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",isbn:"978-1-83968-460-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-459-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-232-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"babca2dea1c80719111734cc57a21a4c",bookSignature:"Dr. Amin Talei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10404.jpg",keywords:"Water Budget, Ground Measurement, Satellite Data, Empirical Models, Physical Models, Data-Driven Models, Artificial Neural Network, Neuro-Fuzzy Systems, Genetic Programming, Irrigation Management, Drought, Aquifer Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in developing hydrological models using adaptive neuro-fuzzy systems, a pioneering researcher in tropical biofiltration systems, appointed head of the Civil Engineering Discipline in Monash University Malaysia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"335732",title:"Dr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Talei",slug:"amin-talei",fullName:"Amin Talei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/335732/images/system/335732.jpg",biography:"Associate Professor Amin Talei joined Monash University Malaysia in January 2013 and currently is the head of Civil Engineering discipline. His previous appointment was as researcher in School of Civil & Environmental Engineering of Nanyang Technological University of Singapore where he studied for his PhD during 2008-2011. His research is predominantly focused on hydrological modeling and flood forecasting using artificial intelligence techniques. Most recently, he has been also involved in research projects dealing with sustainable urban water management. To date, he has published over 50 articles in reputable journals and international conference proceedings. He has supervised several PhD and Master students and won the Supervisor of the Year Award in Monash University Malaysia in 2017. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"59329",title:"Changes of Water Budget during Ecosystem Development in Post-Mining Sites at Various Spatiotemporal Scales: The Need for Controlled Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74238",slug:"changes-of-water-budget-during-ecosystem-development-in-post-mining-sites-at-various-spatiotemporal-",body:'\nWater movement in the landscape is a complex process, consisting of many connected and interacting processes at various spatiotemporal scales. These include processes on the level of soil aggregates, which affect infiltration and the ability of soil to hold water. Formation of macropore connectivity and surface channels, which affect surface and subsurface runoff. Bedrock weathering and transportation processes affect redistribution of clay and nutrients. Organic matter in the soil profile and in the landscape feeds back to water movement and storage in the ecosystem. Many of these processes are affected by plants and soil biota, such as aggregate formation, creation of a porosity network, water intake by plants, or interception of rain by vegetation. Water enters the ecosystem by rainfall and leaves it by runoff and evapotranspiration. In the ecosystem, water can be stored in vegetation and in soil. The previous research shows that the ability of soil to store water is closely related to storage of soil organic matter (SOM) [1]. During ecosystem development, a vegetation cover develops, which reduces water input to the soil by interception and increases water loss by transpiration, but reduces evaporation from open soil surfaces. Vegetation also produces litter and root exudates, which are important for the activity of soil biota. Soil biota, which mostly directly or indirectly feeds on plant products, affects aggregate formation, storage of SOM, and distribution of SOM in the soil profile. Certain types of plants promote the activity of specific assemblies of soil biota, which affect certain patterns of SOM storage and distribution in soil. Plants with a conservative growing strategy promote a soil community that causes no or little bioturbation, which results in a thick litter and Oe layer on the soil surface. On the contrary, fast-growing plants promote intensive bioturbation by soil fauna and the formation of a deep A organo-mineral soil horizon [2, 3, 4, 5]. This affects overall SOM storage [6, 2], which very likely affects water storage in soil as well [1]. Plants affect water movement in the system also by other means, such as by a different degree of interception and fate of water trapped by interception or different water consumptions and transpiration rates. Although all of these parameters have been intensively studied, we have only little information about how individual plant traits that affect SOM behavior in the soil relate to various parameters determining water storage and movement in the ecosystem. These interactions have been intensively studied in terms of the relationship between soil development and SOM storage, and although there is a general understanding that SOM may be closely related to soil-water, much less is known about factors and mechanisms affecting the water regime development during ecosystem development.
\nMining and open-cast mining cause large disturbances to ecosystems. Most of the affected ecosystems are completely erased, either excavated or buried under overburden, which usually substantially differs from well-developed soils. In addition to texture, the hydrophobicity of the substrate [7], lack of macropores, soil compaction, and sometimes salinity are factors that can affect soil conditions, particularly the soil-water regime [8, 9]. The study of ecosystem development at these sites has a large practical impact. Post-mining sites also represent locations that have a great potential to study these processes. One of the reasons that make these sites suitable for the study of ecosystem development is the presence of sites of various ages, so-called chronosequences, where ecosystem development can be studied by comparing individual parameters or processes on sites of different ages. This approach, called also space-for-time substitution, allows the study of long-term processes in a very short time. Despite its clear advantages, this type of investigation has also its limitations, as each site develops in a specific trajectory, which may differ from the general chronosequence pattern. Another reason why post-mining sites are good systems to study successional processes is that these sites offer a combination of parameters that may not occur elsewhere and are suitable for large-scale landscape manipulations, which would be technically hardly possible or ethically questionable elsewhere.
\nThe aim of this contribution is to describe processes that affect the development of the water regime at post-mining sites after open-cast coal mining near Sokolov based on the extensive study of chronosequences at these sites. In addition, the idea of constructing isolated, controlled micro-catchments that would allow the investigation of these processes on various levels, from soil aggregates to the landscape scale, is presented.
\nAs already explained, the development of a water regime can be divided into two parts: the development of soil, which stores water in the ecosystem, and the development of vegetation, which is an important consumer of water. However, vegetation also determines many transportation processes, which affect movement of soil between ecosystem compartments and surroundings, and directly or indirectly determines soil-forming processes. In this chapter, we will follow the formation of soil aggregates and their role in water retention, followed by the development of the whole soil profile and, finally, the development of vegetation and its role in soil profile development.
\nSoil aggregates are secondary particles formed through the rearrangement and cementation of primary mineral particles with SOM [10]. They are often grouped by size into macroaggregates (250–2000 μm) and microaggregates (53–250 μm) [11, 12, 13]. A highly influential model on the formation of aggregates was published by Tisdall and Oades [14] that was later modified by Oades [15]. Based on these models, it is now commonly accepted that macroaggregates form first, mainly by the entanglement of particles by fungal hyphae and roots (temporary binding agents) and around fresh particulate organic matter (POM) inputs. When these temporary binding agents and the POM in macroaggregates decompose into fragments, coated with mucilage produced during decomposition, they become encrusted with clay particles and thus form the nucleus for microaggregates within macroaggregates [11]. As a consequence of this “aggregate hierarchy,” macroaggregates contain more C and higher amounts of labile C as compared to microaggregates, where SOM is more processed and regarded as relatively stable over longer periods of time. However, because of the higher lability of macroaggregates, the stability of microaggregates (contained within macroaggregates) depends to some extent on the turnover of macroaggregates. Apart from the earlier mentioned roots and fungal hyphae, factors generally positively influencing the formation and stability of aggregates are soil bacteria, producing extracellular polymeric substances, thereby cementing soil particles predominantly in microaggregates [14, 15], and the soil fauna, especially earthworms, forming stable casts and exerting pressure on the walls of their burrows, thereby compacting the soil [13, 16]. At initial post-mining sites, the clay content is another crucial factor as it forms the backbone of stable microaggregates [16]. At post-mining sites, overburden can be formed by clastic material, such as sand or gravel, but often it is deposited in the form of less consolidated material, such as shales, madstones, or stones [17, 18]. Weathering of this material and a gradual increase of the clay content is an important step in soil aggregate formation [19]. At many post-mining sites, aggregates are formed from clay or organic matter that serve as cementing material and fine pieces of weathered consolidated material [20].
\nSoil fauna can also promote aggregate formation and enhance water-holding capacity by transformation of organic matter. Analyzing soil cores filled with leaf litter and bibionid fly larvae revealed that even litter-feeding fauna can increase the ability of soil to hold water just by turning litter into fecal pellets, which increase water field capacity manifold. Litter transformation into fecal pellets causes fragmentation of the leaf, breaking the cell walls, and opens these capillary surfaces to be accessible to soil-water. Moreover, compaction of material inside the fecal pellet creates additional capillary pores by compacting consumed litter. These holo-organic aggregates can, in some soils, form layers (Oe layer) in several centimeters thick [1, 21, 22, 23]. Even more important is the formation of soil aggregates by earthworms [24, 25, 26, 27], which can also contribute significantly to the greater ability of soil to hold water [22, 28]. Increased water-holding capacity is, however, in both cases mentioned above accompanied by an increase in wilting point. Nevertheless, in both cases we can conclude that the soil fauna enhanced the ability of soil to hold water, which was then potentially available for plants as increase in water field capacity was in both cases higher than the increase in wilting point (Figure 1). Earthworm-created aggregates may also promote formation of larger soil pores between aggregates, which can enhance infiltration and decrease runoff and erosion. However, some other soil biota, namely, ants, might accumulate unconsolidated soil at the surface, which can be easily removed by erosion and in fact increase erosion loss of soil from the plot [29].
\nCarbon content in bulk soil C and in proportion of C bound in aggregates from total soil mass (POC bound) in soil aggregates created by soil fauna (specifically by earthworms) and other aggregates (based on data from [20]) (a), water field capacity (WFC), and difference between WFC and wilting point (WFC-WP) (b), for clay post-mining substrate closed in a macrocosm with and without access of soil fauna for 3 years based on data from [22]. *significant difference between fauna-accessible and fauna-non-accessible treatments (t-test, p < 0.05).
Besides aggregate formation, soil macropore development is important in post-mining soils. Several studies indicate a gradual increase of porosity in aging post-mining soils [19, 30]. Besides physical processes and roots, earthworms, ants, and also termites in tropical and subtropical parts of the world are most commonly mentioned in this context [31, 32, 33, 34, 35]; however, a much larger diversity of soil invertebrates, such as solitary bees or wasps, spiders [36], coleoptera [37], orthoptera, and even crayfish [38], significantly contribute to biopore formation. These macropores can differ substantially in size and shape and in how they are formed. Roots basically push themselves in the soil with the help of lubrication effect of root exudates. Similarly, earthworms burrow themselves into the soil by pushing soil to the side, forming a layer of more compacted soil along the burrow wall, which is covered by earthworm mucus. The area in which earthworms actively burrow is called the drilosphere. Ants and most other arthropods commonly dig into the soil, and excavated soil can be transported out from the hole, used to fill unused cavities, or partly spread on the walls to form a ceiling; various other ceilings such as spider net can be used in biopores [33, 36]. Despite the fact that this large variability in biopore construction is well known, a deeper understanding of how individual “construction patterns” affect the function of biopores in soil is still lacking.
\nHere, we now explore how the small-scale processes described above transfer to the development of the whole soil profile. We use an example of two 20-year-old soils developing de novo at two adjacent locations. The first site is reclaimed leveled and planted with alder (Alnus glutinosa) seedlings. Alder is a nitrogen-fixing tree which provides litter with low C:N ratio. Consequently, there were abundant macrofauna community with a high density of earthworms, Lumbricus rubellus and Aporrectodea caliginosa, in alder site. In contrast, the second site is unreclaimed and keeps its wavelike character created by heaping; it is vegetated by a spontaneous regrowth dominated by willow, birch, and aspen (Salix caprea, Betula pendula, and Populus tremula) and had a less abundant macrofauna, and earthworm species that mix litter with soil are missing. The consequence of this absence of mixing earthworms on spontaneous regrowth was a thick fermentation layer on the soil surface. In the contrary, in the alder plantation, a litter has been immediately fragmented and mixed into the soil, forming an organo-mineral layer [23]. Previous micromorphological observations showed that worm casts can contribute about half of the solid fraction of soil [23]. Intensive mixing of litter into mineral soil can be, under suitable conditions (under trees producing easily available litter such as alder or lime), a reason for fast formation of organo-mineral A layer which can up to 15 cm thick after 40 years of development in some soils. Looking at various soils developing on the same post-mining heap, we can see that the ability to hold water closely connected with organic matter accumulation in these soils (Figure 2). As has been shown previously, accumulation of organic matter in mineral soil closely corresponds with bioturbation caused by soil fauna, primarily earthworms [6]. The highest water field capacity was observed at alder stands, which produces easily decomposable litter and is subject to intensive bioturbation by earthworms. In contrast, a lower water field capacity was found in coniferous species with very limited soil faunal activity (Figure 2). However, as already mentioned, at the level of individual soil aggregates and also in the level of bulk soil, the wilting point correlates with water field capacity. This means that alder sites have higher water field capacity but also higher wilting point as compared to regrowth sites (Figure 2). The water regime at both sites after 30 years of development was basically similar, but higher moisture and consequently higher soil-water storage were found at the alder plantation (Figure 3), which is consistent with the already reported high water field capacity at these sites [12, 30, 39].
\nWater field capacity (WFC) of 30-year-old post-mining soils developing on the same clay soils under various tree species in relation to soil carbon content in particular sites based on data from [3].
Monthly water budget of unreclaimed mean sites without any technical reclamation spontaneously covered by natural regrowth dominated by Salix caprea and Betula pendula (left) and reclaimed sites planted by alder (right) both sites about 30 years old, based on data from [39]. Data are monthly mean flows during vegetation season/outside vegetation season in mm or average stock in vegetation season/outside vegetation season.
With increasing succession age, plant cover increases. Dynamics of this increase may certainly vary between various types of vegetation. For example, Frouz et al. [40] investigating reclaimed alder plantations and unreclaimed post-mining sites, found that biomass of reclaimed sites increased faster early after reclamation, but later on, differences between reclaimed and unreclaimed sites decrease, and older unreclaimed sites show even higher biomass that reclaimed ones. With increasing vegetation cover, water consumption by transpiration also increased [30, 39]. This can be ascribed to an increased temperature buffering. In a study [41] the difference between morning and afternoon temperatures was assumed as a measure of the temperature buffering ability of the ecosystem, which is proportional to the amount of water transpired by evapotranspiration. Buffering increased with increasing plant cover measured as NDVI but also depended on the type of vegetation; reclaimed sites had significantly higher buffering than unreclaimed sites. This indicates a higher water transpiration at reclaimed alder plantations than at unreclaimed woody regrowth sites [41]. A slightly higher water consumption at reclaimed alder plantations compared to unreclaimed plots has been indicated also by a complete water budget on these plots [39].
\nWhat has been mentioned above opens many potential hypotheses about the development of the water regime in post-mining soils. It seems that soil-water storage is closely linked with SOM storage. Similarly, as proposed by Cejpek et al. [39], plants with a fast-growing strategy, which tend to store more SOM in mineral soil [3, 6], also tend to produce soil aggregates with more bound OM [20] and, consequently, soils store more water [19, 22, 30, 39]. This concept opens many other questions, such as how these parameters relate to the water balance (e.g., to runoff and evapotranspiration), how historical changes in soil carbon storage and water retention affect subsequent ecosystem development, and many others. Answering these questions may be interesting not only for a better understanding of ecosystem development at post-mining sites but also may have more general implication. However, answering these questions faces also many methodical challenges. With common instrumentation we are not able to follow that part of the landscape with woody vegetation that would realistically allow the measurement of all the water movement, including surface and subsurface runoff. In order to answer these and other questions, we plan to build small hydrologically isolated micro-catchments on a heap (similar to rainy hill of Chicken creek catchments [42]) in a way that the installed devices allow comprehensive monitoring of the flow of water and nutrients through the ecosystem as well as the exchange of gases between the ecosystem and the surrounding atmosphere. In particular, we will measure the rain water input, including dry and wet deposition, surface and subsurface runoff, the content of key elements of the discharge, water movement in the soil profile, total radiation, carbon exchange (CO2) between the atmosphere and the whole ecosystem, and also between soil and atmosphere. The area itself will be divided into four micro-catchments with an area of about 0.25 ha each, two of which will be planted with alder and the other two will be left uncultivated. For each pair of areas (reclaimed and uncultivated), one eddy covariance tower will be located in the direction of the predominant winds. The area will then be equipped with container lysimeters and access shafts allowing for the easy implementation of additional ad hoc experiments.
\nThe main component of the entire experimental catchments will be the monitoring of the water flow. For separation of surface and subsurface runoff, the underground clay layers will be compacted at a depth of 2 m to create an impermeable layer. This impervious layer will lead into a collecting channel fitted with a specific overflow and a subsurface drainage monitoring device. Another specific collecting trough fitted with a further measuring overflow and measuring equipment will then be placed on the surface of the terrain. This will allow a separate observation of surface and subsurface runoff. The flow monitoring devices will also take samples of water to measure flows, which will then allow the calculation of the balance of substances moving with the water.
\nThe water input into the catchment area will be monitored by a set of rain gauges that will both monitor rainfall dynamics and capture rainwater for subsequent chemical analysis.
\nIn addition to the water flow and gas exchange facilities, access shafts will be located in the catchment area. These are plastic shafts equipped with observation windows and preset points where additional accessories can be installed. This will allow the installation of any instrument to monitor the development of soil and nutrient flow during the operation of the experimental basin without the need for further disturbance, which is key to the function of the river basin. The area will also include container lysimeters to monitor soil development and to perform manipulation experiments. Those will be particularly valuable in an experiment aiming at upscaling processes from the soil aggregate level to the whole soil profile.
\nLarge-scale hydrological parameters that determine water movement in the landscape level can be tracked in small-scale processes on the level of individual aggregates or soil pores. This tracking indicates that both of these processes can be driven by growth strategy of plants. Experiments in controlled conditions where both macro- and microscopic processes can be studied in more details are needed for better understanding of these interactions.
\nThe study was supported by the SoWa Research Infrastructure funded by MEYS CZ grant LM2015075 program “Projects of Large Infrastructure for Research, Development, and Innovations.”
\nHoney is a compound widely used as a medicine and food source for thousands of years [1]. Several natural products that have been used as medicine have been replaced by modern pharmaceuticals, but recently they have returned to the world stage due to the growing public interest [2]. In ancient Egypt, beekeeping has been practiced for more than 4000 years, and honey has been used as a medicine in the treatment of wounds, ulcers, burns, abscesses, gastrointestinal diseases, inflammations, rigid joints, and even as a contraceptive method [1, 3]. In Asia, honey is recognized for its medicinal value since 2000 BC [1]. There are also references to different uses of honey in the bible and in the Qur’an [1]. The ancient Greek Hippocrates, known as the father of modern medicine, used honey to clean wounds, gastrointestinal diseases, and ulcers [1, 3]. In Ancient Rome, honey was also prescribed alone or in combinations, often used to treat throat problems, pneumonia, and even snake bites [1].
\nThe main components of honey are sugars, among which are predominantly fructose and glucose [4, 5]. However, there are other compounds in smaller quantities and very variable depending on the type of each honey, from the floral source where the bee collects the nectar, such as water and free amino acids [4, 5]. Among them, the most found is proline [4, 6]. Some specific enzymes are also found, the main enzymes of honey are invertase, amylase, and glucose oxidase, but other enzymes such as catalase and phosphatase [6, 7, 8]. Honey is also composed of organic acids that contribute to its characteristic flavor and are responsible for the excellent stability of honey against micro-organisms, for example, formic, acetic, butyric, oxalic, lactic, succinic, folic, malic, citric, and glycolic [6, 7]. Gluconic acid is considered one of the most important organic acids in honey; it is the product of catalytic oxidation of glucose oxidase, in this oxidation, hydrogen peroxide is also formed, which has a strong antibacterial effect [4, 5, 6, 7].
\nHoney may still have some mineral substances, such as potassium, magnesium, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, iron, manganese, cobalt, and copper; studies show that honey can contain several types of minerals, but potassium is the most abundant in various types of honey [6, 8, 9, 10]. Carotenoids, flavones, and anthocyanins can still be found, which contribute to the antioxidant action of honey [6]. About 80 aromatic compounds have been detected in honey, including carboxylic acids, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, hydrocarbons, and phenols [6]. These compounds also contribute to the organoleptic properties of honey. The appearance of honey varies from almost colorless to dark brown; it can be liquid, viscous, or solid. Its flavor, aroma, and composition vary enormously, depending on the floral source in which the honeybee collects the nectar. However, some environmental factors can strongly influence honey composition, such as temperature and humidity [6, 7, 11].
\nHoney is a food that contains high energy carbohydrates, being that 95–99% of the total solids are composed by sugars, which are easily digestible, since they are similar to many fruits [7, 12]. Proteins and enzymes in honey often have no significant nutritional value, as they are usually not present in sufficient amounts [7]. Several of the essential vitamins are present in honey, such as vitamin K, B1, B2, B6, and C, but generally at insignificant levels [7, 8, 13]. The mineral content of honey is variable, usually darker honeys have significant amounts of minerals, but honey can be considered a nutritive sweetener, mainly due to its high fructose content [7, 13].
\nIn addition to its food value, honey has great potential in medicine; it has been used for thousands of years, and has now been widely studied as an alternative medicine. Honey is not a suitable medium for bacteria, since it is very acidic and has a very high sugar content. This causes an osmotic effect that prevents the growth of bacteria, this effect works literally drying the bacteria [7, 13]. Another type of antibacterial property of honey was called inhibition in 1940 by Dold [7]. And in 1963, Jonathan White proposed that this inhibitory effect described in 1940 was due to the hydrogen peroxide produced and accumulated in the diluted honey, which we know today, is a by-product of the formation of gluconic acid by the enzyme glucose oxidase [5, 7, 11].
\nHistorically, honey has been used for various medical purposes; and recent research has confirmed the effectiveness in the treatment of several diseases due to its components and its properties antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidants, antiviral, and others that will be addressed in this chapter.
\nInflammation is nothing more than a defense response of the body to a tissue that has suffered a certain damage, which consists of the recruitment of leucocytes and plasma proteins of the blood [14, 15]. This damage can be caused by physical, chemical, or even microbial agents; inflammation is characterized by edema, erythema, pain, and increased temperature [15, 16].
\nIt is well known that propolis, another product from honeybee colony, has potential anti-inflammatory properties, including in vivo. But studies on the anti-inflammatory power of honey also are promising, such as the study that evaluated the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of Tualang honey against conventional treatment in alkaline lesions in the eyes of rabbits and the results showed that there was no difference in the clinical inflammatory characteristics between the group treated with honey and the group with conventional treatment, so it is possible to infer that Tualang may be an alternative treatment [17, 18]. Other studies have also been depending on the use of honey, such as chronic ocular surface diseases and infectious conjunctivitis [19, 20].
\nGastric ulcers are among the most common diseases affecting humans, a study demonstrated that the use of honey in conjunction with other compounds may promote gastroprotection. Later, a recent study investigated the effect of gastric protection using only honey against gastric ulcers induced by ethanol in rats and also suggested this effect as gastroprotection [21, 22]. Manuka honey significantly decreased the ulcer, completely protected the mucus of the lesions and preserved the gastric mucus glycoprotein, significantly increased the mucus levels of gastric nitric oxide, reduced glutathione, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase, and also decreased lipid peroxidation of the mucus and tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukins-1β, and concentrations of interleukins-6 [21]. Honey has been shown to be efficient in other types of ulcers, and this Manuka honey exerted an antiulcer effect, keeping enzymes and antioxidants, non-enzymatic and inflammatory cytokines reduced [21, 23].
\nIn addition to the Manuka honey and the Tualang honey, the anti-inflammatory effect of Malaysia’s Gelam honey was also studied, which is associated with anti-inflammatory effects on tissues [24, 25]. Malaysia Gelam honey was tested in rats induced by inflammation [25]. Paw edema was induced by a subplantar injection and the rats were treated with either the anti-inflammatory drug Indomethacin or Gelam honey. Results showed that Gelam honey can reduce dose-dependent edema in inflamed rat paws, decrease the production of nitric oxide, prostaglandin, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6 in plasma, and suppress expression of synthase inducible nitric oxide, cyclooxygenase-2, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleucine-6 in paw tissue [25]. The oral pre-treatment of Gelam honey at 2 g/kg body weight at two times (1 and 7 days) showed a decreased production of proinflammatory cytokines, which was similar to the effect of the anti-inflammatory indomethacin, both in plasma and in the tissue, and Gelam honey has anti-inflammatory effects and is potentially useful for the treatment of inflammatory conditions [25]. Another study demonstrated that different types of honey promoted increased release of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 from monocytes, which are cells that assist in healing [26].
\nWe can also compare the anti-inflammatory activity of honey with another herbal remedy in a study carried out in 2012 to test the activity of honey and brown sugar, surgically treated guinea pigs that were treated with honey, brown sugar, and a control group treated with saline solution, it is already known that sugar can help healing [27, 28]. The honey group showed a decrease in the area of the wound and the formation of granulation tissue before the brown sugar group and control; the honey group was still the only one that presented no crust in any wound and promoted a faster healing by stimulating the faster formation of granulation tissue and re-epithelization [28]. In addition, honey showed a higher antibacterial effect in relation to brown sugar and control group [28]. Another study had the same result, honey was effective in reducing bacterial contamination and wound healing [29].
\nRecent studies proved the anti-inflammatory activity of honey; different types of honey, different regions and different floral sources, were studied and both showed anti-inflammatory responses [17, 21, 25, 28]. Treatment with Tualang honey and Gelam honey showed similar responses to conventional anti-inflammatories used for specific treatments [17, 25]. Honey still has a better anti-inflammatory activity than brown sugar, promoting faster healing [28]. Also, honey is a relatively cheap and easily accessible anti-inflammatory compound that needs to be further studied and later applied in modern medicine [17, 21, 25, 28].
\nOne of the advances of modern medicine has been the development of antibiotics; these antibiotics can be bactericidal, which kill the micro-organisms directly, or bacteriostatic, which prevent the growth of micro-organisms [30]. However, micro-organisms are increasingly developing resistance to these antibiotics, which is a major concern. In addition to antibiotics, the prevention of bacterial diseases can be carried out with the use of vaccines and with basic sanitary methods [30, 31].
\nMany different micro-organisms can cause disease and be transmitted even by contaminated water, and among the major aquatic pathogens are Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Some studies have already shown that honey can combat these pathogens [14, 18, 32, 33]. A study in 2011 tested the bacterial activity of honey, for which the Revamil® and Manuka honey were used, and it was found that both honeys had activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and also against Bacillus subtilis [34]. Manuka honey still had a greater efficacy than Revamil® against Staphylococcus aureus-methicillin resistant bacteria after 24-h incubation [34]. Despite the efficiency of honey, propolis has higher antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus [35]. Overall, Revamil® honey clearly had more potent bactericidal activity than Manuka after 2 h of incubation, while Manuka honey was more potent after 24 h [34].
\nThe bacteria Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus pneumoniae are important human respiratory pathogens; Streptococcus pneumoniae can cause invasive lung infections that can develop in secondary infections and other respiratory disorders [14]. The antibacterial activity of honey was tested using dressings soaked with two types of honey, including Aquacel-Tualang honey and Aquacel-Manuka honey, the conventional dressing for burn treatment, Aquacel-Ag and only the curative Aquacel (control), against bacteria isolated from patients with burns (in vitro) [30]. Seven organisms were isolated from burns, four types of Gram-negative bacteria, Enterobacter cloacae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas spp., and Acinetobacter spp., and three Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus spp. Aquacel-Ag and Aquacel-Manuka dressings provided a better zone of inhibition for Gram-positive bacteria. However, similar results between Aquacel-Manuka and Aquacel-Tualang were obtained against Gram-negative bacteria [36].
\nSalmonellosis is a gastrointestinal disease caused by eating food contaminated with Salmonella, such as eggs, chicken, meat, and raw vegetables, or by handling animal or animal products contaminated by the bacterium [14, 37]. It is the most common bacterial food infection in the United States. However, most Escherichia coli strains are not pathogenic to humans, but the few pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli are transmitted by food and produce potent enterotoxins [14]. In the literature, there are several studies that demonstrate the efficiency of honey against bacteria important to human health, one of them demonstrated the antibacterial potential of honey against clinical isolates of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella enterica Typhi by in vitro methods [38]. Honey showed excellent antibacterial activity against all bacteria studied, which are related, respectively, to urinary tract infection, skin lesion, and enteric fever in human patients; and thus, honey can be considered an alternative treatment against such infection [38]. In addition to honey being effective against bacterial infections, it can be used as a treatment for one of the most common bacterial contamination symptoms, when honey is administered as oral rehydration fluid, it can decrease the duration of bacterial diarrhea [39].
\nAnother form of food poisoning is caused by enterotoxins produced by Gram-positive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus; these toxins cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration, and is a major public health problem [14, 40]. The antibacterial action of Tualang, Gelam, and Durian honeys was tested against Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica Typhi, and Klebsiella pneumoniae [41]. Durian honey did not produce substantial antibacterial activity, while Tualang and Gelam honey showed a spectrum of antibacterial activity with its growth inhibitory effects against all bacterial species tested, including vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), the results still suggest the Gelam honey has the highest antibacterial effect among the honey samples from Malaysia tested [41].
\n\nClostridiums are anaerobic bacteria that are capable of growing up in canned food [14]. In addition to the antibacterial activity of honey against the bacteria dating to the top, Manuka honey still has antibacterial effect on Clostridium difficile, which is a Gram-positive anaerobic bacillus, which was associated with approximately 29,000 deaths in 2001 in the United States [42, 43]. A recent study has shown that Manuka honey exhibited a bactericidal action against Clostridium difficile; this is yet another feature that makes Manuka honey highly attractive in the treatment of bacterial infections [42]. However, Manuka honey was considered ineffective against other bacteria Helicobacter pylori when tested in vivo, despite having been found effective in vitro [44, 45].
\nHoney has an excellent antibacterial effect against different types of bacteria, as previously mentioned; honey is very acidic and has a very high sugar content, which does not serve as a suitable medium for bacteria [4, 5, 6, 7]. Moreover, in some honeys, the peroxide of hydrogen is found, which has a strong antibacterial effect [4, 5, 6, 7]. Remavil® honeys, Manuka honey, Tualang honey, and Gelam honey were tested with different types of bacteria and had positive results [34, 36, 41, 42]. The bacteria tested and susceptible to some of these honeys were Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas spp., Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus aureus-resistant methicillin, coagulase-negative Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Enterobacter cloacae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter spp., Streptococcus spp., Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus faecalis, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, vancomycin-resistant Enterococci, and Clostridium difficile [34, 36, 38, 41, 42].
\nOf all human infectious diseases, the most prevalent and difficult to treat are those that are caused by viruses, because viruses usually remain infectious in dry mucus for a long time [14]. Also, viruses need a host cells to occur its replication; so killing the virus means killing your host cell as well. Hence, vaccination is the most efficient way to prevent these diseases [14, 46].
\nChickenpox is caused by the varicella-zoster virus and it is a very common childhood disease that usually does not cause many problems; but when it affects the elderly, it can be easily fatal [14, 47]. Varicella-zoster is highly contagious and is transmitted by infectious droplets, which results in a systemic rash on the skin [14]. As honey can be conveniently applied to the skin, it is easily found and relatively inexpensive, it can be considered an excellent remedy against Zoster rash, especially in developing countries, or in countries where antiviral drugs are relatively expensive and difficult to access. Therefore, a study determined in vitro antiviral effect of honey against the varicella-zoster virus; two types of honey were used, Manuka honey and clover honey, and both types showed antiviral activity against the varicella-zoster virus, showing that honey has significant antiviral activity against varicella-zoster [48]. A study on the relationship of honey to another virus, analyzed in vivo, showed that the use of topical honey is safe and effective in the treatment of recurrent herpes and genital herpes lesions [49].
\nRespiratory syncytial virus is the most common cause of viral respiratory infections in infants and young children, also seriously affects adults, the elderly and immunocompromised, causing deaths mainly in the elderly [50, 51]. The antiviral activity of honey was tested for its action against the respiratory syncytial virus. A variety of tests using cell culture was developed to assess the susceptibility of respiratory syncytial virus to honey. The results confirmed that treatment with honey promoted inhibition of viral replication [50]. Attempts to isolate the antiviral component in honey demonstrated that sugar was not responsible for the inhibition of respiratory syncytial virus, but could be methylglyoxal; this component of honey may play a role in the increased potency of Manuka honey against respiratory syncytial virus [50]. Thus, honey may be an alternative and effective antiviral treatment for the therapy of respiratory viral infections, such as respiratory syncytial virus; however, other measures, such as an effective vaccine, are still necessary for the control of this disease [50, 52].
\nInfluenza is a highly infectious respiratory disease of viral origin that causes even more deaths than the respiratory syncytial virus at all ages, except in children less than a year old [14, 51]. Influenza viruses are transmitted from person to person through the air, especially from droplets expelled during coughing and sneezing and are a serious threat to human health, and there is an urgent need for the development of new drugs against these viruses. Therefore, the anti-influenza virus activity of honey from several sources was studied [53]. The results showed that honey, in general, and particularly Manuka honey, has potent inhibitory activity against the influenza virus, demonstrating a potential medicinal value [53]. In addition to honey, propolis has also been studied against the influenza virus and appears to decrease the activity of the influenza virus [54].
\nHoney, especially Manuka honey, has strong antiviral properties. Studies show that honey has action against the varicella-zoster virus, the respiratory syncytial virus, and also has anti-influenza activity [47, 50, 53]. New studies on this property of honey are necessary, mainly with other types of honey.
\nMost people associate fungi with organic matter decomposition or superficial fungal infections, but fungi can cause various human diseases, from mild to firmly established systemic diseases; the most serious infections can even be fatal [14]. The incidence of Candida infections is increasing worldwide. Candida albicans is present in the normal human microbiota; however, this fungus can cause a variety of diseases, such as vaginal, oral, and systemic infections, especially in immunosuppressed patients, as carriers of the HIV virus, these infections can be further aggravated by the increase in resistance levels of this fungus to the medicines [14, 55, 56]. Clinical isolates of Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, and Candida dubliniensis were tested against four different honeys. The antifungal activities of floral honeys were significantly higher than artificial honey against Candida albicans and Candida glabrata; but for Candida dubliniensis, only Jarrah honey was significantly active [56]. Candida glabrata, which is innate less susceptible to many conventional antifungals, was also the least susceptible to the honey tested [56].
\nAs previously stated, honey has antifungal properties and may act against Candida [57]. A study in 2012 evaluated the clinical and mycological cure rates of a mixture of honey and vaginal mucus compared to local antifungal agents for the treatment of patients with vulvovaginal candidiasis during pregnancy, recurrent asymptomatic candidiasis in early pregnancy is associated with preterm birth [57, 58]. The clinical cure rate was significantly higher in the honey and mucus group than in the conventional antifungal group, while the mycological cure rate was higher in the conventional antifungal group than in the mucus and honey group; therefore, the mixture of honey and mucus can be used with a complement or an alternative to antifungal agents, especially in patients with vulvovaginal candidiasis during pregnancy [57].
\nIn addition to the antifungal activity of honey against Candida albicans, the antifungal activity against Rhodotorula sp. was studied; this fungus can also affect humans, cases of meningitis caused by Rhodotorula species in immunosuppressed people have been reported [59, 60]. Four honeys from Algeria from different botanical origins were analyzed to test the antifungal effect against Candida albicans and Rhodotorula sp., different concentrations of honey were studied in vitro for antifungal activity, and the study demonstrated that, in vitro, these natural products clearly show antifungal activity against Rhodotorula sp. and Candida albicans [60].
\n\nAspergillus spp. is a saprophyte commonly found in nature as a mold of leaves, produces potent allergens, and often causes asthma and other hypersensitivity reactions [14]. The antifungal activities of some samples of honey obtained from different geographic locations in Nigeria were tested against some fungal isolates [61]. Honey samples were examined for antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium chrysogenum, Microsporum gypseum, Candida albicans, and Saccharomyces sp., and results show that honey samples had different levels of inhibitory activity at various concentrations against the fungi tested, with zones of inhibition increasing with increasing honey concentration; Microsporum gypseum, which can infect immunosuppressed patients, was the most sensitive of all fungal isolates studied, while Candida albicans was the least sensitive, other studies have shown efficient inhibitory activity of honey against the growth of Candida albicans [61, 62, 63, 64]. Honey samples used in the study showed spectrum and promising antifungal activity, the honey from Nigeria may serve as a source of antifungal for possible development of antifungal drugs for the treatment of fungal infections [61].
\nBesides the antibacterial and antiviral properties, some honeys also have antifungal properties [56, 57, 59, 61]. Recent studies showed some honey have properties against Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Candida dubliniensis, Rhodotorula sp., Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium chrysogenum, Microsporum gypseum, and Saccharomyces sp., which make these honey as possible alternative medicines, especially against candidiasis, a disease that is growing worldwide [24, 56, 59, 61].
\nIn 2016, the cancer mortality rate has dropped 23% since 1991 [65]. Despite this progress, mortality rates are increasing for liver, pancreatic, and uterine cancers; and cancer is now the leading cause of death in 21 states from United States, lung cancer is still the most lethal, followed by breast cancer [65, 66]. The advance for cancer treatment needs more clinical and basic research [65].
\nMany scientists have focused on the antioxidant property of honey. Studies indicate that ingestion of honeybee products, such as honey, can prevent cancer [67, 68]. Through the use of human renal cancer cells, the antiproliferative activities, apoptosis, and the antitumor activity of honey were investigated [67]. Honey decreased cell viability in malignant cells regardless of concentration and time [67]. Honey induced apoptosis of human renal cancer cells according to honey concentration, and apoptosis plays an important role, most of the drugs used in the treatment of cancer are apoptotic inducers, so the apoptotic nature of honey is considered vital [67].
\nThe anticancer activity of honey samples was extracted from three different Egyptian floral sources and was tested against colon, breast, and liver tumor lineage [69]. Cassia honey showed moderate cytotoxic activity against colon cancer and breast cancer, with the weakest cytotoxic activity against liver cancer; Citrus honey exhibited the highest cytotoxic activity against breast cancer; and Ziziphus honey showed potent efficiency against colon, liver, and breast cancer [69]. Breast cancer, which is the type of cancer that most affects and kills women, was also tested for another type of honey, the Manuka honey, and the results showed that it is cytotoxic to MCF-7 breast cancer cells in vitro and the effects are mainly correlated with the total content of phenols and their antioxidant power [65, 70].
\nThe phytochemical content and antioxidant activity of melon honey and Manuka honey and their cytotoxic properties were tested against human and metastatic colon adenocarcinoma. The ability to induce apoptosis in colon cancer cells depends on the concentration of honey and type of cell line, in addition to having a great relation with the phenolic content and residues of tryptophan. Honey was analyzed for phenolic, flavonoid, amino acid, and protein contents, as well as their free radical scavenging activities [71, 72]. Melon honey presented the highest amount of phenolics, flavonoids, amino acids, and proteins, as well as antioxidant capacity in relation to Manuka honey [71]. Both melon honey and Manuka honey induced cytotoxicity and cell death independently of dose and time in human and metastatic colon adenocarcinoma cells [71]. Melon honey showed to be more efficient in concentrations [71]. The results indicate that melon honey and Manuka honey can induce inhibition of cell growth and the generation of reactive oxygen species in colon adenocarcinoma and metastatic cells, which may be due to the presence of phytochemicals with antioxidant properties. These results suggest a potential chemo-preventive agent against colon cancer; in addition, honey can improve the functioning of other substances already used in cancer treatment [71, 73].
\nResearch on cancer control has shown the importance of adjuvant therapies [74]. Aloe vera may reduce tumor mass and rates of metastasis, and its association with conventional therapy can produce benefits for the treatment, while honey may inhibit tumor growth [74, 75]. The influence of Aloe vera and honey on tumor growth and the apoptosis process was evaluated by evaluating tumor size, the rate of cell proliferation for Walker 256 carcinoma [74]. Tumor-bearing mice received a daily dose of Aloe vera and honey, and the control group received only sodium chloride solution [74]. The effect of Aloe vera and honey against tumor growth was observed through a decrease in relative weight (%) [74]. The results suggested that Aloe vera and honey can modulate tumor growth, reduce cell proliferation, and increase susceptibility to apoptosis. Studies have shown that honey has antiproliferative activity because of its ability to induce apoptosis, so this combination is a possible adjuvant therapy [74, 76, 77].
\nSeveral types of honey have been studied because of their anticancer properties [65, 67, 69, 70, 71, 74]. Currently, cancer is one of the world’s leading diseases, requiring further studies [65]. Some honey have already been tested against colon, breast, and liver tumor, as well as human kidney cancer and Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cell lines, where most have weak to strong cytotoxic activity depending on the type of honey tested and depending on the dose of honey [67, 69, 70, 71]. The effect of Aloe vera on honey has also been studied, and the whole has the capacity to modulate tumor growth, reducing cell proliferation, and also increasing susceptibility to apoptosis [74]. The antitumor effects of honey were highly correlated with their ability to induce apoptosis of cells and with their antioxidant power [65, 67, 69, 70, 71, 74]. The effect of Aloe vera along with honey has also been studied, and the set has the capacity to modulate tumor growth, reducing cell proliferation, and also increasing susceptibility to apoptosis [74]. The antitumor effects of honey were highly correlated with its ability to induce cell apoptosis and with its antioxidant activity [65, 67, 69, 70, 71, 74].
\nAntioxidants, which are present in large amounts of honey, making it a food with great antioxidative potential, are free radical scavengers that reduce the formation or neutralize free radicals [11, 78]. A comparative analysis of total phenolic content and antioxidant potential of commercially available common honey was performed along with Malaysia’s Tualang honey. Biochemical analyzes revealed a significantly high phenolic content in Tualang honey [78]. In addition, the antioxidant capacity of Tualang honey was higher than that of common honey; these data suggested that the high activity of elimination of free radicals and antioxidant activity observed in Tualang honey were due to the increase in the level of phenolic compounds, it was also observed that the antioxidant activity of honey depends on its botanical origin [78, 79]. Therefore, the favorable antioxidant properties of Tualang honey can be important for nutrition and human health [78].
\nType 2 diabetes consists of progressive hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and β-pancreatic cell failure, which may result from glucose toxicity, inflammatory cytokines, and oxidative stress, and is responsible for 90–95% of all cases of diabetes [80, 81]. A study investigated the effect of pre-treatment with Gelam honey, and the individual flavonoid components chrysin, luteolin, and quercetin on the production of reactive oxygen species, cell viability, lipid peroxidation, and insulin in hamster pancreatic cells, cultured under normal conditions and hyperglycemic, the pre-treatment of cells with Gelam honey extract or flavonoid components showed a significant decrease in the production of reactive oxygen species, glucose-induced lipid peroxidation, and a significant increase in insulin content and viability of cultured cells under hyperglycemic conditions. The results indicated the in vitro antioxidant property of Gelam honey and flavonoids on hamster β cells, creating a protective effect against hyperglycemia [80]. Another study demonstrated the effect of honey on diabetics, the study with rats concluded that the pancreatic tissues of rats with diabetes were exposed to great oxidative stress and that supplementation with other honey, Tualang honey, had protective effects in the pancreas [80, 82].
\nHoney contains antioxidants, such as phenolic compounds that prevent cellular oxidative damage that leads to aging, disease such as cancer, metabolic disturbances, cardiovascular dysfunction and even death [83, 84]. The antioxidant effect of honey in young and middle-aged rats was compared, the rats were fed with pure water (control), those supplemented with 2.5 and 5.0 g/kg of Gelam honey for 30 days. Results showed that Gelam honey supplementation reduced DNA damage, plasma malondialdehyde level, and glutathione peroxidase. Liver activity superoxide dismutase also decreased in young rats supplemented with 5 g/kg of Gelam honey [84]. Gelam honey reduces the oxidative damage of young and middle-aged rats by modulating the activities of the antioxidant enzymes that were more prominent in higher concentration compared to the lower concentration [84]. Another study indicates that honey has these antioxidant and free radical sequestering properties, mainly due to its phenolic compounds [85].
\nHoney has antioxidant properties that can be further explored and studied, because antioxidants reduce free radicals and oxidative stress, which can help to promote and maintain health [80, 82, 84]. Besides the previously described, the antioxidant effect of honey can be an important property to help in the anticancer effect [67, 71].
\nSeveral studies have proven the effectiveness of honey as an alternative medicine; some have even shown that honey is as good a medicine as conventional medicine. Use of different types of honeys showed anti-inflammatory effect very similar to the conventional drug and that can be used as an alternative medicine in the treatment of diseases or inflammations. Honey can also be used as an antimicrobial agent anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antivirals, antifungal, anticancer, and antioxidants. However, there is still a need to increase research on honey, especially in its potential as a medicine and also a dissemination of this knowledge to the population and the medical community, so an increase in the use of this powerful compound will be possible.
\nThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
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