electrical components must provide the reliability data for catalogs (e.g. the failure rate and the data characterizing the influence of some factors, such as temperature or vibrations). It is also impossible to predict with 100% accuracy the properties of a new bridge, an engine or a complex system consisting of many parts, whose properties vary more or less around the nominal values. In all these cases, tests are often necessary to verify whether the object has the demanded properties or if it conforms to the standards. Also, the information on loads (e.g. wind velocities in an unknown area) must often be obtained by measurement.
The reliability tests can be divided into two groups: those for providing detailed information on properties of new materials or components, and those for the verification of the expected values. The former are more extensive, as they must provide the mean value and statistical parameters characterizing the random variability. The extent of verification tests is smaller.
In this chapter, the reliability tests of mass-produced components will be described first, followed by the tests of large or complex structures or components and the tests of strength and fatigue resistance.
The most important reliability characteristics are the mean failure rate and the mean time to failure or between failures. The tests can be done so that several components are loaded in a usual way (e.g. by electric current), and the times to failure of individual pieces are measured. As the time to failure of some samples can be very long, the test is sometimes terminated after failure of several pieces, at time
where
The individual times to failure vary, and this must also be characterized. If failures occur due to various reasons, an exponential distribution of times to failure is often assumed. A simple check of this is the standard deviation
If an exponential distribution is acceptable, the estimate of the mean failure rate can be obtained easily as the reciprocal value of the mean time to failure,
The two-sided confidence interval for the true mean failure rate
if the testing was terminated at the
if the testing continued come time after the
the probability that the actual failure rate will be higher is now
if the test was terminated after the
The determination and importance of confidence limits will be illustrated on the following examples.
Ten electrical components were tested to determine the failure rate. The tests were terminated after
Solution. The mean value and standard deviation of the times to failure of the six failed components were 168.66 and 136.33 h, respectively. It is thus possible to assume exponential distribution.
The cumulated duration of tests, calculated after [1], was:
The mean time to failure is
The lower and upper confidence limits for
As we can see from this example, the confidence interval obtained from only six failures is very wide. If it should be narrower (to get more accurate estimate), it is necessary either to make a longer test so that more parts of the tested group fail or to increase the number of parts tested simultaneously or both.
The above testing has continued until the time
Solution. The same procedure as above has given the following results:
The whole test lasted twice as long as the previous one, but the new confidence interval is only slightly narrower. If significantly more accurate estimates should be achieved, much longer tests or with substantially higher number of tested pieces must be done. Thus, when preparing the tests for the determination of failure rate, one should estimate in advance the duration of the test, the number of tested pieces, and the number of pieces that can fail — all this for the acceptable probability
The rearrangement of the expression for the upper limit of confidence interval for
If the number of failed samples does not exceed
As it follows from the product
The following table, based on Equation (8), shows the values of the product
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
0.001 | \n\t\t\t5322 | \n\t\t\t7994 | \n\t\t
0.0001 | \n\t\t\t53,223 | \n\t\t\t79,936 | \n\t\t
0.00001 | \n\t\t\t532,232 | \n\t\t\t799,359 | \n\t\t
0.000001 | \n\t\t\t5,322,320 | \n\t\t\t7,993,590 | \n\t\t
Extent of tests for various failure rate and the number of failed pieces.
For example, the reliability testing of components with assumed exponential distribution, failure rate
Another way to obtain the demanded reliability information sooner uses a higher intensity of load (e.g. higher mechanical load, higher electric stress or electric current, or more severe environment (e.g. higher temperature or vibrations). If this approach should be effective, one must know the mechanism of degradation and the relationship between the load intensity and the rate of degradation. For example, the rate of chemical processes, which are the cause of some failures, often depends on the temperature according to the Arrhenius equation:
Equation (10) can be used for the determination of necessary temperature change from
Similarly, the number of cycles to fatigue failure of periodically loaded components can be reduced by increasing the characteristic stress or load amplitude
Today, mass-produced electronic and electrical components are tested in special chambers and under special conditions enabling acceptably short duration of the tests. More about these tests, denoted
These tests aim at sorting out “weak” items that could fail shortly after being put into service. However, they must not cause excessive degradation of properties in “good” components (i.e. they should not shorten their life significantly). Sorting tests can be nondestructive or destructive.
This operation, common in series production, ensures that only those batches of items will be released to the customer or to the next operation, which are either perfect or contain only very small proportion of out-of-tolerance parts. Before this control is introduced, a test plan must be prepared, which contains:
Kinds of monitored indicators,
Number of tested items,
Duration of the tests,
Criterion for the decision on the acceptance.
Generally, three approaches are used:
The curve showing how the probability of accepting the lot decreases with increasing proportion of defectives in the sample is called the
The rejected batch is either discarded or 100% checked. In the latter case, the good pieces are added to other good items. This makes the average quality of the batches composed in this way better, so that the quality demands in the tests may slightly be reduced.
Operating characteristic curve (OCC).
Also other schemes exist. For example, a
However, doubts are sometimes cast on the cost-effectivity of statistical control. On the one hand, this control costs money. On the other hand, losses can arise due to possible defective pieces hidden in the batches checked as good. Deming [7] has pointed out that if the cost for inspection of one piece is
The statistical acceptance was very popular in the second half of the 20th century but not so much today. There are two reasons: the demands on quality and reliability are much higher today than 50 years ago and the allowable probabilities are often of the order 1:106, much lower than the degree of confidence common in statistical sampling. Moreover, the controlling devices are much more powerful today. The incorporation of automated test equipment (
These tests will be illustrated on two cases: bridges and large components exposed to fatigue, such as parts of heavy vehicles (e.g. locomotives).
The assumed service life of road and railway bridges is many tens of years and sometimes more. During this time, the structure deteriorates and its safety decreases. Also, the loading pattern can change in a long time (new kinds of vehicles and changed traffic demands). For these reasons, bridges must sometimes be repaired or reconstructed. In such case, thorough inspections are done at suitable time, including
Large parts of mechanical structures, such as vehicles or aircrafts (sometimes these objects as a whole), are mechanically loaded with the purpose to find whether the actual response (deformations and stresses at selected points) corresponds to the values assumed in design. Also, dynamic response is investigated. Exceptionally, the object is loaded until the destruction. In the past, the measurements were often the only reliable source of information of the stresses and behavior. Today, the methods of stress analysis are much better and much information can be obtained by computer simulation as early as in the design stage. Therefore, today the tests serve rather for confirmation whether the demanded parameters have been achieved.
The test loads are often imposed by electrohydraulic cylinders attached to the tested object. Often, special test stands are used, consisting of a massive frame with hydraulic cylinders, clamping equipment, and a controlling unit. The work of the stand is controlled by a computer. This enables one to program the demanded loading sequences. Sometimes, the load program is based on a record made during a test vehicle driving on real roads or on a test track containing typical examples of road surfaces. The test vehicle is equipped with sensors (usually strain gauges fixed at certain points of the car body) and the measured data are recorded. These data must be transformed to the data for the control of the load cylinders of the testing stand. The reason is that these cylinders are often attached to the tested structure at different points than were those used in the test vehicle driven on the track. Also, the data recorded with one test vehicle are sometimes used for the testing of other types of vehicles. The test stand can repeat the recorded load sequence again and again, so that also fatigue resistance can be tested in this way.
These tests are often arranged according to various standards. In this paragraph, we thus limit our attention to some probabilistic aspects of these tests.
Strength tests. The individual values vary, so that the number of tests should be adjusted to the purpose of the measurement and to the scatter of individual values. If only approximate information on the average strength is needed, three tests may be sufficient; the standard deviation can serve for the estimation of confidence interval of the mean strength. However, especially for brittle materials with high scatter of individual values, the knowledge of the ”minimum“ strength is often demanded. This is determined as a lowprobability quantile. For this purpose, more tests must be done, often several tens or more. From these tests, the parameters of strength distribution are determined. Often, Weibull distribution, but also log-normal distribution, is assumed. The determination of parameters and quantiles of Weibull distribution was described in Chapters 11 and 18. The parameters of log-normal distribution are found in several steps. In the first step, logarithms are taken from the measured values, then the average and standard deviation are calculated from the transformed data, and finally they are transformed back to the original system of units. The question of which distribution is better can be solved by means of statistical tests of goodness of fit [2 – 4].
Generally, many values are necessary to obtain reliable values of low-probability quantiles of strength. (Remember that 1% quantile corresponds to the minimum of 100 values.)
Fatigue tests. The main purpose of fatigue tests is the determination of fatigue limit (if it exists) and finding the relationship between the characteristic stress (
or a similar expression. Now, two possibilities exist depending on the number of tests that were done or could be done with respect to the available money and time. If only several tests have been performed, all measured
If more values (e.g. tens) are available for each stress level, a more accurate procedure can be used. The data for individual stress levels are rank-ordered in ascending order. Each value corresponds to some quantile of time to failure for a given stress level. For example, the shortest time of 10 values obtained for the same stress corresponds approximately to 10% quantile of the time to failure. Now, only the
The use of additives in the food industry has become a routine process due to the ability of this type of compound to improve the organoleptic properties (flavor, aroma, color) of foodstuff or to extend its shelf-life due to its bioactivities (mainly, antioxidant and antimicrobial) [1]. Food additives are the most useful tool to improve foodstuff quality. According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), food additives are defined as “substances that are not normally consumed as food nor used as intrinsic ingredients of food, which has a technological purpose” [2]. In this context, the nature of some additives, known to be potentially hazardous if consumed in excess, has derived to an increasing consumer trend to avoid these types of products. One possible effect of these molecules is the potential allergic reactions or health risks associated with a frequent consumption. Compounds that have been subjected to this controversy are sulfites, nitrosamines or palm oil, whose presence in food have been sometimes forbidden (
Properties and main applications of major additives of natural origin in foods.
Studies pointed out that natural additives may have higher bioactivity than artificial ones. For example, it has been observed that phenolic compounds (phenolic acids and flavanols) have comparable or even more potent antioxidant activity than currently used artificial additives like propyl gallate or butylhydroxytoluene in meat, fish and bakery products [13, 14, 15, 16]. Hence, there is scientific evidence to propose their use as alternative condiments. On this matter, many of these compounds and/or extracts, like essential oils, are already approved and generally recognized as safe (GRAS) flavoring food additives by the
In parallel, the effectiveness and new potential applications of additives like food active packaging and their addition into novel food matrices are the focus of study by many research groups. To release new functional food to market, health claims and properties must be supported by scientific evidences to be legally labeled as functional food [19]. Thereupon, a great number of compounds or extracts may be obtained from natural sources, such as vegetables, fruits, algae or even by-products for their application as food and feed additives but also as cosmetic ingredients [20]. Table 1 collects a list of selected natural additives that may be directly extracted from natural sources. Although these compounds are of natural origin and may be extracted from natural sources, efficient yields, costs and steady production has led the chemical and biotechnology industry to manufacture them by biological or chemical synthesis. Representative examples are ascorbic acid and citric acid. Ascorbic acid is a potent antioxidant and an essential vitamin with many uses in agriculture and food industry. While it is present in a wide number of fruits and vegetables (
Compound | Applications | Current & Potential Natural Sources | E-Number | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Benzoic acid | Antioxidant & antimicrobial preservatives | Cranberries, blueberries ( | E-210 | [21] |
Ascorbic acid | Antioxidant | Peppers, kiwifruit, citrus, rosehip. | E-300 | [22] |
Citric acid | Antioxidant, acidifier | Citrus | E-330 | [23] |
Tartaric acid | Acidifier | Grapes | E-334 | [24] |
Chlorophylls | Colorant | Green leaves from alfalfa, nettles, spinach, green microalgae | E-140, E-141 | [25] |
Carotenoids (β-carotene) | Colorant, antioxidant | Pigmented vegetables (carrots, palm fruit), red microalgae | E160a | [26] |
Curcumin | Colorant, flavoring, antioxidant | Turmeric ( | E-100 | [27] |
Lutein | Colorant, antioxidant | Kale ( | E-160b | [28] |
Paprika extract (capsaicin, captaxanthin, capsorubin) | Colorant, flavoring | Red peppers ( | E-160c | [29] |
Lycopene | Colorant | Tomato peels | E-160d | [30] |
Anthocyanins | Colorant | Red grape skin, pomegranate, black currant | E-163 | [31] |
Glutamate | Flavoring | Wheat gluten, de-oiled soybeans | E-620 | [32] |
Limonene | Odorant, antimicrobial | Citrus peels | — | [33] |
Eugenol | Flavoring, antimicrobial preservative | Clove | — | [34, 35] |
Carvacrol | Flavoring, antimicrobial preservative | Oregano, thyme, rosemary | — | [35, 36] |
Rosemary extract (carnosic acid, carnosol) | Preserver (antioxidant, antimicrobial), flavoring | Rosemary | E-392 | [37] |
Lecithins | Emulsifiers, lubricants | Soybean, sunflower kernels, rapeseed | E-322 | [38] |
Alginates | Texturizer, binder, thickener | Brown seaweeds | E-401, E-402 | [39] |
Agar | Texturizer, binder, softener | Red seaweeds | E-406 | [40] |
Carrageenan | Texturizer, binder, softener | Red seaweeds | E-407 | [41] |
Pectins | Thickener, texturizer | Apple pomace, citrus peels | E-440 | [42] |
Arabic gum | Thickener, texturizer | E-414 | [43] | |
Tannic acid | Antioxidant, plasticizer, flavoring | Grape seeds, skins | — | [44, 45] |
Phytosterols | Functional, health | Soybean | E-499 | [46] |
Tocopherols | Health, antioxidant | Vegetal oils, cereal germs, rapeseed, soybean | E-306, E-307, E-308, E-309 | [47] |
Summary of main natural additives from vegetable sources* and EU E-number reference, if they are at present approved for use in the EU.
Described natural sources are indicated and evidenced in the used references, but chemical or microbiological synthesis as well as enzymatic transformations from natural sources may be the most extended production method.
Extracting compounds from complex vegetable matrixes requires the application of several techniques to extract and isolate the selected molecules. Thus, it is important to choose the best fitting extraction technique to the specific additive in need of isolation. Conventional extraction techniques, which have been applied for many years, include maceration, Soxhlet extraction, distillations, infusions, and cold-pressed extractions [50]. They are usually not eco-friendly due to the large amounts of solvents and energy required for their application [51], which also provides a safety concern for the workers and consumers involved, as well as the lack of sustainability, and green extraction protocols [52]. Besides, some of these techniques are also very time-consuming which aggravates the energy spending problem as the equipment must remain working for long periods of time, being one of the biggest expenses heating or cooling. Lastly, the yields obtained using these methodologies are usually not as rentable as the ones produced using more innovative extraction techniques, that are faster and more efficient than the previously available protocols. For this reason, conventional methodologies are started to be conjugated with new technologies resulting in Soxhlet or distillations assisted by ultrasound or microwave technologies to respond to the current needs of the industry.
Nevertheless, these techniques are still used nowadays because they allow the extraction of compounds in a cost-effectively manner with simpler equipment [52], like the distillation of essential oils [53], or they achieved a better stability of the extracted compound to be used as additive, as is the case cold pressing for oils extraction [54].
Maceration is one of the most known and used conventional extraction techniques [55]. It is a solid–liquid extraction achieved by applying heat and agitation to a previously selected solvent, with a convenient polarity, that is in contact with the sample of interest [52, 56].
Maceration has few advantages. It can be performed using low-cost and simple equipment compared with other conventional and innovative techniques. Besides, a large range of molecules can be extracted by changing the protocols and adapting the variables like solvent [57], temperature, agitation, and time in order to optimize the extraction of the desired compounds [58]. Furthermore, this extraction technique is still used due to its easy scale-up to several applications in the industry.
In comparison, maceration also has some major drawbacks. It often requires long extraction times, large volumes of solvent (mostly organic solvents), high temperatures which translate in a big amount of energy spent, and it has to be coupled with several filtration or centrifugation steps in order to separate the extract from the biomass [52, 59, 60, 61, 62].
Soxhlet is a reference extraction method to evaluate the performance of other liquid–solid extraction methodologies [56]. This technique, developed in 1879, uses a particular type of condenser known as the Soxhlet apparatus [50]. The traditional Soxhlet extractor is composed by a thimble-holder where the sample is placed inside the thimble, and a distillation flask where fresh solvent is added. When the solvent reaches the boiling point, it vaporizes and enters the matrix, solubilizing compatible compounds. After that, the solvent hits the cooling tubes of the condenser and condense back into the initial flask with the extracted compounds. This operation repeats until the full extraction is completed [50, 52].
This type of extraction presents several advantages. Firstly, the constant renovation of the solvent in contact with the matrix, allows for a disequilibrium between the compounds in the sample and the lack of them in the solvent, favoring the extraction of these compounds. Secondly, the temperature of the system is maintained throughout the process. Soxhlet extraction also does not require filtration or centrifugation of the final extracts, being perfectly separated from the original biomass. And lastly, it allows for the treatment of several samples in parallel at a relatively low cost and easy operational processes, considering that the basic equipment is quite affordable and simple [52, 63].
However, Soxhlet extraction also presents some disadvantages, as a large amount of organic solvents required, long periods of extraction until the final number of cycles is completed [52], the high temperatures employed to boil the solvents that can degrade the compounds [50], and this technique cannot be accelerated by adding agitation [55, 63].
Nevertheless, the Soxhlet extraction has continued to evolve to try to compensate some of these disadvantages, by automating the process, aiming to shorten the extraction times, and even recently Soxhlet extraction has been coupled to innovative technologies like high-pressure Soxhlet extraction, supercritical fluid-Soxhlet extraction, and automated Soxhlet extraction or by applying auxiliary energies such as ultrasounds or microwaves, that results in higher efficiency than the conventional Soxhlet extraction [52, 63].
Distillation is one of the oldest extraction techniques that has been used for over 5000 years and is still currently used. It main application is to separate liquid mixtures through the boiling point of each component of the mixture after which condensation steps take place [64]. Another ancient application is to create “distilled waters” from plant materials [65]. Distillation is still used in chemical refineries to separate and purify compounds, due to its simplicity and easy scale up [66]. Even though distillation processes are still quite common, they have many drawbacks. For example, the necessity for the consumption of large amounts of energy for long periods of time, as well as the high temperatures used which can degrade the additive of interest. In addition, the large amounts of solvent required [52] and the long extraction times [66].
Regarding the extraction of compounds from natural products, distillation is mostly used to isolate volatile molecules from mixtures of compounds of even several biological matrices, but it is only efficient in the case of thermostable molecules due to the high temperatures employed. Even so, steam distillation is still currently the most used technique in the food industry for extracting volatile compounds and essential oils to be used as food additives. Distillation can be divided into three types: water, water-steam, and steam distillations, and the extraction of essential oils is based on the latest, which the steam goes into a recipient containing the plant matrix, releasing the essential oils from the samples, then the essential oil is cooled and condensed, generating two different phases that can be separated [53].
Infusions are very short macerations, where the plant is put in contact with boiling or sometimes cold water, for short periods of time. Therefore, infusions contain the readily soluble active chemical compounds that were present in the crude plant, in a diluted concentration. This methodology is used to obtain fresh infusions with the phytochemicals from aromatic or medicinal plants which can be further used as food additives [55]. Many infusions nowadays are prepared starting from a very concentrated infusion and diluting one volume of it to 9 volumes of water. To prepare the concentrated infusions the most common strategy is a percolation or modified maceration. In a modified maceration it is added 25% ethanol to the extraction solvent during or after the maceration process. The final solution is then diluted with water to resemble the scent and the potency of a normal fresh infusion.
One of the greatest susceptibilities of this method is that infusions are very prone to fungus and bacterial growth, due to the large amount of water they contain, so they have a very short shelf life and need to be used right away. For that reason, infusions are rarely used in industrial fields [67].
This technique relies on pure pressure applied to the ground plant material to squeeze out what they contain. When the plant is well dried and grounded, this extraction technique is a viable, simple and eco-friendly option to consider for the extraction of some oils. During the process, cold pressers apply a large amount of pressure which translates into a mechanical rupture of the oil glands in the plant. The oil is extracted independently of its polarity and is rich in several lipophilic compounds. This process is still used in some industries because of its simplicity and easy scalability and for the fact that the obtained oils are more stable and resistant to oxidative stress than oils that have been refined or processed in any other way [54]. However, this technique can only be used to produce some specific vegetable and seed oil and it is not suitable to produce essential oils. Furthermore, the final product can many times contain other chemicals or contaminants [50].
The application of green extraction techniques to obtain food natural additives is gaining great interest in recent years due to the growing demand of healthier and more sustainable products. Figure 2 collects the main advantages of the green extraction techniques applied to natural sources.
Conventional and green extraction techniques development.
Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) is used in different fields such as biomedicine or food technology, in which UAE is applied to obtain compounds of interest or as a pre-step in numerous technological procedures. There are several parameters to consider optimizing the method including ultrasound power intensities, frequency, wavelength and time. High frequency and low power ultrasounds are used in medical science. However, low frequency and high power ultrasounds are used in food industry [68].
Low frequency and high-power conditions produce cell disruption and the subsequent release of compounds present in the matrix [69, 70, 71]. This liberation of the compounds is based on the principle of cavitation. This physical–chemical process comprises generating bubbles that grow in such a way that they explode causing the rupture of the cell wall of plants, and the consequent release of the substances in their interior [72]. Another important characteristic of ultrasonic-assisted extraction is that the hot spots created by cavitation bubbles during the extraction process hardly generate heating and have a great capacity to cool down while the process is taking place, in this way UAE is cataloged as an extraction method suitable for extracting thermolabile compounds. However, when the extraction is longer than five minutes, at high powers it is necessary to use some refrigeration to keep the temperature constant [73].
Among the advantages of this technology are reduction of solvents consumption, temperature and time, low equipment investment and easy implementation, so it can be basically industrially employed in local companies [74]. One of the main disadvantages of UAE is that heating can degrade the additives present in the sample. Other common applications of UAE in food industry are cooking of meat and vegetable, drying of dehydrated products, degassing of juices, sterilization and in the formation of emulsions among others [72]. This is due to UAE can reduce the activity of enzymes and microorganisms without modifying the organoleptic characteristics and the presence of bioactive compounds in food. Table 2 collects some studies supporting the application of UAE to obtain bioactive compounds to be used as food additives from natural sources.
Compound | Raw material | Conditions | Yield | Ref. | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Freq. | Intensity | t | T | Solvent | ||||
kHz | W/cm3 | min | °C | |||||
Phenolics | — | 20 | 20 | 50 | H2O | 5.53 mg GAE/g | [75] | |
Phenolics | 25 | 150 | 10 | 30 | EtOH | 92.8 mg GAE/g | [76] | |
Phenolics | Microalgae | 40 | 700 | 60 | 75 | EtOH | 9.8 mg GAE/g | [77] |
Phenolics | 24 | 400 | 5 | 21 | EtOH | 50% | [78] | |
Phenolics | 20 | 750 | 25 | 21 | 0.06 M HCl | 143.12 mg GAE/g | [79] | |
Phenolics | 20 | 110 | 49 | 48 | EtOH | 279.9 mg GAE/g | [80] | |
Phenolics | 40 | 300 | 120 | 21 | EtOH | 92.4 mg GAE/g | [81] | |
Capsaicinoids | Peppers | 20 | 360 | 10 | 50 | MeOH | 448 μmol/kg | [82] |
Vitamin C | 20 | 400 | 30 | 21 | EtOH | 53.78 mg AA/100 g | [83] | |
Carotenoids | 20 | 130 | 30 | 51.5 | Sunflower oil and soy oil | 93.8% | [84] | |
Carotenoids | 20 | 22.5 | 20 | 40 | Sunflower oil | 334.75 mg/L | [85] | |
β-Carotene | 20 | 100 | 50 | 50 | — | 83.32% | [86] | |
Sulfated polysaccharide | 20 | 196 | 58 | 70 | EtOH | 3.51% | [87] | |
Fucoidan | 35 | 150 | 15 | 23 | H2O | 3.63% | [88] | |
Polysaccharides | — | 3.8 | — | 50 | EtOH | 23% | [89] |
Different experimental conditions carried out with ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE).
Abbreviations: EtOH: ethanol; MeOH: methanol; T: temperature; t: time; Freq: frequency.
Several are the parameters that have influence on the UAE extraction. They include the type of the reactor, the ultrasonic intensity and frequency, the extraction time and temperature, the solvent proportion and nature [90]. In this sense, the intensity or power is proportional to the ultrasonic amplitude, however, a greater ultrasonic amplitude is not directly related to a better efficiency of the process. On the contrary, it could be related to certain problems such as those that cause the erosion of the probe and reduce the formation of cavitation which can even promote the degradation of the extracted compounds [91]. Regarding the frequencies used, they must be selected together with the ultrasonic intensity to obtain the desired cavitation. Higher extraction yields are reported in the low frequency range (20–40 kHz). Regarding temperature, high temperatures help to interrupt the interaction of the solvent and the matrix and improve the diffusion rates of the solvent, while low temperatures improve cavitation. Extraction time is another variable to consider. Long extraction time improves extraction yields; however, it can cause changes in the extracted compound. In addition, the nature of the solvent has influence in the UAE, so that a viscous solvent reduces cavitation and a volatile solvent can be evaporated if the extraction is carried out at a higher temperature for a long period. Finally, the size of the matrix, its interaction with the solvent and the ratio of solvent to matrix are also parameters to consider when UAE is used [91].
High pressure assisted extraction (HPAE) is a novel technique used for extraction of active ingredients from plant materials. Its mechanism of action is based on two principles: the isostatic principle and the Le Chatelier’s principle. Isostatic principle establishes that the pressure is exerted uniformly on the matrix regardless of its shape or constitution. In turn, according to Le Chatelier’s principle, by applying a force (pressure) that alters the equilibrium, the system acts trying to minimize said disturbance [92]. To carry out this type of extraction, it is necessary to apply pressures ranging from 100 to 800 MPa, even in some cases reaching values of 1000 MPa, which has been proved to be more effective. However, HPAE cannot be applied for the extraction of all compounds since this technique can cause some structural changes in foods, such as cellular deformation, cellular membrane damage or protein denaturation. The parameters that must be optimized to increase the extraction yield are type and amount of solvent, temperature, pressure, extraction time and number of cycles [93].
Among the advantages of HPAE are the improvement of the mass transfer rate, the enhancement of solvent permeability in cells as well as secondary metabolite diffusion. Other advantages include shorter extractions times, the process may be performed at room temperature (avoiding thermal degradation of heat labile components) and higher extraction yields. In addition, the use of solvents with different polarity allows to extract a great variety of compounds [94].
Some studies can already be observed that support the application of HPAE to obtain bioactive compounds derived from both plants and food (Table 3). However, research in the field of HPAE is in its initial stages, and more in-depth studies are still needed to determine the full potential of HPAE.
Compound | Raw material | Conditions | Yield | Ref. | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
P | t | T | Solvent | ||||
MPa | min | °C | |||||
Flavonoids | 600 | 18–29 | — | 40% EtOH | 35% | [94] | |
Phenolics | 10.3 | 110 | 60 | EtOH | 386.42 mg GAE g/ extract | [95] | |
Phenolics | 600 | 5 | 25 | 70% EtOH | 567–642 mg GAE/g | [96] | |
Melanoidins | 300 | 5 | 25 | DW | (595.14 ± 12.14 μg/mg melanoidins | [97] |
Different experimental conditions carried out with high pressure assisted extraction (HPAE).
Abbreviations: EtOH: ethanol; P: pressure; T: temperature; t: time; DW: distilled water; DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate free radical method; GAE: gallic acid equivalent.
Microwave assisted extraction (MAE) is a technique which combines conventional solvent extraction with microwave heating. Microwaves are composed of electric and magnetic fields with spectral frequency ranging from 300 to 300,000 MHz [98]. Many reports have been published on the extraction of secondary metabolite from plants using MAE. Some of them are collected in Table 4. The advantages of this technique include high efficiency, rapid temperature rise, short extraction time, better process monitoring, and low energy consumption and cost [104]. One of the disadvantages of MAE is the degradation of some compounds due to the heat produced by irradiation. The efficiency of the MAE depends on factors such as the extractant nature, the power of microwave irradiation, the temperature, and the extraction time as well as the characteristics of the matrices and the solvent-food relationship. The extraction efficiency usually behaves directly proportional to the microwave power due to the local heating that contributes to the rupture of the matrix. However, there is a limit in the microwave power that can cause a decrease in the extraction efficiency. In this sense, Alara and co-workers point out that a power between 400 and 500 W in the microwave, the extraction amount of phenolic compounds is greater than that achieved using a power upper 500 W [111]. This is because overexposure to radiation from the microwaves produce overheating and degradation of compounds [112]. On the other hand, the choice of solvent influences the extraction of compounds. It was reported that a mixture of organic solvents and water has a desirable impact on the extraction efficiency. On the contrary, it was observed that the presence of water in organic solvents leads to greater penetration of the extractant in the matrix molecules promoting microwave heating and causing a positive impact on the general efficiency and extraction time compared to MAE that uses only organic solvents [113].
Compound | Raw material | Conditions of extraction | Yield | Ref. | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T | t | Power | Solvent ratios | ||||
°C | min | W | |||||
Polysaccharides | 63.3 | 76.8 | 369 | Water:raw material 14.5:1 | 13.33% | [98] | |
Polysaccharides | 80 | 120 | 480 | EtOH (80%) 1:10 | 2.92% | [99] | |
Polysaccharides | 120 | 15 | — | EtOH (80%) 1:10 | 16.08% | [100] | |
Polysaccharides | 70 | 10 | 500 | Water 1:70 | 17.01% | [101] | |
Polysaccharides | 30 | 41 | 414 | Water 1:30 | 10.59% | [102] | |
Essential oil | 60 | 50 | 600 | Water 20:1 | 7.1% | [103] | |
Crocetin | 96 | 30 | 2.45 GHz | 59.59% EtOH | 228 mg/g | [104] | |
Polyphenols | 150 | 90 | 60 | Water 1:10 | 50.4 mg GAE/g | [105] | |
Phenolics | 164 | 12.5 | 850 | EtOH (45%) | 42.4% | [106] | |
Phenolics | 100 | 2 | 800 | MeOH (60%) | 54.3 mg/g | [107] | |
Usnic acid | 80 | 5 | — | ACE 1:10 | 4.2 mg/g | [108] | |
Flavonolignan | 30 | 12 | 600 | EtOH (80%) 1:25 | 79% | [109] | |
Vicine | 30 | 0.5 | 1140 | MeOH (50%) | — | [110] |
Different experimental conditions carried out with microwave-assisted extraction (MAE).
Abbreviations: EtOH: ethanol; MeOH: methanol; ACE: acetone; T: temperature; t: time; GAE: gallic acid equivalent.
Also, the toxicity of the solvent is another important factor that must be evaluated with respect to the selection of a suitable extractant for MAE [114] since some theories highlight the efficiency and selectivity of MAE depends on the dielectric constant of the solvent mixture [115]. The polarity of organic solvents increases with the addition of water, the temperature within the sample increases due to better absorption of microwave energy, and extraction increases. The extraction time is another parameter that influences the extraction by MAE. Long times of extraction decreases the yield due to the alteration of the structural integrity of the chemically active principles. In this way, the extraction time in most of the MAE process is ranged from a few minutes to 30 min. Nevertheless, when MAE is used without solvent, longer extraction times can be employed. In this case, extraction cycles can be used to reduce the degradation of the compounds [116]. Additionally, the agitator effect influences the extraction process, reducing the negative effects of the S/F ratio on extraction recovery [116].
Enzymes are protein molecules whose function is to catalyze chemical reactions. Due to this ability to accelerate reactions, enzymes have always been important to food technology and are widely used to transform raw materials into improved food products such as starch processing, meat processing, dairy industry, wine industry and manufacturing of predigested foods [117]. However, with the advancement of technology, new applications have been developed as well as new sources for obtaining enzymes, being microbial enzymes the preferred source due to the advantages they present, among which it is worth highlighting an easy, profitable and constant production [118]. Among the novel applications of enzymes is the extraction of compounds of interest from different raw materials to be used as additives in the food industry. However, they are typically used for a feedstock pretreatment that makes conventional solvent extraction or distillation more efficient. Enzymes promote access to the substances of interest, so its applications include, among others, the extraction of flavor and color from plant materials as a pre-treatment of the raw material before subjecting the plant material to hydro-distillation/solvent extraction [119].
This entire process must be optimized to obtain the extract with the highest yield, that is, in a more purified and profitable way. To carry out this optimization, it is necessary to know the mechanism of action of the enzymes and, therefore, their optimal conditions of activity, being pH and temperature of vital importance. Another important factor to take into account is the majority composition of the raw material, which will determine the type of enzyme to be used (lipases, celluloses, proteases) [120]. This system has been investigated for extracting lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, phenols and oils among others (Table 5).
Compound | Raw material | Enzyme | Conditions | Yield | Ref. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T | pH | t | |||||
°C | — | h | |||||
Proteins | Protease | 50 | 9.0 | 1 | 97% | [121] | |
Proteins | Pectinase, cellulase, β-glucanase | 48 | 10.0 | 4 | 83.0% | [122] | |
Proteins | Alcalase | 60 | 9.5 | 1.5 | 88.2% | [123] | |
Lipids | Proteases | 60 | 9.0 | 2 | 38% | [124] | |
Polysaccharides | Cellulase | 45 | 5.0 | 1.3 | 35.3% | [125] | |
Polysaccharides | Cellulase, pectin, pectase | 52.7 | 3.9 | 2.73 | 5.1% | [126] | |
Phenols | Pectinase | 48 | 3.5 | 2.7 | 18–20 mg/g | [127] | |
Phenols | Viscozyme | 35 | 4.0 | 0.5 | 0.6 mg/g | [128] | |
Phenols | Cellulase, pectinase, β-glucosidase | 52.6 | 4.6 | 1 | 16.04 mg/g | [129] | |
Oils | Protex | 47.1 | 7.9 | 7.8 | 97.9% | [130] | |
Oils | Yellow mustard flour | Protex | 60 | 4.5 | 3 | 91.0% | [131] |
Vitamin C | Celluclast | 50 | 4.5 | 2 | 23.4 g/L | [132] | |
Carotenoids | Viscozyme L | 60 | 4.5 | 1 | 87.0% | [133] | |
Carotenoids | Viscozyme L | 50 | 4.5 | 5 | 78.0% | [134] | |
Lycopene | Pectinase | 60 | 5.0 | 0.4 | 1.1 mg/g | [135] |
Different experimental conditions carried out to obtain additives by enzyme-assisted extraction.
Abbreviations: T: temperature; t: time.
This technique has the advantages over other traditional methods of having a high selectivity and efficiency, being an environmentally friendly process with a minimum consumption of energy and chemical products, having good performance and the possibility of recycling the process. However, it also has some drawbacks such as the cost of the enzymes, the need for storage tanks that may require long-term incubation, the lack of knowledge about optimal or compatible enzyme formulations for cell disruption and the inability to fully hydrolyze the bonds in the plant cell wall [136].
Extraction by supercritical fluids is characterized by bringing the fluid to conditions of temperature and pressure above the critical point, at which time the extracting agent behaves as a liquid and a gas simultaneously. Among the advantages of this method are the absence of toxic residues in the final product, high selectivity, short times, low consumption of solvents, high stability of the product obtained and that the remaining biomass can be treated with other techniques to continue the extraction. This technique can also be used to remove undesirable compounds such as pollutants, toxins, and pesticides [136].
The extraction process takes place in several stages. At the beginning, the plant matrix absorbs the supercritical solvent, producing a swelling of the cell structure with the consequent dilation of the intercellular channels. This results in a decrease in resistance to mass transfer. In addition, there is a simultaneous transfer of matter from the internal matrix to the surface. After that, these compounds are transported from the surface to the supercritical solvent and finally removed from the solvent [137].
To increase extraction performance, several parameters need to be optimized. These are fundamentally temperature, pressure and co-solvent type and all depend on the compound to be extracted. The most widely used solvent is CO2 for its thermodynamic and heat transfer properties. Furthermore, it has a low critical point (31°C, 73 bar). In addition, the polarity of CO2 can be modified by using co-solvents such as ethanol, so that the polar components are also extracted [138].
Several reviews have been published on SFE fundamentals, experimental design and specific applications on food processing, surface coating analysis, vegetable matrices, extraction of metals as complexes, functional ingredients from natural sources, constituents of fish oil and decontamination of hazardous substances [139]. Table 6 shows some examples. Despite the large number of studies using this extraction technique, the comparatively high cost of investment has kept this expertise from being broadly considered as an alternative. Nevertheless, new studies have proved that SFE is an economically viable choice [152]. Moreover, the interest in SFE is not only at the laboratory level as an analytical tool but also in industrial processing, mainly decaffeination of coffee or tea, extraction of essential oils, extraction of high added value compounds and fatty acids [153].
Compound | Raw material | Conditions | Yield | Ref. | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pressure | T | Flow | t | Mass | ||||
bar | °C | h | g | mg/g | ||||
Lipids | 241–379 | 40–50 | 1 mL/min | 2 | 2 | 58 mg/g | [140] | |
Vitamin E | 361 | 83 | 50 mL/min | 1.5 | 75 | 29.4 mg/g | [141] | |
Protein | 350 | 40 | 400 g/min | 4 | — | — | [142] | |
Astaxanthin | 435 | 65 | 167 mL/min | 3.5 | 240 | 87.4% | [143] | |
Lycopene | 300 | 60 | 1.44 cm/min | 6 | 1 | 213 mg/g | [144] | |
Capsaicinoids | 150 | 60 | 2 mL/min | 1.4 | 2.5 | 0.5% | [145] | |
Flavonoids | 200 | 60 | 15 g/min | 1 | 30 | 60.57 mg/g | [146] | |
Phenols | 160 | 45 | 0.2 mL/min | 0.3 | 3 | 12.3% | [147] | |
Decaffeination | Green tea | 300 | 80 | 1500 mL/min | 2 | 10 | 70.2% | [148] |
Decaffeination | 300 | 60 | 15.83 g/min | 4.25 | 0.65 | 99.97% | [149] | |
Aroma | Vinegar | 350 | 50 | 0.42 g/min | 2 | 200 | 96.6% | [150] |
Sulforaphane | 250 | 60 | 2 g/min | 3 | 25 | 0.47% | [151] |
Different experimental conditions carried out with supercritical-fluid extraction (SFE).
Abbreviations: T: temperature; t: time.
The extraction through supercritical fluids presents greater efficiency in terms of increased yields and shorter extraction times compared to conventional methods. There are several factors that could limit its effectiveness, including solvent type, temperature, pressure, extraction time and particle size of the matrix to be studied [153]. Among them, it seems that the effectiveness of an SFE depends mainly on temperature and pressure. When temperature and pressure variations are considered, these have important repercussions on fluid hydrodynamics, solubility, and mass transfer [146]. In this sense, the low temperature is crucial for the conservation of bioactive compounds in the extracts and to achieve higher global/specific yields or greater bioactive capacities in the extracts. Numerous studies apply an extraction temperature range of 40–50°C [154, 155, 156, 157]. Regarding pressure, there is evidence that the optimum range is between 200 and 400 bars [154, 158, 159, 160, 161]. Additionally, an increase in pressure can modify the solubility of the solute, therefore, it is interesting to control the composition of the extract by pressure [162]. In addition, the optimal conditions of pressure and temperature can be influenced by the origin of the biomass and their morphology. The type of modifier and its proportion are also of extreme importance within the extraction, since they determine the solubility of the analytes, ethanol being the most applied modifier [155]. The size of the biomass particle, shape and porosity are also important factors in terms of the mass transfer rate [152]. The use of small particles would have the advantage of increasing the accessible solute, but could lead to clogging of the extraction, making the use of dispersing agents useful in such cases.
Electric pulse is one of the newest techniques in the field of thermal food processing. Its mechanism of action is based on causing the permeability of cell membranes in a short period of time and with low energy consumption. This is achieved by applying short duration pulses (μs to ms) of moderate electric voltage (typically 0.5–20 kV/cm) to a substrate of choice placed between two electrodes, which is commonly used for preservation, enzyme and microbial inactivation purposes [163].
These characteristics have led to different studies being carried out in order to improve the extraction performance of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, anthocyanins and vegetable oil from plant tissues and their by-products, as well as soluble intracellular matter of microorganisms [164]. However, low to mild PEF treatment intensities are often considered an effective pretreatment method for enhancement of secondary metabolite extraction yields in cell cultures and plant systems [165].
Critical parameters of the process are electric field intensity, treatment time (number of pulses x pulse duration), pulse waveform, conductivity, pH and ionic strength of the medium [166]. Among the advantages of this method are avoidance of undesirable changes in a biological material, which are typical of other techniques such as thermal, chemical and enzymatic ones. Moreover, it is able of killing microorganism [167].
As it can be observed in Table 7, most PEF-assisted extraction studies from by-products have targeted the polyphenolic compounds; nonetheless, extraction of polysaccharides, proteins, phytosterols, alkaloids, seed and germ oil among others have also been investigated. In general, according to the studies available so far, it has been demonstrated that the application of moderate electric field pulse technology either as pretreatment step or as continuous extraction system improves the extraction in the area of phytochemical extraction from by-products.
Compound | Raw material | Conditions | Yield | Ref. | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
E | Power | Pulse t | No. pulses | Mass | Flow | ||||
kWh/kg | kV/cm | μs | — | g | mL/min | mg/g | |||
Proteins | — | 40 | 8.3 | 500 | 0.5% w/w | 166 | 1% | [168] | |
Polysaccharide | — | 38.4 | 2 | 136 | 9% w/w | 336 | 7.9 mg/g | [169] | |
Polysacharide | 30 | 6 | 50% w/w | 25 | 7.3% | [170] | |||
Pigments | 7 | 1 | 10 | 270 | — | 48 | 90% | [171] | |
Betanine | 2.5 | 7 | 2 | 5 | — | — | 90% | [171] | |
Anthocyanins | 13.5 | 3.4 | 3 | 35 | 14 g | — | 0.66 mg/g | [172] | |
Anthocyanins | 3.77 | 3.4 | 3 | 105 | — | 65.8 mg/g | [173] | ||
Anthocyanins | 10 | 3.0 | 15 | 30 | — | — | 14.05 mg/g | [174] | |
Phenols | — | 7 | 3 | 20 | 100 | — | 3.1 mg/g | [173] | |
Phenols | — | 38.4 | 2 | 68 | 9% w/w | 498 | 51% | [169] | |
Oil | 0.62 | 0.6 | — | 120 | 2 | 1 | 88.4% | [175] | |
Copra | — | 2.5 | 575 | 20 | — | — | 20% | [176] | |
Alkaloids | 18.5 | 0.75 | 3 | 200 | — | — | 1.85 mg/g | [177] |
Different experimental conditions carried out with pulse electrified extraction (PEF).
Abbreviations: E: energy; T: temperature; t: time.
This technique is also known as Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE), Pressurized Hot Water Extraction (HSPE), Pressurized Fluid Extraction (PFE) or Enhanced Solvent Extraction (ESE) [178]. This technique, firstly described in 1996 as a new emerging environmentally-friendly technique, presents the following advantages [179]: reduced use of solvents, lower energy consumption and short time periods (5–10 min). It consists of an extraction procedure which uses organic liquid solvents applied at high pressures (normally up to 200 bar) and temperatures (normally up to 200°C) to extract target compounds, this is, PLE is based on applying high pressures to heat the extraction solvent above its boiling point while using low volume of organic solvents [178, 180].
Extraction efficiency and selectivity is significantly affected by the following parameters, namely: i) extraction solvent; ii) temperature; iii) pressure; iv) static extraction time and number of cycles and v) sample weight [178]. Temperature and pressure have a significant effect on PLE, therefore, they are the most important for PLE optimization. Many studies support that the use of solvents at high temperatures and pressures improve the yield in comparison to other conventional techniques [178, 180, 181].
On the other hand, two types of instrumentation can be used in PLE: static and dynamic. However, generally, the equipment is very similar between them, except for some small differences such as a more sophisticated high-pressure pump and a pressure restrictor in the case of dynamic PLE. The extraction design equipment can contain the following basic parts: i) solvent supply; ii) a pump; iii) a heater; iv) a pressure vessel where occurs the extraction and v) a collected vessel for the extract [182]. Regarding static PLE, the process occurs in one or several extraction cycles with replacement of solvent in between. When the static time finishes (normally between 5 and 10 min), part of solvent in the extraction cells is replaced with fresh solvent (new extraction cycle). After the last cycle, the nitrogen gas is used for purging the sample cell and to remove the remaining solvent. As regards dynamic PLE, the extraction solvent is continuously pumped through the extraction vessel containing the sample [183]. Currently, static PLE is the most used and there are not equipment of dynamic PLE in the market [184]. This system has been employed to recover different target compounds that can be used as food additives, including proteins, phenolic compounds or fatty acids, among others (Table 8).
Compound | Raw material | Conditions | Yield | Ref. | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
P | T | Solvent | Static cycles | t | ||||
MPa | °C | min | ||||||
Proteins | 10.34 | 120 | E 70% (v/v) | 4, s.t. 3 min | 12 | 9% | [185] | |
Phenolic compounds | 10.34 | 200 | E 100% (v/v) E | 1 | 20 | — | [186] | |
Fatty acids | 8 | 80 | E-Pr | 4, s.t. 5 min; 4, s.t. 10 min | 60 | 19.2–33.1% | [187] | |
Cafestol and Kahweol diterpenes | 10.34 | 70 | E (99.3%) | 3, s.t. 8 min | 24 | 9.78% | [188] | |
Anthocyanins | 10 | 60 | E-CA (30:70) (v/v) | 1 | 26 | 3.96 mg C3GE/g DW | [189] | |
Phenolic, antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds | 10 | 80 | E | 1 | 60 | 42% | [190] | |
E-W | 50% | |||||||
Antihyaluronidase | 15 | 60 | W | 2, s.t. 10 min | 20 | 0.04 mg/mL (IC50) | [191] | |
Polysaccharides | 15 | 120 | UW (pH 6.9) | 1 | 15 | 5.70% of pectin | [192] |
Different experimental conditions carried out with pressurized liquid extraction (PLE).
Abbreviations: P: pressure; T: temperature; t: time; C3GE: cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalents, DW: dry weight; s.t.: static time. W: water, E: ethanol, CA: citric acid, Pr: propane, UW: Ultrapure water.
Parameters such as the characteristics of the matrix, the solvent type, the extraction time, and temperature show a big influence on the extraction efficiency of PLE. It is pursued an appropriate combination of analyte and solvent to achieve high diffusion rates and mass transfer, the use of binary solvents such as ethanol: water or methanol: water is more efficient and respectful with the environment than pure reagents [193]. Regarding the characteristics of the matrix, they affect the recovery rate of the compounds, including the nature of the target compounds, the relative binding behavior of the analyte with the solvent, the particle size, and the moisture content [181]. Additionally, temperature and pressure significantly influence the selectivity and efficiency of PLE. The use of high temperatures under reduced pressure helps to break the matrix structure by overcoming the molecular bonding forces [194] In this way the use of high temperatures reduces the activation energy and overcomes the interactive forces (cohesive and adhesive) between the matrix and the solvent molecules to cause desorption. However, the use of high pressure causes bubbling problems during extraction, causing low solubility rate [181].
Surfactants are components able to lower the surface tension between two liquids (gas–liquid) or between liquid and solid. They are usually amphiphilic organic compounds: with a polar group in the head part (hydrophilic) and a nonpolar group in the queue part. Their distinctive characteristic is their capacity to lower surface tension of a solvent. Generally, the higher surfactant concentration in the solution, the lower surface tension. This occurs due to adsorption of the surfactant at the interface. Surfactants can be classified following two criteria: according to its structure or its hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB).
Regarding its structure, some authors divide surfactants in three groups: i) ionic: within this group are anionic and cationic; ii) nonionic (without electric charge); iii) amphoteric (they contain anionic and cationic groups in the molecule) and v) no hydrocarbons. Among them, nonionic surfactants are the most used [195]. Regarding its balance, Griffin and co-workers introduced an arbitrary scale for classifying surfactants according to HLB. The HLB scale has a ranges from 0 to 20, so that a molecule is hydrophilic when HLB value is above 9, and lipophilic when HLB value is below 9 [196].
One of the main parameters used in surfactant assisted extraction (SAE) is the adsorption efficiency (pC20). The higher pC20, the lower concentration of surfactant required to surface tension of pure solvent to decrease to 20 mM/m. Ideally, a surfactant employed to extract a compound of interest should have a high adsorption efficiency. A study verified that pC20 was higher when the surfactant consists of an anionic and nonionic mixture than when the surfactant was only anionic [197]. Nowadays, SAE is not used as an individual technique to extract bioactive compounds in food or nutraceutical industry. Generally, it is used as a complement in other type of extractions, mainly with MAE. A study employed surfactant-MAE method to obtain high yield bioactive compounds from fig leaves [198]; another study used a MAE - solid–liquid extraction approach using a surfactant to extract bioactive phenolic compounds from
There are many natural compounds with possible potential applications as preservatives to act either antioxidants, antimicrobials or to provide specific flavor, aroma, or color to foods. A great number of compounds can be obtained from natural sources, such as vegetables, fruits, plants, macroalgae and microalgae for their application as food and feed additives but also as cosmetic ingredients.
To isolate the molecules of interest to be used as food additives, it is necessary to apply adequate extraction techniques which preserve intact the
2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate free radical method
Gallic Acid Equivalent
Generally Recognized as Safe
European Food Safety Authority
Low-density lipoprotein
Ultrasound Assisted Extraction
High Pressure Assisted Extraction
Microwave Assisted Extraction
Enzyme Assisted Extraction
Supercritical Fluid Extraction
Pulse Electrified Field extraction
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
",metaTitle:"Team",metaDescription:"Advancing discovery in Open Access for the scientists by the scientist",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/team",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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After that, it addresses the GPS modernization program including the new civilian and military signals and their significance. It continues by outlining the GPS signal characteristics and the sources of GPS measurement error. GPS receivers as well are briefly described. Then, it gives an overview of the GLONASS and describes its modernization program. Additionally, it delves into many aspects the GLONASS, including GLONASS signal characteristics, the GLONASS radio frequency (RF) plan, pseudorandom (PR) ranging codes, and the intra-system interference navigation message. 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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