\r\n\tGoverning equations of the flows and heat transfer with EHD consist of the Navier–Stokes equations, thermal effects, and additional EHD forces. Due to the complex nature of EHD, only a limited number of publications concerning modeling of the effects of EHD on laminar flows, without numerical solutions, can be identified.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"a555a6ba490d37aed450e899a08b13ab",bookSignature:"Dr. Mohsen Sheikholeslami Kandelousi",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8914.jpg",keywords:"Electric Field, Nanofluid, Electrode Arrangements, Ferrofluid, Transportation ,Heat Transfer, Joule Heating, Lorentz Forces, Kelvin Forces, Porous Media, Coulomb Forces, Natural Convection, Forced Convection, Mixed Convection, Scaling Analysis,Enhanced Heat Transfer, Semi Analytical Methods, Numerical Simulation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 8th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 29th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 28th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 16th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 15th 2019",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"185811",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Sheikholeslami Kandelousi",slug:"mohsen-sheikholeslami-kandelousi",fullName:"Mohsen Sheikholeslami Kandelousi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185811/images/system/185811.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Mohsen Sheikholeslami works at the Babol Noshirvani University of Technology’s Department of Mechanical Engineering in\nIran. He is Head of the Renewable energy systems and nanofluid\napplications in heat transfer Laboratory at Babol Noshirvani University of Technology. His research interests are nanofluid, CFD,\nsimulation, mesoscopic modeling, nonlinear science, magnetohydrodynamic, ferrohydrodynamic, electrohydrodynamic, and heat\nexchangers. He has written several papers and books in various fields of mechanical\nengineering. He is the first scientist to develop a new numerical method (CVFEM)\nand he published the reference book with title: “Application of Control Volume\nBased Finite Element Method (CVFEM) for Nanofluid Flow and Heat Transfer”. He\nis also the first author of the following books: “Applications of Nanofluid for Heat\nTransfer Enhancement”, “Application of semi analytical methods for nanofluid flow\nand heat transfer”, “Hydrothermal Analysis in Engineering Using Control Volume\nFinite Element Method”, and “External Magnetic Field Effects on Hydrothermal\nTreatment of Nanofluid”, which are published in ELSEVIER. According to the\nreports of Thomson Reuters (Clarivate Analytics), he has been selected as a Web of\nScience Highly Cited Researcher (Top 0.01%) in 2016, 2017, and 2018.",institutionString:"Babol Noshirvani University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Babol Noshirvani University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"288104",firstName:"Ivana",lastName:"Spajic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/288104/images/8497_n.jpg",email:"ivana.s@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
The renewable energy sources can be auxiliaries in reducing the environmental impacts that energy production using fossil fuels or other nonrenewable resources causes in nature, with its form of clean and sustainable production. Some known forms of alternative generation are hydro, wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass, which are already present in the energy matrix of various countries, and they have highlighted the way governments have proposed to extract energy.
\n
According to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), the technology applied in small hydropower (SHP) of renewable form allows the development of rural areas and the access to electricity by a portion of the population living in these regions and they contribute to sustainable development and social inclusion. These factors are positive in the evaluation of governments and their public policies [1].
\n
Hydroelectric generation has a high cost of deployment and maintenance, and short-term disadvantage is observed. In the long run, this alternative source becomes attractive for both clean and sustainable generation and advantage of being exploited too close to large consumer centers, reducing costs of distribution for example.
\n
\n
\n
2. Small hydropower
\n
\n
2.1. Definition and classification
\n
There is no an internationally agreed definition for a small hydropower plants, and its classification is based only on a country\'s level of hydropower development. Table 1 shows the definition and classification in some countries with prominent in the generation of electricity by small hydropower in the world.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Country/organization
\n
Micro (kW)
\n
Mini (kW)
\n
Small (kW)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Brazil
\n
<100
\n
101–1000
\n
1001–30,000
\n
\n
\n
China
\n
≤100
\n
≤2000
\n
≤50,000
\n
\n
\n
Philippines
\n
-
\n
51–500
\n
<15,000
\n
\n
\n
Sweden
\n
-
\n
-
\n
101–15,000
\n
\n
\n
USA
\n
<500
\n
501–2000
\n
<15,000
\n
\n
\n
India
\n
<100
\n
<2000
\n
-
\n
\n
\n
Japan
\n
-
\n
-
\n
<10,000
\n
\n
\n
Nigeria
\n
≤500
\n
501–2000
\n
-
\n
\n
\n
France
\n
<500
\n
501–2000
\n
<50,000
\n
\n
\n
New Zealand
\n
-
\n
<10,000
\n
<50,000
\n
\n
\n
United Kingdom
\n
<1000
\n
-
\n
-
\n
\n
\n
Canada
\n
-
\n
<1000
\n
1001–1,500
\n
\n
\n
Russia
\n
-
\n
-
\n
<30,000
\n
\n
\n
Norway
\n
<100
\n
101–1000
\n
1000–10,000
\n
\n
\n
Germany
\n
<500
\n
501–2000
\n
<12,000
\n
\n
\n
Turkey
\n
<100
\n
101–2000
\n
<10,000
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
SHP definition and classification in some selected countries.
Impoundment: this hydropower system is applied to large generation where water is accumulated in its reservoir, using the dam system.
Diversion: for the generation of electricity with diversion is necessary to build a canal or penstock for a part of the river can go to the generating group. The dam system cannot be required for the diversion system.
Run-of-river: this system utilizes the natural flow of water in the river and in some situations do not need impoundment.
\n
The choice of small hydropower plant technology is based on the use of the system of run-of-river so that there is little or no dam on the site that owns the hydroelectric project, using the kinetic energy of moving water to move turbines. The system run-of-river decreases the negative effects that the large hydropower plant causes in the plant installation region as the flooding of arable land and disturbances in the temperature and composition of the river [4].
\n
\n
\n
2.2. Characteristic and components
\n
Figure 1 illustrates a typical run-of-river small hydro scheme.
\n
Figure 1.
Typical small hydro site layout. Source: Ref. [5].
\n
The fundamental elements are the weir, the settling tank (the forebay), the penstock, and a small canal or “leat.” Water is diverted from the course (main river) through an intake at the weir. The weir is a man-made barrier cross the river, which regulates the water flow through the intake. Before entering the turbine, the particulate matter is removed by passing water through a settling tank. Water is sufficiently slowed down in the settling tank for the particulate matter to settle out. A protective rack of metal bars (trash rack) is typically found near the forebay to protect the turbines from damage by larger materials such as stones, timber, leaves, and man-made litter that may be found in the stream [3].
\n
To understand the factors that affect the benefits of an SHP first is necessary to understand the role that the major components have on a hydroelectric project. Stand out for small hydroelectric power stations the following components [6].
\n
Dam is the structure of a plant responsible to elevate and keep the level upstream of the engine room, creating artificially a local unevenness.
Spillway designed in order to drain the greater design flow for the maintenance of the reservoir-required water level, avoiding the risk of the water reaches the dam crest. It is the dam safety structure.
Generation circuit consists of channels water intakes, pipes or low-pressure adduction tunnels, any surge shafts or load chambers, high-pressure ducts or forced tunnels, external or underground powerhouse, tunnels, and leakage channels. The generation circuit is intended to adduce water for the transformation of mechanical energy into electrical energy.
\n
For the generation circuit we have:
\n
Water intake: structure to capture the water to the penstock or channel/adduction tunnel.
Channel and adduction tunnel: structures responsible for adduct the water to the forced conduct in shunt arrangements.
Equilibrium chimney: aims to stabilize pressure changes resulting from partial or total change of water discharge in starting conditions, load variations, or load shedding of a generating unit.
Load chamber: is the structure that makes the transition between the channel and the water intake of the penstock. It is dimensioned in order to meet critical starting conditions and sudden stop of the generating unit.
Penstock: is the structure that connects the water intake to the powerhouse working under pressure. The penstocks can be external or tunnels.
Powerhouse: structure that houses the electrical and mechanical equipment. The typical powerhouse arrangement is as in any project of this nature, conditioned by the type of turbine and generator.
Tunnel or tailrace: located downstream of the suction tube between the powerhouse and the river, is the channel through which the turbinated water is discharged and returned to the river.
\n
\n
\n
2.3. Project steps
\n
The use of a hydroelectric potential is an activity subject to institutional, environmental, and commercial regulations. Throughout the project implementation process, multidisciplinary activities are mixed, constituting the legal framework of the entire project. Flowchart 1 shows the activities that are typical for the development and study of an SHP, depicting the interdisciplinary of studies.
\n
Flowchart 1.
Studies and SHP projects. Source: Ref. [7].
\n
The implementation of a project, which aims to use a hydroelectric project for power generation, has a step cycle including phases that estimate, plan, and execute the project. Based on reference [7], these phases are:
\n
Estimation of hydropower potential: this step is carried to the preliminary analysis of the characteristics of the river basin, especially with regard to topographic, hydrological, geological, and environmental aspects, in order to verify their vocation to generate electricity. This analysis exclusively guided in the available data, is done in the office and allows the first assessment of the potential and cost estimate of the utilization of the watershed and the priority setting to the next step.
Hydroelectric inventory: it is characterized by the design and analysis of various falling division alternatives for the river basin, formed by a set of projects, which are compared to each other, in order to select the one that presents the best balance between deployment costs, energy benefits, and environmental impacts. This analysis is done based on secondary data, supplemented with field information, and guided by basic studies cartographic, hydro, energy, geological and geotechnical, environmental, and multiple water uses. This analysis will result in a set of exploitations, its main features are indexes, cost/benefit, and environmental indices. It is part of inventory studies submit alternative utilizations selected a study of integrated environmental assessment in order to support the licensing process. These exploitations then become included in the list of inventoried utilizations of the country, capable of composing the expansion plans described above.
Viability: here the studies are more detailed to the analysis of technical, energy, economic, and environmental viability leading to the definition of the optimum use that will be to power auction. The studies include field investigations on site and include the design of the use of the reservoir and its area of influence and the works of local and regional infrastructure necessary for its implementation. Incorporate analysis of the multiple uses of water and environmental interference. Based on these studies, we are prepared the environmental impact assessment (EIA) and environmental impact report (EIR) of an enterprise specific, with a view to obtaining the preliminary license (PL) with environmental agencies.
Basic design: the design in the feasibility studies is detailed in order to define more precisely the technical characteristics of the project, the technical specifications of civil and electromechanical equipment, as well as social and environmental programs. The basic environmental project should be prepared for detailing the recommendations contained in the EIA in order to obtain the installation license (IL) for the contracting of works.
Executive project: includes the preparation of drawings detailing the civil works and electromechanical equipment necessary for executing the works and installation of equipment. At this stage all appropriate steps are taken for the implementation of the reservoir, including the implementation of environmental programs, to prevent, mitigate, or compensate for environmental damage and should be required to operating license (OL).
\n
\n
\n
2.4. Costs of the project
\n
It is important to analyze the existing conditions at the installation site of a hydroelectric plant in order to minimize the installation costs and maximize power generation. Installation costs vary according to the region of installation, infrastructure, and generation capacity. The equipment is also part of the factors that increase the cost of a plant. The small plants also have high installation costs even with a smaller size [3].
\n
According to Forouzbakhsh et al. [8] and Hosseini et al. [9], during the project study phases of an SHP, it is necessary to divide all the construction costs, operation, and maintenance in two categories: investments and annual costs. Investment costs include the electrical and mechanical equipment, transmission towers, civil structures, and other costs classified as indirect. Already the annual costs are the necessary with maintenance, operation, prevention, and replacement of components and equipment [8, 9].
\n
\n
2.4.1. Investment costs
\n
Direct costs include civil costs, electro-mechanical equipment costs, and power transmission line costs as listed below [8, 9]:
\n
Civil costs are calculated for the structural aspects of a design and construction of the plant, this includes the dam, forebay, tailrace channel, and penstock, among other aspects that are designed in the feasibility stage of a project.
Generators, turbines, control systems, substations, protective equipment and actuation, and other electrical equipment belong to the costs of electromechanical equipment during the planning phase of an SHP. The costs associated with electromechanical equipment of an SHP can change according to the potential of the plant.
\n
The cost of electromechanical equipment can also be determined using the power, P and the net head, H of the small hydropower plant from [10]:
where a, b, and c are coefficients that depend on the geographical, space, or time field where they are being used.
\n
The transmission line costs include the lines from the generation stage until the arrival of energy in the substation. These costs depend on the location, infrastructure, highways, existing systems, and the generation capacity of SHP. However, the value is high as the size of the transmission line increases.
\n
According to Hosseini et al. [9], the indirect costs include engineering and design (E&D), supervision and administration (S&A), and inflation costs during the construction period [9].
\n
E&D costs: the parameters such as location and size of the project can change the E&D costs. These costs are analyzed as a percentage of construction costs, along with the equipment and civil works. These factors are different from one region to another. Studies show that the plants with small potential, the cost can range from 5% and it varies in the plant with great potential to 8%.
S&A costs: the acquisition of land, the cost of management activities, supervision, and inspection belong to S & A costs. This cost is similar to the cost of E & D and is also analyzed as a percentage of construction costs. The values can range from 4 to 7% depending on the installation site.
The inflation rate during all the project phases must be taken into consideration. Deployment costs must be adjusted to the inflation rate of the period and of the next few years, determined by the average inflation rate of the previous years.
\n
\n
\n
2.4.2. Annual costs
\n
To obtain the net benefit of a project, annual costs, in addition to investment costs should be calculated. Annual costs include depreciation of equipment, operating and maintenance (O&M), and replacement and renovation costs [9].
\n
Depreciation of equipment: the service life, wear, and factors that may change the operation of the equipment need to be analyzed during the economic planning of the project.
O&M costs: the amounts spent on professionals in an SHP project, such as salary, insurance, taxes, and consumables, are attached to the annual costs. These expenses are corrected with the annual inflation local. It is used on a 5% inflation rate for the correction of the costs of the professionals. These costs represent 2% of total annual investment costs.
Replacement and renovation costs: some items of the main electromechanical components and of great importance as generator windings and turbine runners will need to be replaced or exchanged sometimes. It is believed that the costs required for maintenance and repairs of equipment will have the same value as the total elapsed equipment after 25 years. Therefore, equipment wear costs should be determined for each component or equipment needed in the power generation process in an SHP.
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.5. Principles
\n
The basic hydropower principle is based on the conversion of a large part of the gross head, H(m) into mechanical and electrical energy. Hydraulic turbines harness the water pressure to convert potential energy into mechanical power, which drives an electric generator and other machines. The energy that has water is directly proportional to the pressure and flow. Figure 2 shows several components of an SHP.
\n
Figure 2.
Components of a small hydropower. Source: Ref. [11].
\n
Generally, the hydraulic power P0 (kW) and the corresponding energy Eo (kWh) over an interval of time ∆t (h) are
\n
\n\n\n\nP\n0\n\n=\nρ\ng\nQ\nH\n\n\n\n\nE2
\n
\n\n\n\nE\n0\n\n=\nρ\ng\nQ\nH\nΔ\nt\n\n\n\n\nE3
\n
where ρ and g are the density of water (kg m−3) and Q acceleration due to gravity (ms−2), respectively. The final power, P delivered to the network is smaller than P0. The power output of any hydropower plants is given by
\n
\n\n\nP\n=\nη\n\n\nP\n0\n\n\n\n\n\nE4
\n
where η is the hydraulic efficiency of the turbo-generator.
\n
First, to set the type of hydraulic turbine of a project, it is observed the head and the volume of water in the river or the local plant installation. However, for a complete and objective analysis for choosing the turbine must consider the efficiency and cost of each existing type of turbine. There are two types of the turbines for the SHP [6]:
\n
Impulse turbine—pelton, cross flow, and turgo.
Reaction turbine—propeller, Francis, and Kaplan.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Turbine selection
\n
Hydro turbines can be categorized into two groups: impulse turbines and reaction turbines. The difference relates to the way that energy is produced from the inflows [3].
\n
\n
3.1. Impulse turbine
\n
Impulse turbine uses the kinetic energy of water to drive the runner and discharges to atmospheric pressure. The runner of impulse turbines operates in air and is moved by jets of water. According Okot [3], “the water that falls into the tail water after striking the buckets has little energy remaining, thus the turbine has light casing that serves the purpose of preventing the surroundings against water splashing.” This type of turbine has great applicability in systems with a large falling water and low flow. Three types of impulse turbines are common in power plants: the pelton, the cross flow, and turgo [3].
\n
\n
3.1.1. Pelton
\n
The pelton turbine (Figure 3a) has a high operating head. Because the operating head is so high, the flow rate tends to be low, amounting to as little as 0.2 cfs. The turbine requires the flow through the inlet to be highly pressurized, making the proper penstock design crucial. The pelton utilizes a nozzle located in the spear jet, which is used to focus the flow into the buckets on the runner. The spear jet and buckets are designed to create minimal loss; this leads to a potential efficiency of 90%, even in small hydro applications. A pelton turbine can have up to six spear jets (shown in Figure 3b), which effectively increase the flow rate to the turbine resulting in a greater power production and efficiency [12].
The cross-flow turbine (Figure 4) is named for the way the water flows across the runner. This is because several cross flow in its construction have at its entrance two or more inlet guide vanes. This impulse turbine class displays for a variety of flow rates at high efficiency. By altering the operation of the inlet guide vanes to better suit flow conditions, flow can be directed at just a portion of the runner during low inflow, or the entire runner when higher flows dictate. As evident from the efficiency curve, the cross flow is able to maintain a consistent efficiency [12].
\n
Figure 4.
Cross flow schematic. Source: Ref. [12].
\n
\n
\n
3.1.3. Turgo
\n
This turbine is similar to the pelton, but with different shape of the buckets and the jet strikes the plane of the runner at an angle. The turgo turbine has some differences compared to the pelton turbine that in some projects your application can be favorable. This turbine has a high overall efficiency and low maintenance due to its running speed being higher, allowing a direct coupling most likely between the turbine and generator. The turgo turbine can have a smaller diameter compared with the pelton because the flow rate passing through it is not limited as input discharged jet, increasing energy production [3].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.2. Reaction turbine
\n
The turbines of reaction generate energy by mutual activity of pressure and flow of water. They operate when the rotor is involved in a casing pressure and is completely under water. According to Okot [3], “the runner blades are profiled so that pressure differences across them impose lift forces, akin to those on aircraft wings, which cause the runner to rotate.” Unlike impulse turbines, reaction turbines are applicable in places with low height drop and higher flow of water. Examples are the turbines: propeller, Francis, and Kinetic [3].
\n
\n
3.2.1. Propeller
\n
Okot [3] claims that a propeller turbine has a generally axial flow passageway of three to six blades, depending on the designed water head. For efficiency, the water needs to be given a swirl before entering the turbine hall. Sites with low flow of water are suitable for propeller turbines. Bulb, Kaplan, and Straflo are examples of propeller turbines.
\n
Also according to Okot [3], “for adding inlet swirl include fixed guide vanes mounted upstream of the runner and a snail shell housing for the runner, in which the water enters tangentially and is forced to spiral in to the runner.. In the case of Kaplan turbine runner blades are set.” Adjusting the turbine blades and guide vanes can significantly improve efficiency in a wide range of flows; however, it is expensive and so can only be economical in larger systems. Where there is potential for small plants and flow and waterfall are somewhat constant, propeller turbines unregulated are commonly used. Figure 5 shows a typical propeller turbine.
\n
Figure 5.
Propeller schematic. Source: Ref. [3].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.2. Francis turbine
\n
One of the more classical designs of hydraulic turbines, the Francis turbine has an efficiency curve, which can function in different situations of height and flow, and its constructive aspects have adjustable guide vanes and fixed runner blades [12].
\n
For this turbine (Figure 6), Okot [3] claims that the turbine “generally has radial or mixed radial/axial flow runner which is most commonly mounted in a spiral casing with internal adjustable guide vanes. Water flows radially inward into the runner and emerges axially, causing it to spin. In addition to the runner, the other major components include the wicket gates and draft tube.”
\n
Figure 6.
(a) Francis runner. (b) Francis schematic. Source: Ref. [12].
\n
Francis turbines can have an efficiency of 90% when the project height is average but can be inefficient when the flow measured at the site is very different from the design flow. This turbine can be set to an open trough or be attached to a penstock [3].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.3. Kinetic
\n
Kinetic turbines harness the kinetic energy of water to produce energy, i.e., it takes advantage of the natural flow of water. Thus, the kinetic systems do not use deviations or artificial channels; they use the natural course of the river. However, they can be applied in such conduits [3]. Figure 7 shows a type of kinetic turbine.
\n
Figure 7.
Hydrokinetic model. Source: Ref. [13].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.3. Selection
\n
In small hydroelectric plants, determining the type of turbine that will be able to operate, as the design data, it can be made in standard sizes turbine, although there is a difference in terms of efficiency. The chart (Figure 8) below shows seven major types of turbines and their recommended range of head and flow [12].
\n
Figure 8.
Turbine selection chart. Source: Ref. [12].
\n
The graph of Figure 8 can be used in the stage of preliminary studies to choose which type of turbine according with the project height and the water flow in the plant installation site and analyze their hydroelectric potential. According to the chart, if the local is identified at a height of 100 feet and a flow of 100 cfs, the turbines of Kaplan, Francis, and cross flow are presented as options, each with its advantages and disadvantages.
\n
The hydraulic turbine manufacturers offer an efficiency curve. This curve shows the relationship between flow and fall of water and how efficiently they are analyzed according to the results of these two variables. It is possible to analyze each type of turbine and its comportment in the several situations of the project. Generally, a flatter efficiency curve represents a turbine that can operate under broad ranges of head and flow. Curves that are steeper and narrower are indicative of a turbine designed for more focused ranges of operation. Figure 9 shows the turbine efficiency chart.
\n
Figure 9.
Turbine efficiency chart. Source: Ref. [12].
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Socioeconomic and environmental aspects
\n
Small hydropower is a key element for sustainable development due to the following reasons [1]:
\n
Proper utilization of water resources: in small hydro, small creeks, and streams are able to provide and generate energy. You can enjoy local without large storage of water, reducing the social and environmental impacts for the local population.
Small hydropower is a renewable source of energy: the resource used by SHP, the water, to generate energy is a renewable resource. Therefore, this project is classified as a renewable energy to enjoy the water and generate electricity.
Small hydro is a cost effective and sustainable source of energy: the SHPs have a simple construction, smaller, and its operating equipment to generate power is low cost compared to large plants. The cost of electricity generation is the free inflation. The period includes the construction and operation is short and the financial return happens quickly.
Small hydro aids in conserving scarce fossils fuels: the use of water to generate electricity by power plants replaces fossil fuels and petroleum products. If there is the possibility of replacing nonrenewable resources, the SHP is a good choice.
Low polluting: one of the great contemporary concerns is the relationship of power generation with the environment and reducing the negative impacts. Renewable energy sources reduce GHG emissions and contribute to sustainability. There is a research that puts the SHP as a renewable energy source that reduces GHG emissions and assist in the sustainable development of rural regions. As the SHP does not have large reservoirs and the adaptation of the local population with the project does not suffer many impacts, it is a good choice for electrical projects. The technology of SHP should be harnessed with a form of mitigation of greenhouse gases, along with other renewable forms of generating electricity [1].
Development of rural and remote areas: there is a deployment potential in remote and mountainous areas for the installation of small power plants. The use of this renewable source of energy in these regions allows the economic and social development.
Other uses: other benefits are found in regions where small plants are installed, such as irrigation, water supply, tourism, fisheries, and flood prevention.
The SHP technology is solid and its power house can be built in a few years and has a great life cycle. The civil engineering works, as the dam, can operate for more than a century and require little maintenance. In other mechanical equipment such as turbine, there is the development of research to increase their energy efficiency and reach levels of up to 90% utilization [14].
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion
\n
Small hydropower technology is one of the most common technologies used for electricity generation for rural population in both developed and developing countries. Inclusion of the remains of this resource in the energy mixes could lead to sustainable development. Small hydroelectric power plants contribute to meeting the needs of regions where there is no a major technological development and they are able to improve the population\'s quality of life with the creation of jobs, increase the local economy, and enhancement of the region.
\n
The benefits of the SHP projects fit into the ease of smaller investments and faster build-operate periods. The areas for power generation are smaller, enjoy raw materials, and local labor and the cost of generation compared to other energy projects are also lower. However, the social, political, economic, historical, regulatory, and environmental issues may limit further development of this technology.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"hydropower, small hydropower, renewable sources",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/53813.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/53813.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53813",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53813",totalDownloads:2098,totalViews:699,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:79,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 30th 2016",dateReviewed:"October 25th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 26th 2017",dateFinished:"January 9th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Small hydropower (SHP) belongs to renewable energy technology group and is a form of attractive power generation environmental perspective because of its potential to be found in small rivers and streams. Many countries use the technology of small hydro as a renewable energy source in order to minimize existing environmental effects in the production of electricity and have the maximum use of water, a renewable resource. This technology has shown prominence on the world stage with seemingly insignificant environmental effects on rivers, water channels, and dams.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/53813",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/53813",book:{id:"5602",slug:"renewable-hydropower-technologies"},signatures:"Jacson Hudson Inácio Ferreira and José Roberto Camacho",authors:[{id:"111173",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:"Roberto",surname:"Camacho",fullName:"José Camacho",slug:"jose-camacho",email:"jrcamacho@ufu.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111173/images/system/111173.jpeg",institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"192783",title:"Prof.",name:"Jacson",middleName:"Hudson Inácio Ferreira",surname:"Ferreira",fullName:"Jacson Ferreira",slug:"jacson-ferreira",email:"jacson@iftm.edu.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192783/images/4633_n.jpg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Small hydropower",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Definition and classification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Characteristic and components",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Project steps",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Costs of the project",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.4.1. Investment costs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.4.2. Annual costs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.5. Principles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Turbine selection",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.1. Impulse turbine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.1.1. Pelton",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.1.2. Cross flow",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.1.3. Turgo",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2. Reaction turbine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.2.1. Propeller",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.2.2. Francis turbine",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.2.3. Kinetic",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"3.3. Selection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"4. Socioeconomic and environmental aspects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Liu H, Masera D, Esser L, eds. World Small Hydropower Development Report 2013. United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Vienna, Austria; International Center on Small Hydro Power, Hangzhou, China. 2013. Available from http://www.smallhydroworld.org.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Ferreira JHI, Camacho JR, Malagoli JA, Guimarães Júnior SC. Assessment of the potential of small hydropower development in Brazil. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2016;56:380-387.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Okot DK. Review of small hydropower technology. Renewable and Sustanaible Energy Reviews. 2013;26:515-520.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Kosnik L. The potential for small scale hydropower development in the US. Energy Policy. 2010;38:5512-5519.\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Gatte MT, Kadhim RA. Hydro Power, Energy Conservation, Dr. Azni Zain Ahmed (Ed.), Intech, 2012, Hilla, Iraq. DOI: 10.5772/52269. Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/energy-conservation/hydro-power\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Ferreira JHI. A contribution to the study of the estimated hydroelectric potential of small hydraulic plants [dissertation]. Uberlândia – MG, Brazil: 2014. 108 p.\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Brazilian Power Plants. Guidelines for studies and small-scale projects Hydraulics. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2000. 458 p. {In Portuguese}.\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Forouzbakhsh F, Hosseini SMH, Vakilian M. An approach to the investment analysis of small and medium hydro-power plants. Energy Policy 2007;35:1013-1024.\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Hosseini SMH, Forouzbakhsh F, Rahimpoor M. Determination of the optimal installation capacity of small hydropower plants through the use of technical, economic and reliability indices. Energy Policy 2005;33:1948-1956.\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Ogayar, Vidal PG. Cost determination of the electro-mechanical equipment of a small hydropower plant. Renewable Energy 2009;34:6-13.\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Balat H. A renewable perspective for sustainable energy development in Turkey: the case of small hydropower plants. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2007;11(9):2152-2165.\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Johnson K, George L, Panter J. Small Hydropower Handbook. Colorado Energy Office 2015. 96 p. Denver, USA.\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Cada, GF, Copping AE, Roberts J. Ocean/tidal/stream power: identifying how marine and hydrokinetic devices affect aquatic environments. Hydro Review. 2011;30, 3/6 p.\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Kong Y, Wang J, Kong Z, Song F, Liu Z, Wei C. Small hydropower in China: the survey and sustainable future. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2015;48:425-433.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jacson Hudson Inácio Ferreira",address:"jacson@iftm.edu.br",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
The globe needs urgently to resort another option of sources of energy as a result of the rapid world energy supply exhaustion [1]. As a result of the depletion in oil, the world global warming and the effects of greenhouse making the earth on the condition of alarming [2]. Despite seeing the world are completely dependent on the limited sources of fossil-based petroleum that can later not withstand to meet future demands.
The world depletion fossil fuel happened, resulting in the continual price rising and the pressure for independence of oil and environments concerns lead to strong markets for biofuel [3]. The utilization of natural resources fuel leads to the vast side problem. The rapid increased of CO2 level in the environment resulted in the global warming resulting to the negative results of the burning of fuel from petroleum-based [4]. The worlds are concern about the climatic change and the consequent need to decreasing of greenhouse emissions gasses leading to the encouragement of the usage of bioethanol as an alternative or replacement [5]. Another challenge is as a result of the arise waste dumping in an open place resulting in malignant to the natural habitat at surrounding environments of the dumpsite. The concept of producing energy in the form of a solution by utilization of the waste is affordable, cheap and efficient. Recently, an enormous number of renewable sources of energy is rapidly growing technologies of renewable energy including solid biomass, liquid fuels and biogases [6]. A biofuel is a generated fuel through biomass rather than the one produced from the formation of the geological process of oil and fossils fuel. As a result of biomass can be technically utilized directly as fuel. The term biofuel and biomass are interchangeably used. Biomass with complex or free sugar that can later form soluble sugar is used for the production of bioethanol. The feedstock is divided mostly into three major groups; starchy crops, (sugar crops and by-products of sugar refineries) and lignocellulosic biomass (LCB), they differ respectively from the sugar solutions in them [7]. Production of bioethanol from the conventional feedstock like starch-rich feedstocks (corn, potato) and sugarcane has been previously reported as the first-generation process. Nevertheless, they have economic and social barriers [8]. Bioethanol second-generation process is gaining momentum. Lignocellulosic biomass (corn stover, sugarcane bagasse, straws, stalks and switchgrass) are used for the second-generation process. One of the significant alternative processes of bioethanol production with easy adaptability of this biofuel to prevailing engines with better octane rating [9, 10]. Any plant material with significant amounts of sugar is utilized as a source of raw materials in bioethanol production. Sugarcane, pineapple and potato are one of the major plants that resulted in a high yield of bioethanol as byproducts due to the presence of a high amount of sugarcane in it [11] (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
The amount of bioethanol production depends on the substrate used as shown in the figure above. Adapted from Khandaker et al. [11].
2. Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Yeast is described as basidiomycetous or ascomycetous fungi responsible for reproducing through fission or budding and formed spores which are not enclosed in the fruiting body [12]. S. cerevisiae is the most popular yeast in the production of ethanol due to its wide tolerance of pH making it less susceptible to infection. The ability of yeasts in catabolize six-carbon molecules is the bedrock to the production of bioethanol without proceeding to the final products of oxidation which is CO2. Diauxic shift and fermentative metabolism are the process of the production of bioethanol dependent Alcohol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.1) enzymes which is encoded on the ADH1locus. During the fermentation of glucose, ADH1 catalyzes led to the production of ethanol and reduction of acetaldehyde, similarly, the reverse reaction can be catalyzed: is the process of conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde, albeit with lower catalytic efficiency [13].
3. Fruit wastes as a source of bioethanol
Fresh citrus fruits are consumed or the citrus juice is mostly preserved which it’s in ready form of consumption or concentrated form. After the extraction of citrus fruit juice, the remaining parts of the fruits serve as a rich source of lignocellulosic material and also utilized as a raw material for the fermentation of bioethanol. Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation from plantain, banana and pineapple peel through the cultured of S. cerevisiae and A. niger [14]. Different temperature (20–50°C) was used to be examined the simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of banana peels to obtain bioethanol using co-cultures of S. cerevisiae and A. niger at different pH of 4 to 7 for seven days.
The present study observed that the maximum temperature and pH for the banana peels fermentation was 30°C and 6. With these maximum conditions of temperature and pH, different concentrations 3 and 12% of yeast were utilized for performing fermentation. The study found the period for the whole fermentation to complete reduced drastically [15]. The high glucose content in pineapple and orange resulted in the excellent yield of bioethanol [11] (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Percentage of sugar composition in various fruits and vegetables [16].
4. Vegetable waste as a source of bioethanol
Rotten, peels, shells and a scraped portion of vegetables is one kind of biodegradable vegetable waste that generated in large amounts, usually dumped on ground for rotten near the household area. This act not emits an obscene odor but also creates a big irritation by attracting pigs, rats and bird as well as vectors of various human diseases. Vegetable waste mainly generates during the processing and packaging of vegetables, after preparation of cooking and post-harvest losses due to lack of storage facilities. Bioethanol can be produced through fermentation under controlled conditions. Microbial decomposition of vegetable waste generates bioethanol with high humus content. Many researchers have stated that vegetable waste is carbohydrate-rich biomass one of the potent substrates of renewable energy generations.
Research on the usage of fruit and vegetable wastes for the manufacture of biofuel is fetching attractive in different countries. Sulaiman et al. [17] abstracted a halal biorefinery for the production of bioethanol and biodiesel and value-added products in Malaysia. Vegetable wastes arise throughout the supply chain from the producer to consumer and vary widely depending on its harvesting, processing and marketing [18]. Vegetable waste can be raw, cooked, inedible and edible; parts are generated during production, harvesting, precooling, grading, storage, marketing and consumption at the consumer place. All the cut-down vegetable waste goes to landfill. Landfills spread offensive smells, produce methane which is a common greenhouse gas, and also produced a large amount of harmful leachate that can contaminate water and soil. Nevertheless, microbial digestion of vegetable waste can be used to produce bioethanol, renewable bioenergy. Vegetable waste has chemical potentials due to the high amount of saccharide in the form of lignocellulose. Promon [19] reported that vegetable waste as a high source of lignocellulose could be hydrolyzed into D-xylose and glucose.
Vegetable waste is a renowned nonedible source of lipids, amino acids, carbohydrates, and phosphates [20, 21]. All of these nonedible lignocellulose biomasses can also use for the production of bioethanol. Lignocellulose contains of 30–50% of cellulose, 20–40% of hemicellulose and lignin around 10–15% [22]. Cellulose is the main assembly of lignocellulosic built biomass which is a glucose homologous polymer associated by b-1,4 glycosidic bond [23]. After, glucose and other simple sugars production from all the sugar sources, the bioconversion endures till bioethanol is produced. Vegetable waste is widely used raw material for the production of bioethanol because it contains hemicellulose and cellulose, which can be changed into sugar by the hydrolysis method in presence of microorganisms [24]. The sugar content in vegetable waste extracts around 5% [25]. Yeast, fungi and bacteria can be used for the fermentation process [26].
5. Production of bioethanol from dry fruits and vegetable waste biomass
Pretreatment: The pretreatment is the most costly and complicated step in the conversion of LCB into ethanol. The LCB in cellulose is usually sheathed or coated by hemicelluloses resulting in hemicellulose complex cellulose that works as a chemical barrier and attacked and prevent the chances of complex enzymes under its natural condition [27]. The complexes cellulose-hemicellulose are further subjected encapsulated with signs leading to the production of physical, physical barrier to the biomass of hydrolysis to produce fermentable sugars [28].
Chemical pretreatment: Primarily acids and alkali working on the biomass of the delignification, the degree of decreasing of crystallinity of cellulose and polymerization. HNO3, H3PO4, HCl and H2SO4 are utilized during acid pretreatment of biomass in the process the major alkali used is NaOH. Pretreatment of acid is applied in the stabilization of the fraction of hemicellulosic in the biomass, thereby making cellulose enzymes more accessible [29]. Physical pretreatments: This process convert the biomass through the increased surface accessibility area and pore volume, decreased in the degree of the polymerization of cellulose, hydrolysis of hemicellulose, partial depolymerization of lignin and its crystallinity. Physicochemical pretreatment: The exploitation of the usage of conditions and chemical compounds that affect the chemical and physical properties of the biostimulants including a large number of technologies example fiber explosion ammonia, steam exploitation, CO2 explosion, ammonia recycling percolation wet oxidation, soaking aqueous ammonia etc. Similarly, other pretreatments methods like technologies from physicochemical also increased the accessibility area surface of the enzyme biomass, cellulose crystallinity decreased and removal of lignin and hemicellulose during pretreatment.
Biological pretreatment: Microorganisms are used are utilized particularly fungi as brown rot, white rot and soft fungi rot, the most efficient among them are white fungi rot. The above treatment became effective through the alteration of the cellulose and lignin structure and separates them from the lignocellulosic matrix. While white, soft rot and brown rot fungi attack cellulose and lignin [30].
Detoxification: Pretreatment is an important aspect of converting LCB into ethanol.
It has a significant effect on the complete process leading to the generation of lignocellulose-derived by-products under the conditions of pretreatment such as acetic acid, sugar acids, levulinic acid, formic acid, furfural and hydroxymethyl furfural acts as enzymes inhibitors for the microorganisms fermentation for the subsequent stage if the accumulation is sufficiently high [31].
Inhibitors can be checked out by:
Chemical approach: by addition of alkali such as NaOH, reducing agents such as (sulfite, dithionite and dithiothreitol) Ca(OH)2, NH4OH, Reducing
Treatment using enzyme: peroxidase, laccase
Vaporization and heating: heat treatment, evaporation
Extraction using liquid–liquid: Supercritical fluid extraction such as (Trialkylamine, supercritical CO2), Ethyl acetate,
Extraction using liquid–solid: Lignin, Ion exchange and Activated carbon,
Treatments using microbes: thermospheric, Coniochaeta ligularia, reibacillus and Trichoderma reesei [7].
Hydrolysis: Hydrolysis is described as an industrial process where hemicellulose and cellulose present in the feedstock are converted to fermentable sugars. The fermentable sugars are maltotriose, maltose, sucrose, glucose, fructose they are generally accounting to 60–70% of the total solid dissolved. Enzymatic hydrolysis, alkaline or either acid is utilized in the conversion of cellulose and hemicellulose into their monomers sugar.
Acid hydrolysis is the oldest technology for cellulose biomass conversion to ethanol [32]. The acid hydrolysis is basically classified into two: concentrated acid hydrolysis and dilute acid. The diluted acid procedure is conducted through high pressure and temperature with a reaction time scale of one minute, reactivating continues process. The procedure of the concentrated acid utilized relatively low pressure and temperature with a much longer reaction time [33] (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Dilute acid hydrolysis flow chart of recovery bioethanol [37].
Dilute acid hydrolysis the following method it is used for hydrolysis of hemicellulose and as a cellulose pretreatment to make it most accessible for the enzymes. However, both the polymers of carbohydrate are hydrolysed using acid dilution under two stages, hydrolysis process: the following stage is carrying out at a minimum temperature to utilized the hemicellulose conversion as the fraction of hemicellulose biomass for the depolymerization at a low temperature than the portion of cellulose due to the difference in the structure between these two polymers of carbohydrate [34]. The dilution of acid involved a process of a solution of sulfuric acid 1% concentration in a reactor with continues flow at a temperature of 215°C [35]. Most of the process of the acid dilution to a sugar recovery is limited to efficiency of about 50%. The most paramount challenge in the hydrolysis of acid dilution is the raising of glucose yields greater than 70% in a viable economical industrial process with a maintaining high rate of cellulose hydrolysis with minimization of decomposition of glucose. Shrinking bed reactor countercurrent technologies have been 100% success in the yielding of glucose from cellulose [36].
Concentrated Acid Hydrolysis the method provide rapid and complete cellulose of hydrolysis to glucose and sugars of hemicelluloses to 5-carbon with a little bit of degradation. The concentration of the acid process utilized mild temperature relatively, the pressure created from the pumping pressure from vessel to vessel is utilized. Dilution acid process is shorter than the reaction time [35]. Depolymerization of the cellulosic fraction is the next step. Soaking and dewatered of solid residue from the first stage was carried out in 30–40% sulfuric acid for 50 minutes. For furthering of cellulose hydrolysis is carried out at 373 k [37]. Recovery of higher sugar efficiency was the primary advantage of the concentrated acid process [38]. The process of concentrated acid offers significant cost reduction than the process of dilute sulfuric acid [39].
Alkaline hydrolysis the major significant from pretreatment of alkali is the removal of lignin, which greatly improved the reactivity of the remaining aspects of polysaccharides [40]. In the biomass, the aligning structure is altered by glycosidic and ester degrading side chains of the biomass through the alkaline solvents, resulting in swelling as well as cellulose decrystallization [41]. Hydrolysis of alkaline is a very slow process that requires neutralization and the recovery of the added alkali is needed. Hydrolysis of alkaline is very suitable for agricultural residue and herbaceous and woody biomass is not suitable due to its high contents of lignin [42]. Previous experiments results confirmed that hydrolysis of alkaline has the highest reaction rate, followed by hydrolysis of acid and finally degradation of hydrothermal from the glycosidic bond cleavage insoluble water carbohydrate concerned. In other to the obtained significant yield of sugar by hydrolysis of alkaline, it is very challenging as a result of dimeric and mono carbohydrates such as fructose, maltose, cellobiose or glucose are attacked severely by the temperature of alkali at 100°C [42].
Enzymatic hydrolysis for enzymatic hydrolysis to take place it required the feeds to be hydrolysed by the enzyme to become fermentable sugars. Breaking down of cellulose take place using three types of enzymes β-glucosidases, cellobiohydrolases and endo-β-1,4-glucanases. The most effective and promising among them is the enzymatic process due to the specificity of the enzyme on the substrate relatively working on the minimum temperature and generating lower inhibitors. LCB enzymatic done usually by using either microorganisms producing an enzyme that secrets directly on the enzymes during their developments in the media or enzymes system that are commercially available where the latter is widely utilized and more feasible. The commercial-scale of cost-effective ethanol its major challenge is the enzymes costs [43]. The type of biomass and the conditions of hydrolysis is the major factors dependable for the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to fermentable sugars. Many factors are solely responsible for the yield of sugar during hydrolysis of the enzyme. The factors are generally divided into two groups. (1) factors related substrate, and interlinked with one other (2) enzymatic and factors related process. Enzymes hydrolysis is the saccharification preferred method as a result of its; high yield, high selectivity, minimum energy cost and operating milder condition than other processes [14].
Fermentation process: Bioethanol production largely depends on three processes which are simultaneous saccharification and fermentation, (SSF) and simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF) and separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF). Ethanol fermentation is completely separated lignolistic hydrolysis in SHF fermentation. Hydrolysis enzymatic separation and fermentations enabled the operation of the enzymes at a higher temperature and excellent performance. The organisms in the fermentation process operate at a lower temperature for sugar utilization optimization. SSCF and SSF fermentation and hydrolysis process occur concurrently to keep the glucose concentration low, the whole process occurs in a short process. While the SSF fermentation pentose is separated from glucose while SSCF pentose and glucose are in the same reactor [44]. Both SSCF and SSF are more efficient and preferred over the SHF as a result the operation of the later cannot be performed on the same reactor [37].
Batch, fed-batch, repeated batch or continuous mode are important technology of bioethanol fermentation. Hadiyanto et al. [45] stated that the substrate is provided at the early stages of the process without removal or addition of the medium in a batch process. The process is known as the simple system of a bioreactor with a flexible, multi-vessel and Cassy control system. In a closed-loop system with high inhibitors and sugar concentration at the beginning and ends of the fermentation is maintained and the process carried out with high product concentration [46]. Complete sterilization, require fewer labour skills, can control easily, very easy to manage feedstocks, and flexible to various product specifications are benefits of the batch system [47]. However, the productivity of the system is very low and need intensive and high labour costs. Both inhibitions of growth of the cells and production of ethanol may come from the presence of significant amount/ high concentration of sugar in the fermentation chamber [48]. However, Fed-batch fermentation overcomes the inhibition and enhanced production of ethanol. In Fed-batch fermentation, combine a form of batch and continuous modes are operated which involves increasing substrate to the fermenter devoided removing it from the medium. The size of culture in fed-batch varies significantly, but the substrate must be fed with the right component properly at a certain rate. When the low substrate concentration is maintained, higher ethanol yield in feb-batch is observed. This is because low substrate concentration permits the smooth conversion of a reasonable amount of fermentable to ethanol [47]. The benefits of this feb-batch include; higher ethanol yield, greater dissolved oxygen in the fermentation chamber, Low fermentation time and medium component exhibit a low toxic effect [48]. Fed-batch is successfully operated in non-uniform SSF system by repeatedly adding pretreated feedstock to achieve comparatively high sugar and ethanol yield [14].
Continuous operation is achieved by unceasing addition of culture medium, substrate and nutrients to bioreactor embodied active microorganisms. In continuous operation mode, the culture size is kept constant and the end products of fermentation are siphoned from the media continuously. Discrete product types such as ethanol, cells and residual sugar could be accessed from the top of bioreactor [14]. The advantages of continuous system over batch and fed-batch; small size bioreactor, higher ethanol yield and cost-effective. However, shortcomings of this technique are; the greater tendency of contamination than other types [37]. The capability of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to ferment and produce ethanol is drastically decreasing with longer cultivation time.
6. Characteristics/properties of bioethanol
Bioethanol fuel has the following intrinsic quality: high-octane number; this measure the engine performance (Table 1). The more the octane number the higher compression that the fuel can endure before ignition. Higher octane number qualifies fuel to be used in high-performance gasoline engines that need compression ratios to be high. Hence, the use of gasoline with a low octane number causes the engine knocking [49]. It drastically decreases the emission of substances that are a threat to human health eg. CO (Table 2). The utilization of ethanol does not employ engine modification, it does not emit CO2, the cost of production is low, and it is eco-friendly, hence flipside of the solution to global environmental contamination [50, 51].
Bioethanol fuel property
Advantages
References
High oxygen content (35% w/w)
i. Increased combustion efficiency ii. Reduced hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions
Temperature: the roles of temperature for S. cerevisiae to ferment sugar and the production of ethanol were studied. Results from previous studies show S. cerevisiae cells increased exponentially as the incubation begins and then get into stationary phase after prolong incubation for all operating temperatures. Experiments prove that as the temperature is progressively increasing, the time required for fermentation decreases. Nevertheless, at much high-temperature S. cerevisiae cells growth is inhibited and decline in ethanol production is drastic [58] (Figure 4). This may be due to that temperature affects the transport system or the level soluble substances and solvent in the S. cerevisiae cells are saturated which in turn causes the build-up of toxins ethanol inclusive inside cells [58, 59, 60].
Figure 4.
Effect of temperature on bioethanol yield [61].
Whereas low temperature slows the growth rate of cells which may be due to their low tolerance to ethanol at lower temperatures [62, 63].
Effect of Feedstock Concentration: feedstock encloses nutrients for microorganism’s growth during the fermentation process. At high feedstock concentration, the rate hydrolysis is speed up because more compound is bound to enzymes’ active site. With fixed number of enzymes and low amount of substrate cause decrease in production of ethanol because bound to enzymes’ active site. A small amount of ethanol will be obtained because of low substrates bound to the enzyme’s active site. Hence, the increase in feedstock concentration favors the production of ethanol [64] (Figure 5). However, according to Lin et al. [58] prolong exposure to a higher concentration of feedstock lead to diminishing the production of bioethanol.
Figure 5.
Effect of feedstock on bioethanol production [65].
Effect of pH: Fermentation process is pH sensitive. In an acidic medium with moderate pH, high ethanol production was observed (Figure 6). Moderately acidic pH, cell permeability to some essential nutrients is influence by the concentration of H+ in the fermentation broth [28]. It has been experimentally observed that both growth and survival rate of S. cerevisiae is persuaded by pH in the 2.75–4.25 range. However, during fermentation for ethanol production, 4.0–4.25 is the optimum range of pH. When pH is ≤4.0, incubation period longer than necessary is required even though it does not cause a significant decrease in ethanol production. A substantial reduction of ethanol production was observed at pH above 5.0 [66, 67] (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Effect of pH on bioethanol production [57].
Time of Fermentation: the rate at which growth of microorganisms occurs is affected by fermentation time (Figure 7). The shorter the fermentation times the more inefficient fermentation due to inadequate microorganisms growth. Equally, longer fermentation time cause affects S. cerevisiae growth due to high concentration of ethanol in the broth. However, using a low temperature and long fermentation result in lowest ethanol yield [28].
Figure 7.
The production of ethanol by S. cerevisiae in the industrial medium in (a) aerobic conditions and (b) aerobic–anaerobic conditions [68].
Agitation rate this controls to regulate the entry of nutrients from the fermentation broth to inside cells and eviction of ethanol from the cells to the fermentation broth. Higher rate of agitation leads to higher production of ethanol. It plays a role in triggering sugar takes up and the inhibition of ethanol to the cell is reduced. The frequently used agitation rate for fermentation by yeast cells is 150–200 rpm. It is inadvisable to use excess agitation rate as it reduces metabolic activities of the cell and hence, unsuitable for smooth production of ethanol [28].
Inoculum concentration does not have any significant effect on the production of ethanol but the ethanol consumption rate and sugar yield [69]. When the is an increase in the number of cells from 1 × 104 to 1 × 107 cells per ml, increased ethanol production is also observed. It has been reported that when Inoculum concentration exceeds 107 and 108 cells per ml, no significant effect on the ethanol production observed [28]. At the elevated concentration of inoculum, reduction of fermentation time is observed as there is rapid cell growth.
8. Conclusion
The total results revealed the vegetables and fruits waste could be utilized for the production of bioethanol from recycled agricultural waste and management process. The discussions showed that bioethanol optimum yield is produced at pH 4, the temperature at 32°C and using 3 g/L yeast. The engine cars utilized efficiently bioethanol produced from waste rotten pineapple because it does not have high content and any dangerous elements. The principle or idea of using vegetables and fruits waste to produce bioethanol will aid in keeping the environment clean from the waste of agriculture. The process helped in overcoming to the challenges of depletion of fossil fuel with the creation of bioresearch energy. Bioethanol produced from the agricultural waste of vegetables and fruits is of good qualities with making the engine to produce less emission. Vegetables and fruits waste are good economical choice for the production of bioethanol because of its low cost and availability.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the support of Center for Research Excellence and Incubation Management (CREIM), Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA), Malaysia, Gong Badak, 21300 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu Darul Iman, Malaysia and KPT Grant (Project code: FRGS/1/2019/WAB01/UNISZA/02/2).
\n',keywords:"fruit, vegetable, waste, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, bioethanol",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74050.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74050.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74050",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74050",totalDownloads:1187,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"July 19th 2020",dateReviewed:"October 6th 2020",datePrePublished:"November 13th 2020",datePublished:"September 1st 2021",dateFinished:"November 13th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Waste from the food is a challenge to the environment all over the globe, hence there is need to be recycled. Vegetables and fruits biomass is a resource of renewable energy with significant fuel source potential for the production of electricity and steam, fuel for consumption and laboratory solvents. Bioethanol derived from biomass contributed 10–14% of the total world energy supply and solved the world crisis such as global warming and depletion of fossil fuel. Presently, bioethanol is a global issue on the efforts to reduced global pollution, contributed significantly by the petroleum or diesel combustion or combination of both. Vegetables and fruits waste significantly contains high sugar which can be utilized and serve as a raw material in the production of renewable energy using Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Though 80% of the current bioethanol are generated from edible materials such as starch and sugar. Biomass from lignocellulosic gathered more attention recently. The objective of this review is to account for the procedures involved in the production of bioethanol from biomass of fruits and vegetable waste through a fermentation process using Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In this chapter, we discussed the biomass preparation and fermentation techniques for bioethanol and reviewed the results of different fruits and vegetable waste. We found pineapple and orange fruit biomass contain a higher amount of bioethanol and easier to extract than the other fruit and vegetable wastes. Recent review coined out that dry biomass of fruit and vegetable is a promising feedstock in the utilization of bioethanol production.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74050",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74050",signatures:"Mohammad Moneruzzaman Khandaker, Umar Aliyu Abdullahi, Mahmoud Dogara Abdulrahman, Noor Afiza Badaluddin and Khamsah Suryati Mohd",book:{id:"10379",type:"book",title:"Bioethanol Technologies",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Bioethanol Technologies",slug:"bioethanol-technologies",publishedDate:"September 1st 2021",bookSignature:"Freddie Inambao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10379.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-394-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-393-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-398-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"260507",title:"Prof.",name:"Freddie",middleName:"Liswaniso",surname:"Inambao",slug:"freddie-inambao",fullName:"Freddie Inambao"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"269465",title:"Dr.",name:"Khamsah Suryati",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd",fullName:"Khamsah Suryati Mohd",slug:"khamsah-suryati-mohd",email:"khamsahsuryati@unisza.edu.my",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"327614",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Moneruzzaman",middleName:null,surname:"Khandaker",fullName:"Mohammad Moneruzzaman Khandaker",slug:"mohammad-moneruzzaman-khandaker",email:"moneruzzaman@unisza.edu.my",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"332580",title:"Mr.",name:"Umar Aliu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdullah",fullName:"Umar Aliu Abdullah",slug:"umar-aliu-abdullah",email:"umar.aa@fud.edu.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"332581",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmoud Dogara",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulrahman",fullName:"Mahmoud Dogara Abdulrahman",slug:"mahmoud-dogara-abdulrahman",email:"abdouljj@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Kaduna State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"332582",title:"Dr.",name:"Noor Afiza",middleName:null,surname:"Badaluddin",fullName:"Noor Afiza Badaluddin",slug:"noor-afiza-badaluddin",email:"noorafiza@unisza.edu.my",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Saccharomyces cerevisiae",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Fruit wastes as a source of bioethanol",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Vegetable waste as a source of bioethanol",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Production of bioethanol from dry fruits and vegetable waste biomass",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Characteristics/properties of bioethanol",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Factors affecting bioethanol production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ali MN, Khan Mohd M. Production of bioethanol fuel from renewable agro-based cellulosic wastes and waste newspapers. International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 2011; 3: 884.'},{id:"B2",body:'Saifuddin M, GohP, HoE, SaniW, Moneruzzaman KM, Nasrulhaq- Boyce A. Biodiesel production from waste cooking palm oil and environmental impact analysis. 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Bioethanol production in membrane bioreactor (MBR) System: a review, Int. J. Environ. Res. Dev. 2014; (4) 387-394.'},{id:"B48",body:'Cheng NG, Hasan M, Kumoro AC. Production of ethanol by fed-batch fermentation, Pertanika J. Sci. Technol. 2009; 17: 399-408.'},{id:"B49",body:'Dabelstein W, Reglitzky A, Schütze A, Reders K. "Automotive Fuels" in Ullmann\'s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2007; doi:10.1002/14356007.a16_719.'},{id:"B50",body:'Ullmann. Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Ethanol 1990; 588-9.'},{id:"B51",body:'Ritslaid K, Kuut A, Olt J. 2010 State of the Art in Bioethanol Production Agron. Res. 2010; 8: 236-54.'},{id:"B52",body:'de Menezes EW, Cataluña R, Samios D, Silva RD. Addition of an azeotropic ETBE/ethanol mixture in eurosuper-type gasolines. Fuel, 2006; 85: 17-18.'},{id:"B53",body:'Demirbas, A. Estimating of structural composition of wood and non-wood biomass samples. 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Effects of fermentation temperature on the strain population of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Int J Food Microbiol, 2003;80:47-53'},{id:"B64",body:'Triwahyuni E, Sudiyani Y, Abimanyu H. The effect of substrate loading on simultaneous saccharification and fermentation process for bioethanol production from oil palm empty fruit bunches Energy Procedia, 2015; 68 138-146.'},{id:"B65",body:'Hosny M, Abo-State MA, El-Temtamy SA, El-Sheikh HH. Factors Affecting Bioethanol Production from Hydrolyzed Bagasse. Int. J. Adv. Res. Biol. Sci. 2016; 3(9): 130-138.'},{id:"B66",body:'Staniszewski M, Kujawski W, Lewandowska M. Ethanol production from whey in bioreactor with co-immobilized enzyme and yeast cells followed by pervaporative recovery of product – Kinetic model predictions, J. Food Eng. 2007; 82:618-625.'},{id:"B67",body:'Wong YC, Sanggari V. Bioethanol Production from Sugarcane Bagasse using Fermentation Process. 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School of Agriculture Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioresources and Food Industry, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia
School of Agriculture Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioresources and Food Industry, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia
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