Comparison of mechanical properties of natural silks and other synthetic fibers[a]. ([a] Data taken from refs. [3, 4]. [b] RH, relative humidity.)
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6057",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Austenitic Stainless Steels - New Aspects",title:"Austenitic Stainless Steels",subtitle:"New Aspects",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Stainless steel is still one of the fastest growing materials. Today, the austenitic stainless steel with the classic composition of 18% Cr and 8% Ni (grade 304L) is still the most widely used by far in the world. The unique characteristic of stainless steel arises from three main factors. The versatility results from high corrosion resistance, excellent low- and high-temperature properties, high toughness, formability, and weldability. The long life of stainless steels has been proven in service in a wide range of environments, together with low maintenance costs compared to other highly alloyed metallic materials. The retained value of stainless steel results from the high intrinsic value and easy recycling. Stainless steel, especially of austenitic microstructure, plays a crucial role in achieving sustainable development nowadays, so it is also important for further generations.",isbn:"978-953-51-3702-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3701-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4021-4",doi:"10.5772/67935",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"austenitic-stainless-steels-new-aspects",numberOfPages:218,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9d535d6a795541ead4919f3fcfa82ff0",bookSignature:"Wojciech Borek, Tomasz Tanski and Zbigniew Brytan",publishedDate:"December 20th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6057.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15030,numberOfWosCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:35,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:63,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 21st 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 14th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 15th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 20th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 20th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"186373",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:null,surname:"Borek",slug:"wojciech-borek",fullName:"Wojciech Borek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186373/images/system/186373.jpg",biography:"Dr. Wojciech Borek, Ph.D. and MSc in Engineering, is an assistant professor in the Department of Engineering Materials and Biomaterials at the Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice, Poland, and a member of the association of Polish Cluster of Innovative Forging Technologies “HEFAJSTOS.” His scientific interests include materials science, heat treatment, thermomechanical treatment, plastic deformations, and Gleeble simulations, especially Gleeble welding simulation. He is also a specialist in steels, stainless steel, high-manganese austenitic steels, and light metal alloys. He is an author and coauthor of around 100 scientific publications worldwide including ten chapters in books and more than thirty publications in the Web of Science database. He has won ten national and international awards and honors. Dr. Borek has served, or is currently serving, as a contractor for more than eight research and didactic projects in Poland and abroad, a reviewer of numerous scientific publications, and a co-promoter of two doctoral dissertations.",institutionString:"Silesian University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Silesian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"15700",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz Arkadiusz",middleName:null,surname:"Tański",slug:"tomasz-arkadiusz-tanski",fullName:"Tomasz Arkadiusz Tański",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/15700/images/system/15700.png",biography:"Prof. Tomasz Tański is the head of the Department of Engineering Materials and Biomaterials, Silesian University of Technology, Poland, and a member of the Committee of Metallurgy of the Polish Academy of Sciences. He is also a specialist in non-ferrous alloys, composite and nanostructured materials, and structural engineering materials. He has authored or co-authored more than 400 scientific publications worldwide, including 15 monographs and books. He has won twenty national and international awards and honors. He is and/or was a supervisor or contractor for more than fifteen research and didactic projects in Poland and abroad. He is also a reviewer and promoter of numerous scientific papers, including eight doctoral research papers in the field of nanotechnology and materials.",institutionString:"Silesian University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Silesian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"184900",title:"Dr.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Brytan",slug:"zbigniew-brytan",fullName:"Zbigniew Brytan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184900/images/5174_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Zbigniew Brytan, PhD and MSc in Engineering, is an assistant professor in the Institute of Engineering Materials and Biomaterials at the Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice, Poland. His scientific interests include corrosion resistant alloys, stainless steel, sintering, surface engineering, laser processing of metals, welding of stainless steels. He is an author and coauthor of ca. 50 scientific publications worldwide, including 1 book and more than 20 publications in the Philadelphia list., he is and/or was a main contractor or contractor of more than 5 research and didactic projects in Poland in the field of stainless steels. He is known as expert in stainless steel processing, providing technical expertise to more than 30 stainless steel producers. He is also a trainer for product managers, sellers and process engineers of stainless steels.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Silesian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"944",title:"Metallurgy",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-metallurgy"}],chapters:[{id:"57888",title:"Introductory Chapter: Why Austenitic Stainless Steels are Continuously Interesting for Science?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72062",slug:"introductory-chapter-why-austenitic-stainless-steels-are-continuously-interesting-for-science-",totalDownloads:1356,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Zbigniew Brytan, Wojciech Borek and Tomasz Tański",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57888",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57888",authors:[{id:"186373",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",surname:"Borek",slug:"wojciech-borek",fullName:"Wojciech Borek"}],corrections:null},{id:"57149",title:"Considerations in the Design of Formable Austenitic Stainless Steels Based on Deformation-Induced Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70939",slug:"considerations-in-the-design-of-formable-austenitic-stainless-steels-based-on-deformation-induced-pr",totalDownloads:2147,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The temperature dependence of tensile elongation in austenitic steels is discussed in view of the relationship between the stacking fault energy and deformation-induced processes. It is shown that the maximum tensile elongation is achieved in the vicinity of Mdγ → α′ temperature. The influence of alloying elements on the temperature dependence of tensile elongation can therefore be analyzed with regard to their influence on the Mdγ → α′ temperature. In this regard, majority of alloying elements including C and N decrease the temperature associated with highest tensile elongation. Due to the high efficiency of C and N in increasing the stability of austenite, approaches toward the development of high-interstitial austenitic stainless steels containing minimal amounts of substitutional alloying elements are discussed. Finally, some of the challenges associated with the processing of high-interstitial austenitic stainless steels are reviewed.",signatures:"Javad Mola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57149",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57149",authors:[{id:"205741",title:"Dr.",name:"Javad",surname:"Mola",slug:"javad-mola",fullName:"Javad Mola"}],corrections:null},{id:"57525",title:"Investigation of Martensitic Transformation Induced by Cyclic Plastic Deformation in Austenitic Steels",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71408",slug:"investigation-of-martensitic-transformation-induced-by-cyclic-plastic-deformation-in-austenitic-stee",totalDownloads:1318,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main goal was to demonstrate the possibility of investigating martensitic transformation induced by plastic strain, especially including the kinetics of this transformation, using selected cross effects. It is commonly known that this type of transformation is a basic “mechanism” occurring in shape memory materials and metastable austenitic steels strengthened with martensite separations. The motivation behind the research was also to follow and visualise the transformation on line, during cyclic loading (fatigue process), without the necessity to use, for example, roentgenographic (destructive) or microscopic methods. The application of the magneto-mechanical effect (the Villari effect) and the thermomechanical effect (the Kelvin/Thomson effect) turned out to be particularly useful because they significantly change with martensite initiation and then accumulate in austenite. Therefore, the goal was to develop the non-destructive methods of investigating martensite transformation, which could then be used on real constructions made of metastable austenite steel. In the case of the magneto-mechanical method, the goal was to additionally visualise the magnetic field transformations along a sample in the function of a loading cycle and the index of this period. To achieve this, high-resolution phase maps were used, which also allowed image processing methods known from machinery visioning (MV) or digital image correlation (DIC) techniques to be used.",signatures:"Jerzy Kaleta, Przemysław Wiewiórski and Wojciech Wiśniewski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57525",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57525",authors:[{id:"19069",title:"Prof.",name:"Jerzy",surname:"Kaleta",slug:"jerzy-kaleta",fullName:"Jerzy Kaleta"},{id:"220028",title:"MSc.",name:"Przemysław",surname:"Wiewiórski",slug:"przemyslaw-wiewiorski",fullName:"Przemysław Wiewiórski"},{id:"220029",title:"MSc.",name:"Wojciech",surname:"Wiśniewski",slug:"wojciech-wisniewski",fullName:"Wojciech Wiśniewski"}],corrections:null},{id:"57563",title:"Effect of Sigma Phase on Fracture Behavior of Steels and Weld Joints of Components in Power Industry Working at Supercritical Conditions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71569",slug:"effect-of-sigma-phase-on-fracture-behavior-of-steels-and-weld-joints-of-components-in-power-industry",totalDownloads:2067,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter deals with the change of the structure and mechanical properties of the austenitic steels grades TP347HFG, Super 304H and HR3C as well as their welded joints after the exposure at temperatures corresponding to the ultra-super critical (USC) and advanced ultra-super critical (A-USC) parameters. Several tube bend radii were investigated in order to understand relation between cold work plastic deformation, mechanical properties and the structural changes with special attention to the generation of sigma phase during long-term high temperature exposure. The effect of post bend solution annealing work on the material properties and structural changes was studied, too, using small punch test (SPT) and miniaturized tensile tests taken both from straight part and extrados of bends under investigation. Creep properties of either base metal either welded joints were tested and evaluated using standard creep specimens at temperatures 650, 700 and 750°C. The obtained results confirmed that the mechanical properties and the structure were significantly influenced even after relatively short-time exposure at elevated temperature. The results of experiments were compared with other results obtained from analyses of tubes after 100,000 h of exposure in a USC block where extensive precipitation of sigma phase was also identified.",signatures:"Zdeněk Kuboň, Šárka Stejskalová and Ladislav Kander",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57563",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57563",authors:[{id:"38210",title:"MSc.",name:"Ladislav",surname:"Kander",slug:"ladislav-kander",fullName:"Ladislav Kander"},{id:"220613",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdeněk",surname:"Kuboň",slug:"zdenek-kubon",fullName:"Zdeněk Kuboň"}],corrections:null},{id:"57285",title:"Precipitation Processes in Creep-Resistant Austenitic Steels",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70941",slug:"precipitation-processes-in-creep-resistant-austenitic-steels",totalDownloads:1427,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Creep-resisting austenitic steels constitute a group of construction materials which can work in the conditions of creep for the temperature range from 550 to 700°C. The service of austenitic steels leads to the progressive degradation of their microstructure, which results in the changes of functional properties. The main mechanisms of degradation of the austenitic steel microstructure include the processes of matrix softening, the processes of precipitation and matrix depletion of the interstitial and substitution elements. Precipitation processes in austenitic steels are a very important indicator, which allows the advancement of microstructure degradation processes in these steels to be determined. Hence, the knowledge of the impact of individual secondary phases on the microstructure and properties of austenitic steels plays a very important role in diagnosing the components and equipment of the power boiler system and makes it possible to forecast the time of safe operation of systems made from these steels. Based on own studies and data from literature, this paper will present the characteristics of secondary phase precipitates occurring in creep-resistant austenitic steels during their operation at an elevated/high temperature. The effect of secondary precipitates on mechanical properties of these steels will be discussed too.",signatures:"Grzegorz Golański, Adam Zieliński and Hanna Purzyńska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57285",authors:[{id:"205602",title:"Prof.",name:"Adam",surname:"Zieliński",slug:"adam-zielinski",fullName:"Adam Zieliński"},{id:"206667",title:"Prof.",name:"Grzegorz",surname:"Golański",slug:"grzegorz-golanski",fullName:"Grzegorz Golański"},{id:"206737",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanna",surname:"Purzyńska",slug:"hanna-purzynska",fullName:"Hanna Purzyńska"}],corrections:null},{id:"56675",title:"Effect of Precipitation on Cryogenic Toughness of N-Containing Austenitic Stainless Steels After Aging",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70367",slug:"effect-of-precipitation-on-cryogenic-toughness-of-n-containing-austenitic-stainless-steels-after-agi",totalDownloads:1266,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter shows the effect of intergranular precipitation on the cryogenic toughness of N-containing austenitic stainless steels in comparison to that for 316-type austenitic stainless steels. First part of the chapter deals with the thermodynamic stability and growth kinetics of the precipitated phases in the austenite matrix based on Thermo-Calc software. To continue, the experimental evolution of precipitation for N-containing steels is compared to that of 316-type steel and the difference between them are explained based on the Thermo-Calc PRISMA-calculated results. Finally, the effect of intergranular precipitation on the cryogenic fracture toughness is also analyzed using Charpy V‐Notch impact test results. The fracture mode is also related to the precipitation characteristics.",signatures:"Maribel L. Saucedo-Muñoz and Victor M. Lopez-Hirata",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56675",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56675",authors:[{id:"103382",title:"Prof.",name:"Maribel",surname:"Saucedo-Muñoz",slug:"maribel-saucedo-munoz",fullName:"Maribel Saucedo-Muñoz"}],corrections:null},{id:"56709",title:"Local Corrosion of Austenitic Steels and Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70339",slug:"local-corrosion-of-austenitic-steels-and-alloys",totalDownloads:1287,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The principles of doping of austenitic unstabilized Cr-Ni and Cr-Mn-Ni steels resistant against pitting, slit, and intergranular corrosion (IGC) in weakly and strongly oxidative media are considered. The features of the effect of individual and joint doping with nitrogen, molybdenum, and silicon steels on their resistance to local corrosion have been studied. The ambiguous effect of joint doping with nitrogen and molybdenum of Cr-Mn-Ni steels on their resistance against pitting corrosion is revealed. It has been established that the presence of silicon, in addition to nitrogen and molybdenum, is a prerequisite for eliminating the propensity to the IGC after a long release of chromium-nickel steels. The introduction of silicon into Cr-Ni steel with 0.03% C, with a balanced content of Cr, N, Mo, and Si, equates it with a particularly low-carbon steel containing 0.003% C. Based on the above doping principles, a number of austenitic steels are designed for production equipment that is resistant to local corrosion in chloride-containing media and nitric acid.",signatures:"Pisarevskiy Lev Alexandrovich and Filippov Georgiy Anatolievich",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56709",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56709",authors:[{id:"206246",title:"Dr.",name:"Lev",surname:"Pisarevskiy",slug:"lev-pisarevskiy",fullName:"Lev Pisarevskiy"},{id:"206828",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgiy",surname:"Filippov",slug:"georgiy-filippov",fullName:"Georgiy Filippov"}],corrections:null},{id:"56817",title:"Pitting Corrosion Resistance and Inhibition of Lean Austenitic Stainless Steel Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70579",slug:"pitting-corrosion-resistance-and-inhibition-of-lean-austenitic-stainless-steel-alloys",totalDownloads:1631,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The pitting corrosion behavior of 301, 304 and 316 austenitic stainless steels in 2M H2SO4 at 0–1.5% NaCl concentrations was investigated through potentiodynamic polarization and optical microscopy analysis. Electrochemical analysis of the pitting corrosion inhibition and surface protection properties of rosemary oil and aniline on the stainless was also performed. The corrosion rate, pitting potential, passivation potential, metastable pitting potential and surface morphology of both steels where significantly altered by changes in chloride concentration, differences in alloy composition and metallurgical properties of the steels. 316 steel had the lowest corrosion rate and highest pitting corrosion resistance followed by 301 steel. The surface morphology of 316 steel was slightly altered at 1.5% NaCl concentration while 301 steel appears to etch with grain boundaries appearing at higher chloride concentration. 304 steel showed no resistance to pitting after 0% NaCl coupled with relatively significant increase in corrosion rate values. Its surface morphology showed the presence of corrosion pits with respect to chloride and inhibitor concentration. Rosemary oil and aniline significantly reduced the corrosion rates values of the stainless steels and with consequent increase in their pitting corrosion resistance; however the compounds had no positive influence on the pitting corrosion behavior of 304 steel.",signatures:"Roland Tolulope Loto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56817",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56817",authors:[{id:"205794",title:"Dr.",name:"Roland",surname:"Loto",slug:"roland-loto",fullName:"Roland Loto"}],corrections:null},{id:"56808",title:"Friction Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel with Copper Material",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70558",slug:"friction-welding-of-austenitic-stainless-steel-with-copper-material",totalDownloads:1348,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Austenitic stainless steels are most preferred over other types of stainless steel families. Welding of stainless steel using friction welding is widely seen in the current scenario. Since the time consumed for friction welding is very less, metallurgical defects are almost reduced without pre- and postheat treatment. The problems encountered in friction welding during joining of austenitic stainless steel are very limited when compared to fusion welding process. The studies have undergone with joining of austenitic stainless steel and copper material to evaluate the friction welding parameter for finding the good bond strength.",signatures:"Shanjeevi Chinnakannan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56808",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56808",authors:[{id:"205805",title:"Dr.",name:"C",surname:"Shanjeevi",slug:"c-shanjeevi",fullName:"C Shanjeevi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57173",title:"Study of Fracture Mechanisms at Cyclic Fatigue of Austenitic Steels Used in Nuclear Reactors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70953",slug:"study-of-fracture-mechanisms-at-cyclic-fatigue-of-austenitic-steels-used-in-nuclear-reactors",totalDownloads:1183,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The presented work deals with the possible reasons of nucleation and propagation of macro-, meso-, and microcracks after low-cycle fatigue (LCF) tests of stainless, austenitic steels at room temperature. This research will also support the solution of some important problems of steel modeling and their application to EURATOM, FUSION, TACIS, PHARE, CORDIS, PERFECT, AMES, FP 7, and GEN IV programs. The scanning electron microscopic (SEM), X-ray, and transmission electron microscopic (TEM) examinations and statistical analysis of the samples which undergone the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) showed that the average length of slip bands and micro-components of macrocrack are equal, and they are always parallel to each other, indicating their crystallographic character. The microcracks in these samples, caused by the residual stresses after the LCF, were studied in the TEM samples after their preparation to reveal the features of microcrack initiation and nucleation. It was shown that microcracks propagate along slip bands and change their propagation direction at the boundaries of grains and subgrains. This confirms that microcracks, as well as micro-components of mesocrack, are crystallographic. Mathematical calculations of elastic-plastic model are also performed which showed that the length of plastic zone, according to our assessments, is equal to 110–120 d, where d is a width of crack opening.",signatures:"Tamaz Eterashvili",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57173",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57173",authors:[{id:"208661",title:"Prof.",name:"Tamazi",surname:"Eterashvili",slug:"tamazi-eterashvili",fullName:"Tamazi Eterashvili"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7385",title:"Cavitation",subtitle:"Selected Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"075ee4bb432760777ffcba092d0cffae",slug:"cavitation-selected-issues",bookSignature:"Wojciech Borek, Tomasz Tański and Mariusz Król",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7385.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186373",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",surname:"Borek",slug:"wojciech-borek",fullName:"Wojciech Borek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3817",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ff86fac7ac8bce142fdc3c0e5a79f30",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",bookSignature:"M. 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\r\n\tCredit risk remains the most important and frequent risk in commercial bank activities. In order to survive in the long-term credit risk management, banks are trying to maintain credit risk exposure within proper and acceptable parameters. However, the lessons learned from the 2008 financial crisis indicated the need for re-evaluation of the credit risk management systems and models that are used by commercial banks.
\r\n\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to cover various aspects of credit risk. First, it intends to present different elements of credit risk, including determinants of credit risk, the causes of credit risk, its advantages and disadvantages, as well as international perspective in terms of credit risk. Furthermore, the book aims to provide today's most up-to-date techniques and models for identification, measurement, monitoring, and controlling credit risk exposure. It will include the analysis of new sophisticated methods for credit risk measurement, information about the newest modeling tools for managing credit risk, assessment of alternative approaches to credit risk modeling, etc. Industry 4.0 technologies can be an important and valuable source of information also for risk management and risk prevention. Therefore chapters related to the information on how Industry 4.0 can help by the credit risk management process are also expected. A special place in the book will be dedicated to the case studies adapted from real-life examples.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will be useful for bankers and other financial decision-makers as well as for a wide spectrum of academics and practitioners in credit risk.
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He has more than ten years’ experience as a financial advisor for private wealth management and corporate finance and spent several years in the financial industry. Dr. Murg’s scientific career began at the Department of Finance, University of Graz, Austria, where he was a quantitative research scientist and lecturer for finance. He is a licensed exchange trader for spot and derivative markets (XETRA) and was co-founder and the head of Portfolio and Risk Management for a FinTech company before returning to academia.\nDr. Murg’s current research focuses on the digitization of business models in finance, banking and insurance industries, innovation management in insurance companies and banks, digitization of business processes, and data analytics.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The ecological functions of the silk fibers are closely related to their properties. For example, orb-weaving spiders produce a variety of different silks with diverse properties, each tailored to achieve a certain task (Figure 1) [1]. Most arthropod species produce silks used for building structures to capture prey and protect their offspring against environmental hazards [2]. The most investigated categories that have piqued the greatest amount of interest are spider silk and dragline silk in particular, produced by major ampullate glands and the cocoon silk of
In contrast petrochemical-based synthetic polymers commonly used today, such as polyethylene, which is formed by polymerization of ethylene at high temperature and pressure, or under the presence of some metal-based catalysis,
Schematic overview of different silk types produced by female orb-weaving spiders (
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t0.6 | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t70 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t150 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t1.1 | \n\t\t\t27 | \n\t\t\t180 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.003 | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t270 | \n\t\t\t150 | \n\t\t
Wool (at 100% RH[b]) | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t
Elastin | \n\t\t\t0.001 | \n\t\t\t0.002 | \n\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t
Nylon fiber | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t0.95 | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t80 | \n\t\t
Kevlar 49 fiber | \n\t\t\t130 | \n\t\t\t306 | \n\t\t\t2.7 | \n\t\t\t50 | \n\t\t
Carbon fiber | \n\t\t\t300 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t
High-tensile steel | \n\t\t\t200 | \n\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t0.8 | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t
Artificial spinning is the most promising method of promoting the application of silk fibers, as it can output sufficient man-made fibers cost-effectively and with specific tailored properties. Remarkable efforts for silk fiber reproduction via reconstituted/recombinant silk fibroin are currently underway [9, 10]. Reconstituted silk protein is derived from
Thanks to recent developments in modern analytical techniques, significant progress has been made with respect to the structural characterization of silk. These techniques can provide molecular information about silk, including microscopic methods (atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM), and scanning transmission x-ray microscopy (STXM)) and synchrotron x-ray diffraction (wide-angle x-ray diffraction (WAXD) and small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) combined with synchrotron radiation). Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (SS-NMR) is a powerful technique because it allows for the study of molecular structure and dynamics of semi-crystalline and amorphous materials. Raman and FTIR spectroscopy can provide the dominant conformational contents of a fiber. Raman microspectroscopy can be used to determine quantitative parameters characterizing the molecular structure (orientation and conformation, amino acid composition) of micrometer-sized biological samples. In this chapter, we will provide an overview of the current understanding of the silk fibers’ structure taken advantage of these analytic methods, then describe in detail the structure-property relationships and the formation processes of silk fiber. Additionally, we will explore material morphologies and applications of these silk fibers.
The structure-property relationship is one of the most intriguing ‘mysteries’ of silk fibers. Various studies have suggested that there is a strong connection between the structures of silk fibers and their physical (e. g., mechanical) properties. An understanding of the structure-property relationship requires background knowledge of local structure, including the component and composition of silk fiber, the conformation and orientation of constitutive units with respect to the fiber, and so on.
In principle, the full range of properties of silk fibers can be calculated from their structural morphology and chemical composition. On the macroscopic level, the morphological structure of
Examples of silk fibers produced by silkworms and spiders and a schematic illustration. (Reprinted from Ref. [
Silk fibers are normally polyamino acid-based fibrous proteins. In contrast, the synthetic polymers, which are usually homopolymers or copolymers consisting of one or several simpler monomer, the biopolymers − silk fibers, the primary sequence and linkage between the monomers are arranged in a strictly controlled manner and are responsible for the formation of well-defined structure [13]. A range of microscopy methods, including SEM, TEM, and AFM, have been used to investigate the microstructure of silk fiber [14-19]. The results confirmed that silk fibers are composed of well-oriented bundles of nanofibrils. Generally, the coatings of silk fibers function as glue. The sericin coating, which occupies 25-30% of the weight of
As two major families of silk proteins, fibroin is the chief component of silkworm silk fiber, while spidroin (also named spider fibroin) is the analogue in spider silk fiber. The
(a) Silkworm fibroin consisting of a covalently linked highly repetitive heavy and non-repetitive light chain. (b) Spider silk spidroins consist of a large repetitive core domain flanked by non-repetitive amino-(NRN) and carboxy-terminal (NRC) domains. (Figure slightly modified with permission from Ref. [
The primary sequence plays an important role in defining basic materials. Despite being quite different in their primary structure,
Typical amino acid sequences of repetitive core of
The primary structural motifs have a preferred secondary structure and give rise to structures higher up the hierarchy. NMR, circular dichroism (CD), IR and Raman spectroscopy were usually used to examine the chemical, conformational, and orientational information of secondary structures for silk proteins [41-51]. There are three major conformations of silk proteins: the random coil, the
The solid threads are characteristic of well-oriented
It is quite firmly believed that the (Ala)n domains in spider dragline silk fibers adopt a
It is expected that the mechanical properties of silk fibers will critically depend on the characters of
The non-crystalline regions are often described as amorphous, poorly orientated, or randomly coiled sections of the peptide. The structural organization in the amorphous phase is not well understood yet. The existence of
Recent computational approaches have been useful in modeling nanostructure of silk. Molecular modeling integrated the information known about the structures, and has been used to characterize the nanostructure of the silk. Based on a bottom-up molecular computational approach using replica exchange molecular dynamic, Keten
(a) The hierarchical structure of spider dragline and silkworm silk fiber. Both spider dragline and fibroin are composed of numerous minute fibrils, which are separated into crystalline and amorphous segments. (b) The minute fibrils in silkworm
According to the prevalent characterizations mentioned above, silk fiber is considered a semicrystalline polymer with a hierarchical structure in which highly oriented
Spider silk and
The mechanical properties of silk fibers can be described by stress-strain curve profiles, which are generated by stretching the fibers at a specific strain rate. The stress is expressed as force per cross-sectional area and the strain is defined as a normalized extensibility. Typical stress-strain curves for
Evidently, the attractive macroscopic mechanical properties of silk fiber can be ascribed to the structural effects. Most of the attention has focused on the nanometer scale: predominantly, primary and secondary structure, as well as organization and arrangement of protein molecules. In terms of primary structure of silk proteins, amino acid composition, sequential order and the number of the motifs in each module are important for the mechanical properties of the final fibers. For example, the primary structure of
The mechanical properties of silk fibers, also depend crucially on spinning conductions, such as humidity, temperature, and reeling speed, and so on [19, 104]. Variations in crystallinity and alignment can be found within the silk fiber due to variations in reeling speed of the collected sample. These variations have been mapped to mechanical properties by affecting the formation of the
Modern analytical technologies and tools have steadily contributed to the progress in experimental studies of the structure of silk fibers, as described above. However, it is still no consensus on the hierarchical structure of silk at the nanometer scale. Some models have been proposed to interpret the structure-property relationship of silk fibers. The first such model was Termonia’s early model [64]. The model hypothesized that silk is a hydrogen-bonded amorphous phase with embedded stiff crystal domains acting as multifunctional cross-links and creating a thin layer of high modulus in the amorphous regions. The stiff hydrogen bonds are first broken to give the fiber its high initial modulus. Meanwhile, it allows the dynamic rubber phase to redistribute the deformation field for prediction of the nonlinear large strain deformation. The simulated properties based on the theoretical model properly reproduce the combination of high initial modulus, strength and toughness of dragline silk fiber. However, in this model, a theoretical modulus of 160 GPa for rigid
Multi-scale experimental and simulation analyses are the key to improve our systematic understanding of how structure and properties are linked. The mechanical mechanism at the macroscopic scale, namely, the fibril, including morphology and its consequence for mechanical behavior and the mechanistic interplay with nanostructure of silk, has also been elucidated [115-117]. At the same time, many experiments have been employed to assess the effect of structural changes on the mechanical deformation of silk [118-121]. When mechanical load are applied to the fibers, conformation, reorientation, crystallite size, and some other structural characters are monitored to explain the structure-property relationships.
A schematic model demonstrating how the silkworm and spider dragline fibers respond when they are subjected to stretching. There are two components in the alanine-rich regions of spider dragline silk:
The experimental and computational investigations shown above have explored mechanical properties of
Furthermore, unlike
The remarkable mechanical properties of silk fibers have spawned great interests in determination of their origin. Systematic studies of the natural spinning process of silk fibers have shown a highly sophisticated hierarchical process, allowing for the transformation of soluble silk protein into solid fibers with specific mechanical and functional properties. Although much is already known about the characteristics of the silk proteins and silk fibers themselves, the process for silk assembly and spinning into fibers is yet to be resolved. A detailed knowledge of silk fiber formation is critical for the biomimetic production of tough silk-like fibers.
In nature, silk proteins are secreted and stored in the glands until they are processed into fibers. Morphological and histological studies demonstrate that the silk glands of
The major gland responsible for the dragline silk of
The formation of a solid fiber from soluble silk proteins is a remarkable process owing to complex biochemical and physical changes. For silk spinning, several assembly models, such as liquid spinning theory [136] and micelle theory [144] have been proposed for the fiber formation, whereas the details remain to be elucidated. In order to understand the mechanisms of silk proteins assembly and fiber formation, the structure of proteins stored in
It has reported that
Schematic formation mechanism of the hierarchical assembly from molecular silk fibroin to microfibers.(Reprinted from Ref. [
Experiments made
Actually, the chemical and mechanical stimuli together are likely to influence the fold of nonrepetitive amino-terminal and carboxy-terminal and the hydrophilic spacers within the hydrophobic core domain [37, 135, 158, 164-166]. Due to the larger hydrophilic blocks at the chain ends of the protein molecules having charged groups, it is possible that they might play an important role in the molecular assembly and conformational transition at a specific pH through decreased electrostatic repulsion. A significant step towards understanding the effect of the terminal domains in assembly was the determination of atomistic structures of the nonrepetitive terminal regions of MaSp proteins. Kessler and Scheibel’s group reported the structure of carboxy-terminal domain of
Traditionally, silk has been utilized in the construction of textiles. Current research in silk fibers involves their innovative trends and advanced applications. Basically, the rich proportion of essential amino acids in silk fibers indicates high nutritive value, meaning that silk fibroin can be used as a dietary additive [167-169]. Furthermore, the amino acids, glycine, alanine, serine and tyrosine are of vital for nourishing the skin. The crystalline structure of silk protein reflects UV radiation, acting as protective buffer between the skin and environment. The extracts of silk protein are used in soap making, personal care and cosmetic products. The silk protein is also applied to enhance glossy, brightness, and softness of products. In addition, the production of advanced man made super-fibers such as Kevlar involves petrochemical processing, which contributes to pollution. Interest in silk fibers is mainly due to the combination of the mechanical properties and eco friendly way in which they are made. Spider silk fibers have been envisioned to be applied in a variety of technical textiles, including parachute cords, protective clothing and composite materials in aircrafts, which demand high toughness in combination with sleaziness.
Possible structure and technical applications of the silk fibers. The dotted line shows an example of the versatility of silk and the multiple possible applications. (Figure slightly modified with permission from Ref. [
Silks are biocompatible, biodegradable and have implant ability, as well as morphologic flexibility. Silk fiber has been used as extremely thin suture for eye or nerve surgery for long history [170]. Nowadays, one attractive application of silk fibers is act as a source of novel biomaterials. Recent progress with processing of silk fibers into various material forms, usually via the formation of the fibroin/spidroin solution, including thread, hydrogels, tubes, sponges, microspheres, particles and films [9, 171], promotes the field of applications for silk fibers in general (Figure 8) [172]. Silk protein can be modified by chemical treatment or used in combination with other materials and the silk-based biomaterials have been transformed for high-technology uses, with promising futures in the fields of biomedicine and material engineering. Numerous studies have demonstrated that fibroin supports cell attachment and proliferation for a variety of cell types [173-178]. Studies have established a potential for silk-based biomaterials use as tissue engineering scaffolds, such as skeletal tissue like bone [179], ligaments [180], and cartilage [181, 182], as well as skin [183], blood vessels [184] and nerve [185]. Silks can be designed and offer another biomedical applications, such as delivery of small molecule drugs, proteins and genes [186]. Silk fibroin possesses remarkable optical properties, such as near-perfect transparency in a visible range. It has been identified as a suitable material for the development of biophotonic components [187-189] in biomedical device performing electronics or sensors [190-198]. Surely, these impressive biopolymers are extremely promising for their potential applications in material science and engineering.
Our review in current chapter concentrated on
The authors thank the financial support from the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under Grant 51073113, 91027039 and the Natural Science Foundation of the Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions of China under Grant 10KJA540046. This work was also supported by the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD). We also acknowledge support from the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD), Qing Lan Project for Excellent Scientific and Technological Innovation Team of Jiangsu Province (2012) and Project for Jiangsu Scientific and Technological Innovation Team (2013). The author, Xinfang Liu, especially thank the support of the Postdoctoral Science Foundation of Jiangsu province (No. 1201030B).
A new rural area is a modern civilized rural area but still retains the traditional beauty. New rural area is the result of a new strategic-oriented rural development process, meeting new economic, social, environmental, and institutional development requirements in rural area under specific conditions of each rural area [1]. The new rural area is expressed through the following basic contents:
The people’s material, cultural, and spiritual life of people in rural area is constantly improved, which gradually reduces the gap between rural and urban areas.
A rural area has spacious and civilized villages with modern and synchronous infrastructure, developed according to the planning to ensure favorable conditions for production and daily life of rural residents, combined between agriculture and industry, services and cities.
A rural area has reasonable economic structure, comprehensive development. The economic fields are developed toward efficient and sustainable production of goods. Farmers are trained, absorbed advanced technical engineering.
A stable rural area is clean, beautiful, and the ecological environment is protected. The political security and social order remain.
The criteria reflecting the sustainable development goals in Vietnam rural area cover all economic, social, and environmental aspects [2] as below:
Economical sustainable development is fast, safe, and qualitative development. One sustainable economy needs to meet the following requirements: (i) having high GDP growth and GDP per capita; (ii) GDP structure is a criterion of evaluating economic sustainable development; (iii) economic growth must be growth with high efficiency and the growth with safe environment.
Social sustainable development is assessed by criteria such as: HDI (Human Development Index), income equality coefficient, indicators on education, health, social welfare, cultural enjoyment. In addition, social sustainability is the guarantee of a harmonious social life; there is equality between social classes, gender equality; the gap between richness and poorness is not too high and tends to be small; the difference of life between regions is not large.
Sustainable development on the environment includes: (i) effectively using resources, especially nonrenewable resources; (ii) development does not exceed the load-bearing threshold of the ecosystem; (iii) protecting biodiversity and ozone layer; (iv) controlling and reducing greenhouse gas emissions; (v) protecting sensitive ecosystems; (vi) minimizing discharge, overcoming pollution (water, gas, soil, food), improving and restoring the environment of polluted areas.
The overall objective of the whole program is to build a new rural areas to improve the material and spiritual life of the people; Socioeconomic infrastructure is appropriate; economic structure and forms of production organization are reasonable, agricultural development and industry and service are linked; rural development combines with urban areas; a rural society is democratic, equal, and stable; ecological environment is protected; the political security and social order remain.
Sustainable new rural construction associated with urbanization is an integrated process in which the construction is associated with sustainable development goals and the urbanization process [3].
China government demanded that it was necessary to gradually change “the disparity between industry and agriculture, between urban and rural areas, between regions,” “unifying urban socio-economic development planning, building modern agriculture, developing rural economy, increasing income for farmers” [4].
Up to now, China has achieved many great achievements such as: agriculture fields and rural areas have developed strongly. China’s agriculture has formed many high-value agricultural products such as: food, livestock, natural rubber, and fruits. Many agricultural products are cultivated on a large area with high output and high economic efficiency. The number of large enterprises operating in the agricultural sector as well as the number of cooperatives and associations constantly increased. As a result, the rural agricultural economy has developed rapidly, the average income of farmers has increased significantly. The infrastructure of rural areas has been significantly improved. Building a cultural life in rural areas has achieved many important achievements.
Useful experiment:
Attracting businesses to invest in agriculture and rural areas
Forming linkages along the value chain and implementing commitments between farmers and enterprises.
Encouraging many large economic groups to invest in agriculture
The agricultural economy is prioritized for development by the Japanese Government. Therefore, at each stage, Japan applied a different plan and “agricultural extension policy” such as: “Socio-economic development plan,” “Building rural area as an attracting and comfortable living space,” “one village one product” in order to carry out the construction of new rural areas, create a foundation for agricultural economic development with the solidarity of people [5].
Japan developed agricultural economy from the first small-scale villages from 900 to 1000 farming households, then replicated the model to 4548 villages. Japan government has applied a financial support policy to build new rural areas in addition to local revenue and the loans from agricultural credit funds.
The Japanese government has launched the movement as “One Village One Product (OVOP).” OVOP is a movement with three main principles: (i) localization and then globalization; (ii) autonomy, independence, and creation; (iii) human resource development. The government is in charge to do the basic construction items of the rural areas, improve the environment, bring water, electricity, road construction, information (telephone) to the people. The primary education was completely free, rural and urban areas supported each other for sustainable development.
Useful experiment:
Three main principles: (i) localization and then globalization; (ii) autonomy, independence, and creation; (iii) human resource development.
Applying to craft villages, regions with specialty products and implementing the branding, traceability production, and product consumption.
Preserving and developing traditional craft villages under the motto “One village, one product,” developing crafts according to local strengths was one of the core contents to realize the goal of “transforming structure, economic development and increasing income of people”
The SU (Saemaul Undong) movement was established with three criteria: (i) diligence (hard work); (ii) self-reliance to overcome difficulties; (iii) cooperation (community synergies). As a result, many projects have been implemented and completed with the aim of developing infrastructure in rural areas. South Korea has applied high technology in agricultural production in order to increase productivity and value of agricultural products. The number of economical autonomous villages in South Korea reached 98%. Thus, the effectiveness of the SU movement made an important contribution to the sustainable development of the South Korean rural economy [6, 7].
Useful experiment:
The leader’s determination
The role of training and building capacity of managers.
Promoting the role of the people at the village.
Creating motivation instead of pressure that associated with the spirit of “industrious, self-reliant, reunited.”
The important role of farmers’ organizations was one of the factors that made up the success of agricultural development. Taiwan has four farmers’ organizations such as: the Agricultural Association, the Fruit Cooperative, the Irrigation Association, and the aquaculture Association. Basically, they were economic organizations that cooperate each other to provide nonagricultural services, including supplying materials and consuming agricultural products. The main function of these organizations was to help farmers in trading activities. All four organizations were registered to operate under the state management of the government [8].
The government focused on supporting many aspects of the Agricultural Association. First of all, 50% of the farm’s capital was provided by the government. Besides, the government implemented many direct investments in rural areas such as building infrastructure, transferring new varieties and technology through development programs. Basing on the activities of the Agricultural Association, Taiwanese farmers have mastered the entire supply chain of input materials and output products of agricultural production.
Useful experiment:
The model of farmer association, forming farmers’ organizations, not only organized production but also represented the voice of farmers in policy criticism and policy implementation.
Policy directions for rural development in ASEAN countries focused on many aspects such as: from the program of promoting the rural economy to the program of infrastructure development; from improving the life quality of rural residents to developing high-quality human resources and protecting natural resources and the environment in rural areas. Mainly, the Rural Development Program of ASEAN countries focused on three main points: (i) strengthening the legal authority for rural people; (ii) training and developing human resources in rural areas; and (iii) agricultural and rural development associated with environmental protection and sustainable development [9, 10].
In generally, the useful experiment, which was applied in building new rural area in Vietnam, could be considered as: i) encouraging many large economic groups to invest in agriculture to form the linkages between farmers and enterprises. ii) preserving and developing the traditional rural villages’ values including both cultural life and production. iii) Implementing the human resource development, in which, the role of the rural people was promoted and the capacity of managers in building new rural area should be considered. iv) Implementing the process of building new rural area step by step in accordance with the Government’s strategy.
The process of forming the National Target Program on building new rural areas in Vietnam through the periods was shown in Figure 1 [11, 12].
The formation of the National Target Program on building new rural areas in Vietnam.
In which, in 1988, the Vietnamese government implemented the renovation policy, which created significant developments for Vietnam’s agriculture in the renovation period. Orientations for building a new rural areas have been set out in terms of rural planning, infrastructure development, production organization, building a prosperous rural life, solidarity, democratization and publicization, and promoting the mastery of the working people.
In the period of 2001–2009, there were two pilot programs of building new rural areas such as: the program on building a model of rural development in the direction of industrialization, modernization, cooperation, and democratization in the period of 2001–2005 and the pilot program on building new rural areas at village levels in the period of 2006–2009. The practical experience from the pilot programs showed that in order to achieve the goals of building a new rural area, it was necessary to develop in a harmonious manner in different fields, not just to focus on building infrastructure.
In the period of 2009–2011, the Vietnamese government directed the implementation of the pilot program on building a new rural area in the period of accelerating industrialization and modernization in the period of 2009–2011. In particular, the new rural area criterion was promulgated that has created a comprehensive rural development approach and become a prominent feature of rural development in Vietnam.
The lessons learned from the pilot programs were the basis for officially implementing the National Target Program on building new rural areas for the period of 2010–2020. Thus, after more than 20 years of innovation, basing on lessons learned and practical needs as well as the suitability of the general context, the National Target Program on building new rural areas was born to implement the building new rural areas through all rural areas of the Vietnam and to contribute the foundations for sustainable rural development.
The National Target Program on building new rural areas took the commune level as the implementing unit with the goal that the whole country would have 50% of communes meeting the new rural area standard by 2020. Besides, there were other objectives such as: encouraging each province and city to have at least one district meeting the new rural area standard; basically completing essential works to meet the requirements of production development and life of rural residents as: traffic, electricity, water, daily life, schools, commune health stations; improving the life quality of rural residents, creating many production models associated with stable jobs for people, increasing income at least 1.8 times than that of 2015 [11, 12].
The basic principle of building a new rural area was to promote the role of the local population community, the government played the role of orientation and promulgation of criteria, standards, policies, support mechanisms, staff training, and implementation guidance. The community of people in villages and communes democratically discussed and implemented the specific activities. In addition, building a new rural area must be carried out on the basis of inheriting and integrating national target programs, targeted support programs, and other programs and projects being implemented in the rural area that associated with the local socioeconomic development plan. The ownership role of the people and the community was promoted and the process of planning, organizing, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating must be implemented democratically [11, 12].
It could be said that the National Target Program on building new rural areas was a comprehensive rural development program that paid attention to most of the different fields in rural areas. The scope of implementation was all communes across the country and the beneficiaries were residential communities in rural areas; The subjects of implementation were the communities in rural areas, the government, enterprises, and socioeconomic organizations.
The new rural area criteria set of the program has promulgated 11 group of contents, each group of content included specific goals and contents such as: [13].
Content 1: New rural area construction planning;
Content 2: Development of socioeconomic infrastructure;
Content 3: Developing production in association with the agricultural sector, restructuring rural economy, raising income for people;
Content 4: Poverty reduction and social security;
Content 5: Development of education in rural areas;
Content 6: Developing basic health care, improving the quality of health care for rural people;
Content 7: Improving the quality of cultural life of rural people;
Content 8: Implementing rural environmental sanitation, pollution solution, and environmental improvement in craft villages;
Content 9: Improving the quality and promoting the role of authorities and social organizations in building a new rural area;
Content 10: Maintaining national defense, security, and rural social order;
Content 11: Improving the capacity of building new rural area and carrying out the communication on building new rural area
In the period of 2011–2020, the achievement of new rural area standard increased sharply in the second phase, many important targets of new rural area construction completed in 2019. By July 2021, 195/664 districts (29.6%) belonging to 52 provinces and cities were recognized as meeting new rural area standard. The number of communes meeting the new rural area standard was 5331/8267 communes (64.8%) [11, 12]. The result of new rural area construction by 2020 is given in Table 1.
Province/ City | Total number of communes of the province | Number of districts meeting new rural area standard | Number of communes meeting new rural area standard | Percentage of communes meeting the new rural area standard (%) | Average of criteria per commune |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
+ Total | 8,902 | 173 | 5,555 | 62.4 | 16.4 |
+ Northern Midlands and Mountains | 2,280 | 18 | 828 | 36.3 | 13.5 |
+ Red river delta | 1,882 | 69 | 1,805 | 95.9 | 18.9 |
+ North Central | 1,585 | 18 | 1,019 | 64.3 | 16.8 |
+ South Central Coast | 825 | 12 | 476 | 57.7 | 16.4 |
+ Highlands | 599 | 3 | 270 | 45.1 | 15.2 |
+ South East | 445 | 22 | 354 | 79.5 | 18.0 |
+ Mekong Delta | 1,286 | 31 | 782 | 60.8 | 16.9 |
The result of new rural area construction by 2020.
In general, the construction of new rural areas has achieved great achievements over the past 10 years. That significantly changed the face of the rural areas, especially in rural infrastructure. In the construction of new rural areas, the promotion of urbanization in rural areas has not been clearly shown.
The basic socioeconomic infrastructure in the rural areas was strengthened in a synchronous direction, which significantly changed the face of the rural areas and connected with the urban areas step by step. The basic socioeconomic infrastructure gradually met the living and production needs of the rural population and gradually caught up with the needs of socioeconomic development in rural areas. That was shown below [11, 12]:
The rural transport infrastructure: by 2020, over 206,743 km of roads has been built and upgraded, which increased the rate of hardened rural roads to 68.7%; Over 97% of communes had plasticized and hardened roads; The quality of roads has been improved and quite synchronous, which has contributed to the formation of large production areas and created favorable conditions to attract investors to the rural areas including large enterprises. Up to now, there have been 6460 communes (78.2%) meeting the criteria of rural transport (increasing 41.8% compared with 2015 and exceeding 23.2% compared with the 5-year target for the period of 2016–2020);
The irrigation system has been gradually completed. The thousands of small and large irrigation projects have been built, repaired, and upgraded. More than 80% of the productive area was actively irrigated, which contributed to the transformation of crop structure and improved production value and promoted the restructuring of the agricultural sector. Up to now, the area that applied the advanced and water-saving irrigation was 288,620 hectares (for upland crops, reaching 17.5%), 1,320,118 hectares (for rice, reaching 18%). Thus, the crop productivity and irrigated areas were increased and adapted to water-scarce areas and effectively that formed the large-scale production areas with high economic value. Some regions have developed advanced water-saving irrigation system such as the Southeast (40%), the Central Highlands (27%), the Mekong River Delta (18%). There were 7934 communes (96%) reaching the irrigation criteria (increasing 34.6% compared with 2015 and exceeding 19% compared with the 5-year target for the period of 2016–2020);
The rural electricity system, up to now, 100% of communes and 99.25% of rural households have had electricity, in which, 7729 communes (93.5%) have met the electricity criteria (increasing 11.1% compared with 2015). The quality of electricity in rural areas was increasingly improved and stable and basically met people’s daily-life needs and developing production. The quality of electricity has created favorable conditions for the application of hi-tech agricultural production, including in highland districts. In particular, remote, extremely difficult, and border areas and island communes were also focused on investing in electricity supply.
The education system at all levels in rural areas has received special attention of government. There were 31,016 schools at all levels in rural areas in the whole country. Many localities have prioritized resources to invest in building new synchronous schools including: supplementing classrooms and function rooms, enhancing teaching equipment, libraries, physical or skill training areas, and toilets, improving the green-clean-beautiful landscape. In which, many localities have promoted the socialization of education and invested in school systems in the direction of modernity, meeting the new requirements of education. There were 6375 communes that met the school criteria (77.2%, and increasing 35.1% compared with 2015).
The system of rural health facilities in recent years has continued to be invested, upgraded, and improved and highly appreciated by international organizations. 100% of communes had health stations, of which, about 76% of commune health stations met the National Health Standards (an increase of 8.9% compared with 2015); about 87.5% of commune health stations had doctors working; 95.0% of villages, hamlets had medical staff working.
The system of rural commercial infrastructure has developed in both quantity and scale. The types and levels of markets were diversified. Many forms of modern retail infrastructure, different types of convenience shops and mini markets have also been formed and developed to meet the consumption needs of rural people. There were 7763 communes that met the criteria for rural commercial infrastructure (accounting for 93.9%, increasing 36% compared with the end of 2015 and 23.9% higher than the 5-year target for the period of 2016–2020).
The sustainable development of the rural economy was in the direction of increasing added values and raised people’s incomes and gradually narrowed the gap between rural and urban areas [11, 12].
In the period of 2010–2020, basing on the construction of new rural areas and the process of urbanization, the rural economy had many drastic changes, active transfer structure in the right direction. The industries, construction, trade, and services in rural areas developed rapidly and accounted for an increasing proportion; agricultural, forestry, and aquicultural production has restructured in production type and scale.
Industry and services in the rural areas have had positive changes, the value of rural industrial production has grown well. Services in rural areas developed diversely with the participation of all economic sectors. Industrial production value in rural areas tended to grow significantly and reached 12.2% in the period of 2010–2018. That contributed to job creation, restructuring of rural labor (the proportion of agricultural laborers decreased from 49.5% in 2010 to 32.8% in 2020) and raised incomes of rural households.
Restructuring the agricultural sector has achieved many important achievements in terms of both scale and production level. Agriculture has shifted strongly to international competitive commodity production. The productivity and product quality increased and firmly ensured national food security, and exports have increased rapidly. The agricultural sector has a sustainable growth, the average GDP growth rate of the industry is 2.85%/year in the period 2011–2019, the agricultural production value will reach VND 99.5 million/ha in 2020 (an increase of 82% compared with 2010). Vietnam’s agricultural, forestry, and aquicultural exports in 2020 reached over $41.25 billion, ranking in the top 15 in the world and second in ASEAN. Agriculture continued to be Vietnam’s strength. Many specific agricultural regions were formed according to functions as: peri-urban agriculture, large-scale commodity agriculture, agriculture adapting to climate change, and agriculture with application of high technology.
The forestry industry has had a remarkable development in the past period with a stable growth rate. The national forest coverage rate in 2020 reached 42%, which formed the second largest forestry product processing industry in Asia and the fifth largest in the world. Over the past 10 years, aquiculture had the highest growth with an average growth of 5.2% per year in production value. In 2020, the total output was 8.4 million tons, the production value obtained on 1 hectare of aquaculture land reached 10,462 USD (2.3 times higher than 2010). The level of processing technology and hygiene safety of aquacultural product were invested to meet the requirements of the market in the world.
Types of production organizations are renewed in a more appropriate and effective manner; household economy continues to be supported and organized in the direction of increasing production scale, gradually adapting to the market mechanism. Strongly develop agricultural product value chains, form more and more product consumption linkage chains between producers, cooperatives, and enterprises; some large corporations have joined the linkage chain in agriculture such as Dabaco, Ba Huan, Saigon Coop, Masan Group…). Local authorities are increasingly interested in agricultural development, well performing the role of “State” in linking “4 houses” to organize production and consumption of agricultural products.
By the end of June 2021, 57/63 provinces have issued the policies to encourage linkages in production and consumption of local agricultural products, in which, 44/63 provinces and cities approved projects and plans on linkage under the guidance of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. As a result, up to now, more than 27,000 value chain-linked production models have been built; 1644 safe agricultural product chains were developed with 3267 places of sale of controlled products according to the chain and 2038 places of sale of controlled products according to the value chain. By 2020, there were about 49,600 enterprises investing in agriculture (of which, more than 11,800 enterprises invested directly), accounting for about 8% of the total number of enterprises operating in the country.
The speed of cooperative development has increased sharply year by year. By the end of 2020, there were 17,642 agricultural cooperatives (beyond the target to 2020 assigned by the government). The cooperatives gradually promoted their effective support role for farmers by actively linking with enterprises under the form of that the enterprises provided inputs, production techniques, and product consumption that created stable output for agricultural products.
The income and living standards of rural people were continuously improved and enhanced and the gap between rural and urban areas was narrowed [11, 12].
Average income per person per year in rural areas increased faster than the growth rate of urban people’s income. The income increased from 676 USD/person in 2010 to about 1807 USD/person in 2020. Basically, the target by 2020 was achieved. The income gap between rural and urban areas tended to decrease from 1.99 times in 2010 to 1.61 times in 2020. People in rural areas are less and less dependent on agriculture. The structure of income from agricultural, forestry, and aquicutural activities decreased from 33.5% in 2010 to 18.5% in 2020. The rate of poor households in rural areas decreased by 1% per year on average. By the end of 2020, the rate reached 7.1%.
Along with the increase in income, the spiritual life in rural areas has also been significantly improved. The people had easier access to basic social services, especially rural people in remote and isolated areas and ethnic minority areas. The countryside was the place where they maintained and developed the vibrant culture, artist, physical training, and sports. The civilized lifestyle was implemented and the unsound customs and superstition were eliminated. The maintenance of security and order was ensured. The evils of drugs, theft, gambling, addiction were controlled and managed. Many activities of planting trees, lighting up rural roads and protecting the environment have been actively organized by the community in order to create many fresh, bright, green, clean, and beautiful rural areas.
The work of landscape construction, implementation of environmental sanitation had a remarkable change, representing the achievements of building a new rural areas [11, 12] . Many models of landscape improvement in villages and hamlets have been creatively applied according to actual conditions; Thousands of kilometers of flower routes have been formed, and many districts have had the percentage of rural roads planted with trees and flowers that reached over 50%.
By the end of 2020, 51% of rural households used standard clean water; There were 6222 communes (75.3%) meeting the criteria on Environment and Food Safety (increasing by 32.9% compared with 2015, completing 5.3% more than the 5-year target for the period of 2016–2020).
The protection of the rural environment, especially in industrial production, services and craft villages has always been concerned, and environmental pollution has been gradually overcome. Up to now, 59/63 provinces and cities have approved the solid waste management planning in the areas; 42/63 provinces and cities have plans for concentrated waste treatment in rural areas, of which, a number of localities have implemented that throughout the province; 16/63 provinces and cities have approved the investment policy of rural solid waste treatment plants.
Solid waste collection has been promoted, and most villages and communes have formed a domestic waste collection team. The proportion of daily-life solid waste collected has increased significantly year by year, from 44.1% in 2011 to 66.0% in 2020. The scale and methods of solid waste treatment have also changed significantly. Common treatment methods included landfilling, incineration, fertilizer, and fuel pellet production. Although the current method of landfilling still accounted for a relatively high rate (about 70%), the trend of incineration became more common in many localities. There were about 425 domestic solid waste incinerators, of which, there were more than 100 incinerators with a capacity of over 300 kg/h, meeting the requirements of the National Technical Regulation.
The environment in craft villages has been significantly improved. There have been 33 provinces and cities that have issued the policies on environmental protection of craft villages. Many craft village waste treatment models have been implemented. Many craft villages applied advanced technology and production processes to limit waste emissions into the environment. The percentage of craft villages with centralized wastewater collection accounted for 27.6% of the total number of craft villages with industrial wastewater. The percentage of craft villages with concentrated wastewater treatment meeting environmental standards accounted for 16.1%; the percentage of craft villages with industrial solid waste collection places accounted for 20.9% of the total number of craft villages with industrial solid waste.
A healthy and colorful cultural environment was created in the cultural and spiritual life of rural people. Cultural activities, arts, and sports in residential areas were promoted. The preservation and promotion of cultural values have made a practical contribution to the construction of cultural life of the new rural areas.
Social security was guaranteed. The combat and timely prevention of crimes and social evils were effectively implemented in accordance with the Government’s strategy. The security and defense continued to be maintained. Thus, the people felt secure and they worked, created, and dedicated themselves to the task of new rural area construction and development.
Based on the objectives, principles, and scope of the National Target Program on building new rural areas for the period of 2010–2020, Vietnam has implemented sustainable new rural construction associated with urbanization. The results showed that Vietnam rural areas have changed both in terms of the basic socioeconomic infrastructure, the income, and living standards of rural people. Vietnam rural areas have had economic restructuring. In which, the occupation was shifted from agriculture to nonagricultural occupation, and the population, labor, and employment were shifted from rural to urban areas. Thus, millions of new jobs were created. Besides, the rural infrastructure system was invested and met the needs of production, travel, education, health care, goods circulation, service development. People’s income and living standards were improved and enhanced. The security and defense continued to be maintained.
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
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\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
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\n\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. 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The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human Activity, Pollutants, Reduced Risks, Population Growth, Waste Disposal, Remediation, Clean Environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"