Glossary of the terms used in the chapter.
\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-406-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-405-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-407-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",keywords:"Wage Gap, Gender Segregation, Fundamental Human Rights, Health Access, Social Inequity Processes, Modern Apartheid, Resilience, Cultural Gaps, Globalization, Geopolitics of Social Inequality, Public Policies, Social Vulnerability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"13 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Bykbaev is a member of the UNESCO Chair of Politecnica Salesiana University. 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Dr. Bykbaev is an active member of the NODO Ecuadorian Network of Women Scientists (REMCI).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313341/images/system/313341.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Politecnica Salesiana University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Politecnica Salesiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ecuador"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444316",firstName:"Blanka",lastName:"Gugic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444316/images/20016_n.jpg",email:"blanka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"68659",title:"Operative Machinery Costs Analysis within Forest Management Implementation Frame",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87572",slug:"operative-machinery-costs-analysis-within-forest-management-implementation-frame",body:'\nForests cover about 4.0 billion hectares in the world. All decisions and/or actions adopted in order to preserve, to conserve, and to harvest forests and trees within them Bettinger et al. [1] Grebner et al. [2] are expression of the forest management. It is also defined as a tool that forest-owners use to achieve social, economic, and environmental targets or also to implement sustainable forest management. Two of the following approaches characterize forest management:
Monitoring approach, through observation, monitoring, elaboration data, and e-reporting of forest ecosystem state
Technologic approach, through machines, tools, materials, and forest workers
The first approach concerns primary forest area, while the second is adopted in modified forests, planted forests, and other areas with trees that consist of 2.7 billion hectares (Figure 1) of the global forest area. For the modified forests, one of the most relevant actions is stand management. This management is
necessary, given the alteration (structural and compositional) these ecosystems have recorded over the centuries due to human activities;
functional, to ensure the ecosystem perpetuity and guarantee overtime forest ecosystem services that influence the well-being of the humankind; and
appropriate, in order to increase the resilient capacity of ecosystems currently under strong pressure due to socio-economic activities, climate change, and other global and local disturbance processes.
The 4.0 billion hectares of forest area in the world articulated for anthropization categories (data × 1000 hectares). Source: FAO (2015).
This action satisfies the aims of both forest landowners (FLOs) and logging companies (LCs). Using silvicultural criteria and proper manners, FLOs quantify the intervention in order to ensure the perpetuity of ecosystem (long-term vision) given by the forest’s natural renovation capacity. LCs’ point of view concerns the wood fraction exploitable (stand removal), which is the main output in timber transformation chains (short-term view). In the sustainable economic development policy, forests assume relevant roles [3]. That can be shortly explained as follows:
Wood is a renewable natural resource.
Timber is the main tangible output compared to other nontimber products.
Timber in itself is an ecosystem service provider that provides bio-based resources and also biomass for clean energy production.
Forest ecosystems guarantee regulative ecosystem services related to climate change contrast strategies and other global degradation processes.
Forest ecosystems are areas where individuals or groups can live important social and sensorial experiences and increase their knowledge on natural life processes.
Using the Italian forest system as background, this topic has been developed in order to provide an international dimension.
\nA complementary relation exists between FLOs and LCs (Figure 2). FLOs are responsible overtime for the stand management. Silvicultural managements implemented during forest lifetime have influence on timber and nontimber products. However, FLOs normally do not have resources and knowledge to implement silvicultural management by themselves and sell timber products. The high investments needed for achieving an efficient and technological mechanization level, from an economic and financial point of view, would not be justified if the FLOs manage periodically small forest area, as the majority of FLOs in Europe. According to these evidences, FLOs entrust this job to specialized units, such as LCs, which have machines, technologies, materials, and workers with the knowledge of timber transformation process. Finally, LCs have proper knowledge to achieve the highest market price, given the market situation and the current economic trends.
\n\nRelationship between forest land owners and logging companies. Source: Our elaboration.
Regardless of how stand management is entrusted to LCs, one of the mandatory steps is to determine the related costs. In dedicated literature [4, 5, 6], this topic is solved considering the operative cost only. However, differences exist between the type of costs and the calculation method, while transaction and overhead costs and revenues are not considered at all.
\nIn the 1990s, the reducing impact logging (RIL) technique [7, 8] was introduced in the tropical region. It was defined as an “Intensively planned and carefully controlled implementation of harvesting operations to minimise the impact on forest stands and soils, usually in individual tree selection cutting” [9, 10]. The main idea was to adopt a more rational and structured method for forest exploitation. So far, new transaction and overhead cost were introduced in the forest management. More recently, according to the social and environmental relevance of forests, in many countries, forest management is strongly influenced by decisions of forest institution. The main institutions concern the: (a) introduction of forestry and environmental laws and rules; (b) introduction of administrative procedures for safeguarding forest public interest; (c) definition of roles and responsibilities for the economic subjects involved in the transformation process; and (d) redaction of the accidental risks and promotion of high health standards to forest workers.
\nThe main assumptions adopted in the contribution concern economic subjects, operators, and capitals (workers, machines, material, etc.) involved in the transformation processes. Each of them must be paid for the performances provided. Technical and legal aspects are presented as background, while the core is based on the introduction of transformation steps, from being trees of the forest ecosystem to becoming market products. Timber production is one of the ecosystem services of forest ecosystems. Using the analytical approach, costs and revenue have been identified for each technical centrum of expenditure. Dedicated presentation and information have been provided on calculation method and data sources; however, in Table 1, a glossary of the main controversial terms has been developed.
\n\n\nWood | \nIt is the hard, fibrous, and structural tissues, composed of chains of cellulose, which forms the main substance of the trunk, branches, and roots of trees or shrubs. | \n
Timber | \nIt is the term to identify products obtained from the trunk, branches, and roofs of trees, at any stage after the tree has been felled. It includes the raw material, also known as rough timber or the processed material, used for construction, as firewood, and as other bio-based products. | \n
Price | \nIt is the amount of money that a buyer and a seller agree at the end of a negotiation to exchange between goods for money. In particular, there are a buyer willingness to pay and a seller willingness to accept in order to exchange the property right of goods and services. That information is collected specifically from the market. | \n
Value | \nIt is an amount (or datum) expressed in monetary metric, produced by experts or single individuals, using simple or complex elaborations, with the support of higher or lower technologies. Given a market price if it was subjected to any elaboration, example timber market price (€) multiply by quality (ton), the result is a value [€ × ton]. | \n
Forest management | \nIt is all decisions and/or actions adopted in order to preserve, conserve, and use forests and trees within them. | \n
Stand management | \nIt is all decisions and/or actions related to the stand. | \n
Silviculture management | \nIt is the mode by which forest management is implemented. | \n
Forest utilization | \nIt is the action usually developed from the LC. Selected trees are felled and processed to obtain marketable timber. | \n
Glossary of the terms used in the chapter.
Forests provide a large spectrum of ecosystem services that produce well-being to the humanity. Consequently, many institutions currently put silvicultural management under laws and regulations discipline. The target of institutions and administrative proceedings is to safeguard the public interest on forest ecosystems [11].
\nThe following are the two main consequences:
Introduction of administrative procedures, at the end of which the FLOs obtain the right to perform the silvicultural intervention
Introduction of transaction costs to prepare the technical documentation necessary to satisfy the administrative process
Utilization intervention can take place under the regime of the following:
Sale: with which the property transfers to the LCs the property rights of the forest stand destined to be felled
Contract: with which the FLOs entrust through the acquisition of LC services, the forest harvesting operations, while they maintain the timber ownership
Economy: where the FLOs, in particular the public ones, decide to carry out the work in-house, using the own property, in particular machinery, other tools, and forest workers enrolled
Regardless of the regime, the entrustment can be done in terms of the following:
Purchase all timber at fixed price: LC undertakes to carry out the intervention at the agreed and invariable price respecting the identified unit and following technical indications from the project and the subsequent notes of the competent institutions.
Based on a fixed price for unit: regime that requires the commitment by the property to pay the intervention at the fixed price per unit (usually volume or area), as well as the commitment by the company to quantify ex-post the volume or the area.
Mixed, partly defined at fixed price, and partly on the fixed price for unit.
These aspects are usually clearly stated in the contract. Further mutual fundamental obligations are:
for the FLOs: to certify that they have fulfilled all procedures necessary to obtain the authorization to carry out the silvicultural intervention and all provisions have been transposed in area (boundaries of the forest area under management have been marked, trees that shall be fell are also marked, etc.). Documents produced and received must be available to the LCs, which will be used at the end for monitoring the correctness of developed activity; and
for the LCs: to be aware of the territorial unit where they must operate, the characteristics of the stand and the area, as well as the nature of the silvicultural intervention to be implemented. The LCs certify to be fully aware of the technical and technological complexity level of the silvicultural intervention, to be aware of the appropriate methods to carry it out, as well as to have availability of equipment, workers, and materials necessary for its execution in due time.
Evaluation processes require relevant technical information such as: (a) the forest areas in which the stand involved in the management activity is located; (b) the timber volume that should be felled; and (c) the type of marketable products that could be obtained.
\nIf the stand of volume, silvicultural intervention, and felled timber are expressed in cubic meter, among them, the following relation subsists:
\nAnd solved for SI, it becomes
\nwhere [
Silviculture proposes different management methods, in relation to the auto-ecology of the species and forest community, as well as the land characteristics, forest state and type of the previous management, objectives pursued, and infrastructures. The characteristics of each intervention are defined in terms of the following:
Volume of the stems that must be released
Characteristics of the trees to be released with respect to the horizontal (territorial distribution) and vertical (stand stratigraphy) plane
Characteristics of the trees to be released for environmental needs, biodiversity, and other nonproductive functions
Given the total volume that insists in the area just before felling activity starts, the magnitude of the intervention can be quantified in terms of volume to be withdrawn \n
Basing on the size of the withdrawal, it is possible to have a qualitative indication of the intervention and consequently an estimation of expected revenue (Table 2). Minor interventions, refereed to particularly small volume withdrawals, don’t need a high mechanization level, which determines the growing employment of workers and a modest productivity. The unit costs of the intervention are high, if compared to constant revenues, with a negative balance. Interventions with higher withdrawals allow the use of higher levels of mechanization, lower use of labor, and consequently greater productivity. These conditions lead to a growing budget balance.
\nMagnitude of treatment | \nMechanization level | \nWorkers’ qualification | \nProductiveness | \nMonetary results | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Costs | \nRevenue | \nBudget performance | \n||||
Slight | \nLow | \nLow skill | \nLow | \nHigh | \nLow | \nNegative | \n
Intermediate | \nMedium skill | \nModerate | \nModerate—high | \nLow | \nNegative—variable | \n|
Moderate | \nIntermediate | \nMedium skill | \nModerate—high | \nModerate | \nMedium—good | \nPositive | \n
Advanced | \nSkill | \nHigh | \nModerate—high | \nVariable results | \nVariable | \n|
Effective | \nAdvanced | \nSkill | \nVery high | \nModerate—low | \nSubstantial | \nPositive | \n
Intense | \nHigh skill | \nHigh | \nModerate | \nMedium—good | \nVariable | \n|
Intensive | \nIntense | \nHigh skill | \nVery high | \nLow | \nSubstantial | \nPositive | \n
There are different types of forestry yard. The first classification is based on 4 mechanization levels (Tables 3
Level of mechanization applied in the forest yard: intense. Chainsaw is the machine common in all the levels, but reported only in this table, in order to limit the repetition.
Level of mechanization applied in the forest yard: advanced.
Level of mechanization applied in the forest yard: intermediate.
Level of mechanization applied in the forest yard: low.
The second classification can be based on the type of productions in the forest (or productions at the felling site). There are four logging system classes (Tables 7
Full tree logging system (Whole tree harvesting system) (Table 7)
Tree length logging system (Table 8)
Intermediate (mix) logging system (Table 9)
Short wood logging system (Table 10)
Logging systems: Extraction of full trees (TLS) (branch and top).
Logging system: Tree length (TLS). Extraction of full stem.
Logging system: Intermediate system: Tree length/short wood (cut to length CTL). Extraction full stand cross cutting to multiple market assortments.
Short wood system (SWS): Wood processed in final assortment in forest.
Each type of forestry yard is characterized by different cost dynamics:
Cost for activity in forest: decreasing costs by reducing the work for each tree
Cost for bunching-extraction: increasing costs by increasing number of logs to be bunched to achieve that volume to make extraction efficient and economically convenient
The term “transformation process” refers to the whole process to get stand transformed in row timber material and allocated in the landing, in order to be sold. This process includes all actions that should be done by
the forest owner, directly by it or indirectly through performance of forest consultant, as in majority of cases and
the logging company, who develops the technological cycle.
The starting point is the decision assumed by the forest owner to perform silvicultural intervention, while the end is when final monitoring of LCs’ activity is done and certification of the results is presented. This process is articulated in four steps, which are as follows:
Preliminary: aimed to acquire the permit for the silvicultural intervention to be executed.
Preparatory: which includes (a) the operations to transpose in the forest, the planning, and the administrative provisions; (b) the assignment of the work to an LC; and (c) the signing of the contract between FLO and LC.
Executive: in which LC performs silvicultural intervention. It includes selected trees felling, extraction, transportation, and stacking of the timber in the landing.
Conclusive: in which the goodness of the silvicultural intervention is verified.
In order to implement the four steps of the transformation process, many services and inputs must be purchased on the market. Total costs are the sum of three cost types (Table 10):
Transaction costs
Operative costs
Overhead costs
This type of cost includes all expenditures that have to be incurred in the process to fulfill the administrative procedures defined by rules, regulations, and laws, in order to manage the forest. Those expenditures are mainly necessary to acquire the permission to perform the silvicultural intervention, but they include the costs to prepare the forest area, to entrust LCs with the work, to ensure effectively results, and to monitor the results. The whole transaction costs are defined formally frame in which FCs and LCs must work in order to safeguard public interest as well as the forest and other social aspects (work safety aspect). Both FLOs and LCs sustain transaction costs.
\nFLOs’ transaction costs include the following:
Forest consultancy
Technical documents and drafts
Administrative fees
Selecting and entrusting an LC with implementation of forest utilization
Technical responsibility to safeguard the FLO’s interest during the activity
Verification of the forest utilization conformity to the standard defined by the permission and the forest rules, regulations, and laws
These costs per unit area usually decrease, but total cost increases according to the area interested in the process (proportional principle) (Figure 3). Expenditures for those performances are defined as bunched cost by
dedicated market survey;
negotiation between the LC and forest consultant;
tables issued by competent institutions. The amounts are changed proportionally with the volume of timber felled or with the forest area under management;
mixed approach, combining the two systems mentioned earlier; and
surveys on the dedicated market.
Transaction costs. Source: Our elaboration.
The LCs’ transaction costs are related to the obligations concerning the following:
Healthy costs, capital investment to ensure high safety standard in the forestry yards and to the forest workers
Cost of refund deposit, caution money that forest owners can operate when LCs don’t pay the stumpage price and for penalty that LCs incurred during the activities
The LC costs are defined by market survey.
\nAll expenditures to implement technological cycle are defined as operative cost (Table 11). These costs are sustained to transform trees into marketable timber products, mainly by the LC and only a few for FL. They include expenditure to buy primary and secondary productive factors.
\n\nType of costs | \nDescription | \n\n | Calculation | \nDetails | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Land | \nStructure | \nFixed costs | \nFee for recovery and storage of machines | \nQRR | \n\n\n | \nCC = building costs; cc% = recovery and storage coefficient; A = area | \n
Working capital | \nMachines | \nAmortization rate | \nAR | \n\n\n | \n||
Interest | \nInt | \n\n\n | \n||||
Maintenance fee | \nMF | \n\n\n | \n||||
Insurance and tax | \nI&T | \n\n\n | \nIns.ce = insurance; tax | \n|||
Costs of rapid consumption parts | \nCRCP | \n\n\n | \n||||
Other tools | \nFixed cost | \nFee for recovery and storage of machines | \nQRR | \n\n\n | \n||
Amortization rate | \nAR | \n\n\n | \n||||
Interest | \nInt | \n\n\n | \n||||
Maintenance fee | \nQM | \n\n\n | \n||||
Rapid consumption parts costs | \nCPRC | \n\n\n | \n||||
Material and energy | \nFuel and oil | \nVariable costs | \nFuel costs | \nFKCarb | \n\n\n or \n\n | \n|
Oil costs | \nOKLub | \n\n\n or \n\n | \n||||
Consumables | \nOther material costs | \nOMC | \n\n\n | \n|||
Labor | \nWorkers | \nSalary | \nS | \n\n\n | \n||
Financial capital | \nFinancial | \nInterest on capital advanced | \nICA | \n\n\n | \n||
Business organization | \n\n | Entrepreneur remuneration | \nER | \n\n\n | \n
Transformation cost types and calculation procedures.
The footnote symbol “*” means multiplication.
Main primary factors are as follows:
Land: capital permanently invested in the ground. While it is very relevant for FLOs, for LCs, it is limited to the structures for recovery and storage of working capital, as machineries, machines, and other tools.
Capitals that include the following:
Working capital such as machines (forwarder, harvester, chainsaw, etc.) and other tools (winch, etc.). Those have a multiple-year employment, so the use cost must be distributed through the years they will contribute to the activity (amortization costs and annual interest). These costs are added to the maintenance costs, insurance and other contribution, cost of rapid consumption parts, etc. in order to define the cost machine.
Financial capital necessary for the possession and use of working capital above descripted, to remunerate workers as well as to cover the interest of financial advances for the activity development.
Labor, concerning employers involved in the transformation process, such as forest workers and other units that have administrative functions. In both cases, the remuneration changes according to the skill and qualifications. The fundamental information is not the payment for hour or day, but the costs sustained by the entrepreneur that include tax, insurance, and other costs paid as benefits or facilities for the future of workers.
Entrepreneur organization, done by the person who assumes the forest activity risk. Currently, the payment is split between equity profit and extra profit. The first covers the responsibility assumed by the forest entrepreneur to manage the activity and it is estimated as about 10% of the total cost and named as equity net profit, while extra profit is obtained as differential between total costs (include equity profit) and total revenues. This amount covers the risk management activity.
Also named as indirect costs, these do not contribute directly to obtain the product but exist to ensure LC functioning. They are related to the LC unit as a whole, and they cannot be applied or traced to any specific unit of output. Overhead costs include the following:
Costs for managing goods and material purchases involved in the forest utilization process; costs due to the activity of timber trade in the market
Costs for managing of insurances, taxes, and other contributions due to the LC
Costs for managing markets and operator networks
Costs for the LC accounts
The output of the silvicultural activity can be expressed in terms of volume or value. The first results by measurement operations of the standing, with special emphasis to the volume of row timber material removal from the ground [
Formally,
\nMain questions of forest management are:
What is the standing forest market price?
What is the timber forest products’ market price?
What is the forest management cost?
Literature offers three approaches to answer the questions above, which are as follows:
Market price approach
Cost approach
Combination of the above-mentioned approaches
In all these approaches, results are based on common comparative method. This method ensures a strictly direct or indirect connection between market and the good under evaluation.
\nTheoretical background on evaluation method has been defined from International Valuation Standard Council [21]. In this contest, two main approaches are suitable: market comparison approach and cost approach. The first obtains the timber value by comparing the timber under evaluation with other similar timbers sold in the market; for which, price and at least one technical parameter are well known. The latter defines the value considering all expenditures that the enterprise have to sustain in order to obtain the product under evaluation.
\nTimber evaluation can have different assessments depending on whether one of the following two objectives is pursued:
Timber optimization uses: FLOs’ target is to ensure the most appreciated market product.
Optimization of market functioning: FLOs target to create the most favorable conditions for large market participation by the LCs.
The first target tends to favor the major LCs, even if the LCs who would take part in the market are very few in number, at least only one. Those LCs are technologically advanced, have greater financial availability, and have wider timber markets, as they can be international timber markets. The hypothesis is that this setting should ensure an effective use of timber and that it can achieve the highest addend value. On the other hand, the second target tends to align itself with the most frequent conditions compared to the local area framework, so as to allow the greatest participation of the local LCs at the market. The hypothesis is that if a large number of LCs take part in the market, that should ensure highest LC competition and the highest stumpage price.
\nThe first step is to acquire an adequate observation numbers, at least not less than 4 for each variable used in model, of
market price (dependent variable);
technical variables (independent variables),
a) By direct comparison, using the fundamental proportion to evaluate a market good. Having market prices and at least one technical parameter value, the proportion adapted to evaluate forest stand marketable is
\nwhere [
where the ratio in the square bracket is the stumpage value for cubic meter.
\nb) By indirect comparison, building an econometric model
\nwhere [
The strong limits of both procedures are (a) the lower number of LCs that take the risk that low number of LCs have an informal agreement about the stumpage value, and the LC that acquire the stem it was decided before the timber market start officially; and (c) there isn’t a well structured culture on how and what forest data, technical and market, should be collected. Each forest owner has its collection, and each forest owner itself selects the variables that should be registered.
\nIt is the market in which the trees, transformed in marketable products, are sold as timber raw material. That market has two relevant advantages for the evaluation proceeding: (a) even if the number of FLOs or LCs that support the supply is very low, the sawmills are much more so the market should have less distortion; and (b) it is the first market later to the stand felling.
\nThe market price of timber raw material is obtained by market survey. Database is built using the price registered in the market.
\nThe production cost approach concerns the technological cycle step and it includes only the expenses necessary to carry it out. This circumstance mainly happens when forest management has social objectives or the timber raw material has high market value and the FLOs prefer it to be sold directly in the timber raw material market because they expect strong completion among sawmills. The FLOs operate on service markets. They purchase the LC services for felling, processing and transportation of plant to an area which is easy to access (landing). Timber raw material can be
evaluated to reduce forest management costs;
made available to the local community to pursue their objectives;
sold in the timber raw material, directly or through dedicated agencies.
FLOs have to pay the LCs in any case. Activity is developed within the regulation code of “tender” to fell stand. The characteristic of this entrust is that FLOs have to pay LCs for their performance. The main national law states that an enterprise, as LCs, “assumes, (…), the fulfilment of a work or a service towards a consideration in money”1.
\nProduction cost is formally obtained as
\nwhere [
The last procedure provides the evaluation of the stand as a comparison between the value of the timber raw material market and all costs necessary to transform the stand into marketable products. The transformation process increases timber value step by step until it becomes timber raw material. The evaluation process, on the other hand, moves in the opposite direction: starting from the market products to achieve the stumpage value (Figure 4).
\nPathway of timber productions and value formation.
The fundamental relationship at the base of the procedure is that timber raw material market price is equal to the sum of stumpage price with the costs of carrying out transforming process:
\nwhere [MPRTM] is timber raw material market price in the first market after the stand is felled; [i] is the types of timber product obtained (timber construction, fuel wood, etc.); [
The ex ante budget is the tool that foresters usually adopt, where in one site is reported the revenue and in the other site the expenditures. The balance between revenues and expenditures is the stumpage value that LCs take from the commitment to pay at the FLOs when agreement was signed.
\nThe common model of this forest management is based on the ability of forest property (public or private) to carry out the forestry intervention. The owner directly or through an agency of the same subsidiary carries out forest utilization using personnel, machines, and tools in its possession. The economic and financial questions that accompany this approach are as follows:
What is the total cost of carrying out the intervention (
What is its operating cost (
What is the market value of the timber raw material (
The total cost expresses the total amount of costs regardless of the evidence that the resources used are internal. The operating cost focuses only on the variable (additional) costs that are incurred only if the intervention is carried out, ignoring the costs related to the internal resources involved in the works and the costs that the property still support. The last question relates to the value of timber raw material, which is quantified through market surveys.
\nIn this case, the silvicultural intervention is entrusted to an LC, which provides a service to the FLOs in exchange for payment of the service. The company that carries out the intervention is the one that, all other parameters being equal, ensures the service at the lowest price (Figure 5).
\nServices market: forest land owner purchase logging company service for felling, extraction, and processing timber production at lowest price. Source: Our elaboration.
Different approaches to calculate operating costs are reported in the cost machine literature. The main frames are elaborated and reported in Tables 12 and 13, respectively, for FAO and USDA. The following are the common comments:
Transaction and overhead costs are not included.
Labor costs are not included.
The frame proposed is developed for machine that works in huge areas or regions.
Total costs have to be used as an approximation of the cost machines.
Some algorithms and parameters used for evaluating cost are not easy to understanding the economic ratio.
\n | A | \nB | \nC | \nD | \nE | \nE formula | \nG | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nTypes of data | \nDescription | \nRange | \nUnits | \nAmounts | \n\n | Sources | \n
2 | \nEconomic data | \nMarket price | \n\n | € | \n45,000.00 | \n\n | Market survey | \n
3 | \n\n | Percentuale di recupero | \n\n | % | \n10.00% | \n\n | Technical documents | \n
4 | \nValue at the end of the career | \n\n | € | \n4500.00 | \n=E2 × E3 | \nOur elaboration | \n|
5 | \nAnnual amortization | \n\n | € | \n4050.00 | \n=(E2 − E4)/E10 | \nOur elaboration | \n|
6 | \nMarket price tires | \n\n | € | \n2000.00 | \n\n | Market survey | \n|
7 | \nGasoline price | \n\n | €/l | \n1.12 | \n\n | Market survey | \n|
8 | \nDiscount rate | \n\n | % | \n3.00% | \n\n | Market survey | \n|
9 | \nAverage annual investment | \n\n | € | \n27,000.00 | \n=E2 × E18 | \n\n | |
10 | \nTechnical data | \nEconomic duration | \n\n | year | \n10.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n
11 | \n\n | Annual machine usage hours | \n\n | hours | \n1000.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n
12 | \nTechnical duration | \n\n | hours | \n10,000.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
13 | \nWork days in the year | \n\n | days | \n240.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
14 | \nWorking days in hours | \n\n | hours | \n4.20 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
15 | \nPower | \n\n | HP | \n80.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
16 | \nTires duration | \n\n | hours | \n3000.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
17 | \n\n | Gasoline consumption duration per hours | \n\n | l/hour | \n6.15 | \n=(E20 × E15 × E22)/E19 | \nOur elaboration | \n
18 | \nCoefficients and parameters | \nAverage annual investment coefficient | \n\n | % | \n60.00% | \n\n | Technical documents | \n
19 | \n\n | Tires coefficient | \n\n | \n | 1.20 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n
20 | \nGasoline conversion coefficient (1 l = 0.84 kg) | \n0.70–0.85 | \n\n | 0.84 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
21 | \nGasoline consumption | \n\n | \n | 0.17 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
22 | \nLubricants consumption | \n\n | % | \n10.00% | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
23 | \nLoad factor | \n0.38–0.70 | \n\n | 0.38 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
24 | \nMaintenance coefficient | \n100–30% | \n% | \n100.00% | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
25 | \nVariable expenditures coefficient | \n15–5% | \n% | \n7.00% | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
26 | \nFixed costs | \nAnnual amortization per hour | \n\n | €/hours | \n4.05 | \n=E5/E11 | \nOur elaboration | \n
27 | \n\n | Interests per hours | \n\n | €/hours | \n0.81 | \n=E9 × E8/E11 | \nOur elaboration | \n
28 | \nVariable expenses | \n\n | €/hours | \n1.89 | \n=E9 × E24/E11 | \nOur elaboration | \n|
29 | \n\n | ||||||
30 | \nVariable costs | \nMaintenance and repair costs per hour | \n\n | €/hours | \n4.05 | \n=E5/E11 × E23 | \nOur elaboration | \n
31 | \n\n | Gasoline cost per hour | \n\n | €/hours | \n6.89 | \n=E17 × E7 | \nOur elaboration | \n
32 | \nLubricant cost per hour | \n\n | €/hours | \n0.69 | \n=E30 × E21 | \nOur elaboration | \n|
33 | \nTires cost per hour | \n\n | €/hours | \n0.80 | \n=E19 × E6/E16 | \nOur elaboration | \n|
34 | \n\n | ||||||
35 | \n\n |
\n | A | \nB | \nC | \nD | \nE | \nE explosed | \nG | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Types of data | \nDescription | \nRange | \nUnits | \nAmounts | \nFormulas | \nSources | \n|
Economic data | \nMarket price | \n\n | € | \n45,000.00 | \n\n | Market survey | \n|
Percentuale di recupero | \n\n | % | \n10.00% | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
Value at the end of the career | \n\n | € | \n4500.00 | \n=E2 × E3 | \nOur elaboration | \n||
Annual amortization | \n\n | € | \n4050.00 | \n=(E2 − E4)/E11 | \nOur elaboration | \n||
Labor cost | \n\n | €/hours | \n14.00 | \n\n | Market survey | \n||
Tire market price | \n\n | € | \n2000.00 | \n\n | Market survey | \n||
Gasoline price | \n\n | €/l | \n1.25 | \n\n | Market survey | \n||
Lubricant price | \n\n | €/l | \n2.25 | \n\n | Market survey | \n||
Discount rate | \n\n | % | \n3.00% | \n\n | Market survey | \n||
Technical data | \nEconomic duration | \n\n | year | \n10.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
Annual machine usage hours | \n\n | hours | \n1000.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
Technical duration | \n\n | hours | \n10,000.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
Work days in the year | \n\n | days | \n250.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
Working days | \n\n | hours | \n8.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
Hours machine usage effectively | \n\n | hours | \n4.20 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
Power | \n\n | kW | \n60.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
Tire duration | \n\n | hours | \n3000.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
Coefficients and parameters | \nGasoline conversion coefficient (1 L = 0.84 Kg) | \n0.70– 0.85 | \n\n | 0.84 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
Oil conversion coefficient (1 L = 0.95 kg) | \n950– 850 | \n\n | 0.95 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
Gasoline specific consumption | \n280– 300 | \ng/kWh | \n300.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
Oil specific consumption | \n2–4 | \ng/kWh | \n4.00 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
\n | \nUse coefficient of available power | \n95– 50% | \n% | \n66.67% | \n\n | Technical documents | \n|
Maintenance and repair coefficient | \n0.10–0.13 | \n% | \n0.13 | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
Variable expenditures coefficient | \n2.5– 0.5% | \n% | \n2.50% | \n\n | Technical documents | \n||
Fixed costs | \nAnnual amortization per hour | \n\n | €/hours | \n4.05 | \n=E5/E12 | \nOur elaboration | \n|
Interests per hour | \n\n | €/hours | \n0.61 | \n=(((E2 − E4)/2) × E10)/E12 | \nOur elaboration | \n||
Variable expenses | \n\n | €/hours | \n1.13 | \n=(E2 × E25)/E12 | \nOur elaboration | \n||
\n | |||||||
Variable costs | \nMaintenance and repair costs per hour | \n\n | €/hours | \n1.82 | \n=E6 × E24 | \nOur elaboration | \n|
Gasoline cost per hour | \n\n | €/hours | \n9.38 | \n=1/E19 × (E21/1000) × E23 × (E16/E15) × E17 × E8 | \nOur elaboration | \n||
Oil cost per hour | \n\n | €/hours | \n0.30 | \n=1/E20 × (E22/1000) × E17 × (E16/E15)*E9 | \nOur elaboration | \n||
Tires cost per hour | \n\n | €/hours | \n0.67 | \n=E7/E18 | \nOur elaboration | \n||
\n | |||||||
\n |
In the forest appraisals, the approach is to elaborate an ex ante budget of the silvicultural intervention including the expected costs to transform trees in marketable products and the expected revenue that should be obtained from the products sold.
\nThe differences between expected revenue and costs are the expected stumpage value of the trees that LCs should pay to the FLO to bay the stand, while only the amount of the expected costs is the price that FLO has to pay to the LC for the service of felling the stand. Stumpage price became the minimum price that FLO accepts to sell its stand. LCs that want to purchase it have to submit a proposal with a price higher than the minimum (Figure 6).
\nCommodities market: forest land owner sells its stand to the logging company that makes the highest price.
Growing awareness of the usefulness of forest ecosystems makes the operational cost significant as a component of the wider transformation cost. The latter includes both transaction costs in order to satisfy the provisions dictated by the legislative and regulatory forest and related forest disciplines, as well as the overhead costs that allow the correct functioning of the LCs.
\nApproaches introduced by international institutions lend themselves to an assessment, very approximate of the costs of managing uniform forests that cover large and flat areas. Their limits are given by concentrating on the component of operating costs, excluding overhead and transaction costs, as well as the introduction of simplifications in order to increase the territorial scale of application. They determine an underestimation of forest management costs [22].
\nA drawback instead overcomes the analytical approach, whose strong point is its adaptation to the context of intervention and to the specificities of the transformation cycle. This makes it possible to overcome the deformities that characterize forests, especially in the mountain areas, where it is possible to register a different stumpage value for two similar forests, close to each other and having the same productions. This approach also ensures transparency and traceability of the assessment process, as well as flexibility being able to be adapted to the different process for entrusting the management of the stand.
\nThis research was in part supported by the “Departments of Excellence—2018” Program of the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (Law 232/2016), financed. Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems (DIBAF)-University of Tuscia, Project “Landscape 4.0—Food, Well-being and Environment” and Department of Agriculture and Forest Science (DAFNE), University of Tuscia, Project (WP3).
\nSubstance abuse is a social problem from eternity.World Health Organization (WHO) mentions substance abuse as the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, such as alcohol and illegal drugs. Substance abuse is “persistent or sporadic drug use inconsistent with or unrelated to acceptable medical practice” [1]. Substance abuse among the youngsters and adolescents is the rising social problem all over world [2].
Alcohol addiction is the leading problem for death and disability all over the world.it is observed that 75 million people are alcohol addicts and 3 million are opioid abusers in India [3]. Due to tobacco addiction nearly 13,000 deaths per day occurs all over It has been predicted by the According to World Health Organization (WHO) that tobacco consumption will lead more than 500 million mortality people by 2030 and it will be the commonest cause of death [4, 5]. Many studies has shown that smokers became habituated at adolescent period. It is unfortunate that consumption of alcohol is getting social acceptance and has become status symbol.
All hard drugs like opioids and other became the easily available which is the important cause of substance abuse in adolescents. Alcohol and opioid addiction is common in children. According to National institute on drug abuse (NIDA), in adolescence marijuana use consumption is common. Many studies had shown that common age group of substance abuse ranges from 12 to 20 years [6].
The United Nations has designed 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets. They expected that by 2030 all states will succeed to achieve all goals. From above all Sustainable Development Goals, important Goal-3 having Target-5 stresses on Strengthening the prevention of substance abuse and its proper treatment especially of narcotic drug and alcohol abuse. Many researches has confirmed that antisocial activities in childhood leads to alcohol abuse in adolescent. Adolescents is the most important stage of human life but unfortunately this group is most misunderstood and neglected by the society [7].
Substance addiction (drug addiction) and Non-substance addiction (behavioral addiction) are two different disorders. Substance addiction or drug addiction is a neuropsychiatric disorder categorized by a periodic craving for the consumption drug despite of having knowledge about harmful effects. Non substance abuse includes pathological food obsession, internet craving, and mobile phone compulsion [8].
Men are always under stress and for relief of it used many parameters one of it is drug abuse. This problem has risen at all levels in the society in various forms. Drug trafficking is one of the most profitable trades along with petroleum and weapons trade. Every country has and is facing this problem in its own way. Newer forms of drug abuse patterns like solvents are on the rise probably due to strict regulations on other recognized forms of abuse.
Street children in India constitute a group of marginalized population in most urban centers of the country. They constitute children living in streets permanently, who are detached from their families and live on the streets temporarily, children who belong to poor families and spend most of their time on the streets, children living with their families on the streets etc [9].
These children have to put up with a variety of physical and mental abuse and hence are a concern for a wide range of social issues. Poly substance abuse is common among these children and often solvents are the first psychoactive substance they attempt to try. Not much is known as to why children adopt such abusive behavior. Solvents are freely available in the market without any regulations in India. Though a lot of global awareness is reached about this form of abuse it is yet to be recognized by the political circle in the country [10].
We have been facing a shocking rise of substance abuse among the youngsters. Recent times have witnessed a steady increase in drug abuse among younger population, with more children starting substance use from an early age. Further, the delinquent is seen across all socioeconomic groups, from cities to small towns and rural areas, with new and multiple substance use also being recognized [11, 12].
Speedy industrial development with changing lifestyles have left the youth harassed for their survival; compelling many to seek defense in the dark world of substance abuse. India too, is fronting a similar condition that has been paying attention of policy makers and researchers [13, 14, 15].
Not only the child, but the family and society as a whole are likely to be disturbed as a result of early onset substance use. Thus, this matter is of nationwide interest and significance. This phase of life is characterized by growth and maturation of brain and body, which potentially affects responses to drugs and treatment [16, 17, 18, 19].
World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that globally 25 to 90% of children and adolescents have consumed at least one substance of abuse [1, 19, 20]. In India approximately 5500 children and adolescents start using tobacco products daily, some as young as 10 years old. A large number of them have used tobacco prior to the age of 18 years [21, 22, 23].
Dependence is defined by World Health Organization and American Psychiatric Association, as a syndrome of physiological, behavioral and cognitive phenomena, which lead to loss of control over use. DSM-5, cancels the term ‘dependence ‘and substitutes it with ‘use disorder’. [24].
Research on substance abuse among children and adolescents presents its own distinctive challenges. But the main question is that why the Indian society is facing such a quandary where more of the teenagers and youths are indulging in immoral and unproductive activities like substance abuse. The present study has the aim of analyzing the biosocial profile and pattern of substance abusers. The study is indicative for the need of fostering a supportive environment comprising of both parents and teachers so that adolescents can adopt and sustain with the right choices for a healthy life.
To assess the pattern and prevalence of substance abuse among Children in slum areas of Ahmednagar.
To find out demographic profile of children using substances for abuse.
To find out association of family history, peer pressure, educational status of family and children associated with substance use among children.
It’s a descriptive cross sectional study done in collaboration with NGO (Balbhavan Project) working in slum areas of Ahmednagar. They were evaluated according to pre designed questionnaire in given time frame with the help of NGO (Balbhavan project) working in that area. All the children satisfying the following inclusion and exclusion criteria were enrolled in the study.
Children with age group 18 years or less of either sex were included in study.
Children who were willing to participate in research work.
Patients/Parent/relative/NGO who were ready to give informed consent.
Informed written consent was taken from the child or adolescent and the parent or NGO staff counselor (as a surrogate guardian, in case the parents are not available).
Children with age group below 5 and above 18 years of either sex were not included.
A child who was Unable to provide information was not included in the study.
For this research project we have chosen the most active non-governmental agency (NGO) of Ahmednagar, Maharashtra.This NGO named Snehalaya is working for the overall growth of children living in slum areas. They are also actively working on hot issue of substance abuse among these children. NGO has established nice rapport with children and also have data of the substance abuse among children. They also have information about the substance abuse and treatment of each child abuser. With help Snehalaya, we collected information related to our research project.
Considering the time frame of the research, study was carried out with the help of NGO working in slum areas of Ahmednagar and children fulfilling the inclusion and exclusion criteria which were mentioned above. It was estimated that the total sample size will be about 246 children who are using substances. (Calculated by open Epi Software).
The abusers are taking all kinds of substances commonly tobacco consumption, Bidi/Cigarette smoking, pan masala, gutkha, ganja, bhang, alcohol, LSD, Cocaine and Opium etc.
We have labeled child as substance abuser who have fulfilled following criteria.
1-taking one or more above mentioned substances and consuming it since last 1 year,
2-using it at least once in a week or many times in last months.
Collected informations was tabulated and evaluated using suitable statistical tests as and when required. The information so collected was analyzed by using SPSS software. Chi-square test was used as per the requirement.
To know the present scenario of substance abuse, we conducted a descriptive cross sectional study, among 246 children of slum areas of Ahmednagar under the guidance of Snehalay balbhavan project. The result obtained at the end of the study was quit shocking. It was found that in slum areas 87% children were drug abusers, among which 83% were boys and 17% were girls. A high correlation of substance abuse was found with increasing age consisting of 6.1% drug abuser of age group 5–8 years, 15% drug abuser of age group 9–12 years and 78.9% drug abuser of age group 13–18 years. Most abused substance among them was Tobacco, Alcohol, Inhalants, Sedative and opium. When we inquired about the educational status of parents, it was found that 84.6% of mothers were illiterate and 60.2% of fathers were illiterate. A special emphasis was laid on education of children among which 52% were school going and remaining were engaged in unskilled labor like rag picking, hotel worker, street vending, dhabha and other work. About 77.6% of these children got addicted due to their friends and 17.3% from their family. At the end of our study only 46.3% of them were willing to quit. 50.9% of children were craving for the substances and 38.8% of children got addicted due to peer pressure (Tables 1–5 and Figures 1 and 2).
Sr. No. | Variable | Groups | No. of participants (N = 246) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Sex | Male | 191 | 77.6 |
Female | 55 | 22.4 | ||
2 | Age | 5–8 years | 15 | 6.1 |
9–12 years | 37 | 15.0 | ||
13–18 years | 194 | 78.9 | ||
3 | Living arrangement | Home (With family) | 191 | 77.6 |
(with friends/ distant relatives) | 55 | 22.4 | ||
4 | Mothers literacy | Literate | 38 | 15.4 |
Illiterate | 208 | 84.6 | ||
5 | Fathers literacy | Literate | 98 | 39.8 |
Illiterate | 148 | 60.2 | ||
6 | Drug abuse by mother | Yes | 197 | 80.1 |
No | 49 | 19.9 | ||
7 | Drug abuse by father | Yes | 207 | 84.1 |
No | 39 | 15.9 | ||
8 | Work | Student | 128 | 52.0 |
Rag picker/ Kabadi | 29 | 11.8 | ||
Street level vending | 9 | 3.7 | ||
Dhaba/ Restaurant/ Waiter | 5 | 2.0 | ||
Unskilled worker/ Labourer | 13 | 5.3 | ||
Do not work | 30 | 12.1 | ||
Others | 32 | 13.0 |
Demographic profile of participants.
Age Groups | Drug Abuse (%) | No Drug abuse (%) | Total | Chi-Square Value | P Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
5–8 years | 6 (2.8) | 9 (28.1) | 15 (6.1) | 41.517 | 0.000 |
9–12 years | 27 (12.6) | 10 (31.2) | 37 (15.0) | ||
13–18 years | 181 (84.6) | 13 (40.6) | 194 (78.9) | ||
Total | 214 (100.0) | 32 (100.0) | 246 (100.0) |
Association between age and drug abuse.
As p < 0.05, there is significant association between age and drug abuse. Children in the age of 13–18 years are more likely to get involved in drug abuse.
Drug abuse by mother | Drug Abuse by children (%) | No Drug abuse by children (%) | Total | Chi-Square Value | P Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yes | 178 (90.4) | 19 (9.6) | 197 (100.0) | 9.887 | 0.004 |
No | 36 (73.5) | 13 (26.5) | 49 (100.0) | ||
Total | 214 (87.0) | 32 (13.0) | 246 (100.0) |
Association between mothers involved in drug abuse and drug abuse by the children.
As p < 0.05, there is significant association between mother involved in drug abuse and drug abuse by the children. If the mother is using drugs, there are 90.4% chances of children getting involved in drug abuse.
Drug abuse by father | Drug Abuse by children (%) | No Drug abuse by children (%) | Total | Chi-Square Value | P Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yes | 188 (90.8) | 19 (9.2) | 207 (100.0) | 16.920 | 0.000 |
No | 26 (66.7) | 13 (33.3) | 39 (100.0) | ||
Total | 214 (87.0) | 32 (13.0) | 246 (100.0) |
Association between fathers involved in drug abuse and drug abuse by the children.
As p < 0.05, there is significant association between father involved in drug abuse and drug abuse by the children. If the father is using drugs, there are 90.8% chances of children getting involved in drug abuse.
Sr. No. | Variable | Groups | No. of participants (N = 246) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Substance abuse (N = 246) | Tobacco | 140 | 56.9 |
Alcohol | 41 | 16.7 | ||
Inhalant | 23 | 9.3 | ||
Sedative | 6 | 2.4 | ||
Opium | 4 | 1.6 | ||
No Substance abuse | 32 | 13.0 | ||
2 | Want to quit the habit (N = 214) | Yes | 99 | 46.3 |
No | 115 | 53.7 | ||
3 | Procurement of the drug (N = 214) | Friends | 166 | 77.6 |
Family | 37 | 17.3 | ||
Itself | 11 | 5.1 | ||
4 | Difficulty in quitting (N = 214) | Craving | 109 | 50.9 |
Peer pressure | 83 | 38.8 | ||
Easily available | 17 | 7.9 | ||
Withdrawal symptoms | 5 | 2.4 |
Drug abuse & related parameters.
Sex distribution among abusers.
Age and sex distribution of abusers.
Substance abuse refers to the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substance including alcohol and illicit drugs. The present study reveals the prevalence of substance abuse among children to be 87%, which is higher than that reported by Lisa Sarangi et al. [2] where the prevalence was 43.4%.Jasani PK et al.in his study covered 600 adolescents and he found that substance abusers children were 30.17% [25]. Another study conducted at Andhra Pradesh by Benegal et al. Prashant et al. [11] revealed that about 32.7% children were abusers. Many research studies have found that, in India 50% children up to grade nine experiences the substance at least once [26, 27].
This research study revealed the major basic reason behind such high consumption of substance abuse is poverty, easy availability of substances and peer pressure. Jasani PK et al. found that most common cause of substance abuse was peer pressure, then experiencing thrill in life and academic stress [25]. Our results coincides with Benegal et al. Prashant et al. [11], in their study, they revealed most common reason was peer pressure (52.9%) then for pleasure (21.1%).But according to Jain et al. curiosity (68%)was the main reason for start of substance abuse [22], the reason behind it may be due to different culture and economic status. Another study by Barua et al. shown that academic stress comforting outcome and only for enjoyment were the common causes of consumption of alcohol [23].
This study also revealed that the most common substance being abused is the widely available Tobacco (56.9%) which is supporting, the findings of Dhirendra N. Sinha et al. [28]. Our findings are similar with Jasani PK et al., it showed most common substance is tobacco 25.83%, followed by liquor (2.17%), opioid/afin (1%) bhang (0.67%) [25].
Bihar based study by Sinha et al. showed that smoking is commonest substance abuse (19.4%)in school going children [14]. Kaur et al. from North India revealed 39.2% substance abusers consumes tobacco [15]. Another study from Uttar Pradesh by Dube and Handa et al. stated that alcohol is consumed by 22.8% abusers [16]. Similar findings 18.55% abusers are taking alcohol are also reported by Thacore [17], Shukla et al. described that 38.3% is substance abuse prevalence in the rural population in Uttar Pradesh [18]. Jena et al. also reported 28.8% rural people of Bihar consumes alcohol/drug [19]. Study conducted in most sensitive state, Punjab by Varma et al. revealed that 45.9% alcohol taking habit in urban population and 28.1% in rural population [20, 21].
It was found that in slum areas 87% children were drug abusers, among which 83% were boys and 17% were girls Prevalence of tobacco use was higher among boys than girls. Many research studies have found that, in India 50% children up to grade nine experiences the substance at least once [26, 27, 29]. Study by Majra et al. found that tobacco consumption is more among males (42.1%) as compared to females (17.0%) [13]. As boys are involved more in outdoor activities and are subjected to substance abuse. Adolescents reported using tobacco in multiple forms, chewing tobacco being the most popular.
A WHO study group on youth and drugs indicated that most of the experimentation and initiation of dependence producing drugs takes place during adolescence [30]. Though they had some knowledge about the harmful effects of substances, this was not sufficient to motivate them to quit, in our study only 46.3% were willing to quit. Craving (50.9%) was the most common cause to abstain substance abuse.
11 DSM-5 criteria implementation in clinics research purpose is easier than 11 DSM-IV criteria because one disorder is involved instead of two hierarchical disorders. A checklist helps for covering all criteria [31].
The study has emphasized the escalating incidence of substance abuse among slum children in Ahmednagar, pressing need of initiating programs for prevention and treatment in slum areas. The subject needs to be dealt in a comprehensive manner. There is need for availability of specialized treatment services for children who are using substances. These facilities should be available in government hospitals. The settings in which the facilities are delivered should be child sensitive and safe. Treatment programs must attempt to include the family in treatment and address the family issues as a part of the remedy. Rehabilitation of children should focus on skill building and vocational training. Substance abuse by children has detrimental impact on their physical, psychological, social and mental well-being hence needs immediate intervention. Rehabilitation of children abusing illicit substances is the necessity of the hour.
Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Dr. Girish Kulkarni (Founder of Snehalaya) and Dr. Hanif for their great support. I am also thankful to all my students for their active participation in the project-Chhajed Neel A., Mehta Rahul J., Arve Rutvik N., Upadhyay Prabhakar I., Mustafa Saad.
The author declares no conflict of interest in the present study.
Not applicable.
Taken from institutional ethical committee.
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Experimentation is an application of treatments applied to experimental units and is then part of a scientific method based on the measurement of one or more responses. It is necessary to observe the process and the operation of the system well. For this reason, in order to obtain a final result, an experimenter must plan and design experiments and analyzes the results. One of the most commonly used experimental designs for optimization is the response surface methodology (RSM). Because it allows evaluating the effects of multiple factors and their interactions on one or more response variables it is a useful method. In this section, recent studies have been compiled which aim to extraction of plant material in high yield and quality and determine optimum conditions for this extraction process.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",authors:[{id:"218870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alev Yüksel",middleName:null,surname:"Aydar",slug:"alev-yuksel-aydar",fullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar"}]},{id:"56460",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69501",title:"Application of Taguchi-Based Design of Experiments for Industrial Chemical Processes",slug:"application-of-taguchi-based-design-of-experiments-for-industrial-chemical-processes",totalDownloads:3194,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:"Design of experiment is the method, which is used at a very large scale to study the experimentations of industrial processes. It is a statically approach where we develop the mathematical models through experimental trial runs to predict the possible output on the basis of the given input data or parameters. The aim of this chapter is to stimulate the engineering community to apply Taguchi technique to experimentation, the design of experiments, and to tackle quality problems in industrial chemical processes that they deal with. Based on years of research and applications, Dr. G. Taguchi has standardized the methods for each of these DOE application steps. Thus, DOE using Taguchi approach has become a much more attractive tool to practicing engineers and scientists. And since the last four decades, there were limitations when conventional experimental design techniques were applied to industrial experimentation. And Taguchi, also known as orthogonal array design, adds a new dimension to conventional experimental design. Taguchi method is a broadly accepted method of DOE, which has proven in producing high-quality products at subsequently low cost.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Rahul Davis and Pretesh John",authors:[{id:"199438",title:"Mr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Davis",slug:"rahul-davis",fullName:"Rahul Davis"}]},{id:"14634",doi:"10.5772/15998",title:"The Application of FT-IR Spectroscopy in Waste Management",slug:"the-application-of-ft-ir-spectroscopy-in-waste-management",totalDownloads:6635,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"1574",slug:"fourier-transforms-new-analytical-approaches-and-ftir-strategies",title:"Fourier Transforms",fullTitle:"Fourier Transforms - New Analytical Approaches and FTIR Strategies"},signatures:"Ena Smidt, Katharina Böhm and Manfred Schwanninger",authors:[{id:"20376",title:"Dr.",name:"Katharina",middleName:null,surname:"Böhm",slug:"katharina-bohm",fullName:"Katharina Böhm"},{id:"22840",title:"Dr.",name:"Ena",middleName:null,surname:"Smidt",slug:"ena-smidt",fullName:"Ena Smidt"},{id:"22915",title:"Dr.",name:"Manfred",middleName:null,surname:"Schwanninger",slug:"manfred-schwanninger",fullName:"Manfred Schwanninger"}]},{id:"15157",doi:"10.5772/15959",title:"Fourier Transform Mass Spectrometry for the Molecular Level Characterization of Natural Organic Matter: Instrument Capabilities, Applications, and Limitations",slug:"fourier-transform-mass-spectrometry-for-the-molecular-level-characterization-of-natural-organic-matt",totalDownloads:4331,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:null,book:{id:"122",slug:"fourier-transforms-approach-to-scientific-principles",title:"Fourier Transforms",fullTitle:"Fourier Transforms - Approach to Scientific Principles"},signatures:"Rachel L. Sleighter and Patrick G. Hatcher",authors:[{id:"22676",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachel L.",middleName:null,surname:"Sleighter",slug:"rachel-l.-sleighter",fullName:"Rachel L. Sleighter"},{id:"23168",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick G.",middleName:null,surname:"Hatcher",slug:"patrick-g.-hatcher",fullName:"Patrick G. Hatcher"}]},{id:"60097",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75381",title:"Robust Optimization: Concepts and Applications",slug:"robust-optimization-concepts-and-applications",totalDownloads:2535,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Robust optimization is an emerging area in research that allows addressing different optimization problems and specifically industrial optimization problems where there is a degree of uncertainty in some of the variables involved. There are several ways to apply robust optimization and the choice of form is typical of the problem that is being solved. In this paper, the basic concepts of robust optimization are developed, the different types of robustness are defined in detail, the main areas in which it has been applied are described and finally, the future lines of research that appear in this area are included.",book:{id:"6587",slug:"nature-inspired-methods-for-stochastic-robust-and-dynamic-optimization",title:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization",fullTitle:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization"},signatures:"José García and Alvaro Peña",authors:[{id:"227809",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"jose-garcia",fullName:"Jose Garcia"},{id:"240407",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Peña",slug:"alvaro-pena",fullName:"Alvaro Peña"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59209",title:"Utilization of Response Surface Methodology in Optimization of Extraction of Plant Materials",slug:"utilization-of-response-surface-methodology-in-optimization-of-extraction-of-plant-materials",totalDownloads:5398,totalCrossrefCites:57,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:"Experimental design plays an important role in several areas of science and industry. Experimentation is an application of treatments applied to experimental units and is then part of a scientific method based on the measurement of one or more responses. It is necessary to observe the process and the operation of the system well. For this reason, in order to obtain a final result, an experimenter must plan and design experiments and analyzes the results. One of the most commonly used experimental designs for optimization is the response surface methodology (RSM). Because it allows evaluating the effects of multiple factors and their interactions on one or more response variables it is a useful method. In this section, recent studies have been compiled which aim to extraction of plant material in high yield and quality and determine optimum conditions for this extraction process.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",authors:[{id:"218870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alev Yüksel",middleName:null,surname:"Aydar",slug:"alev-yuksel-aydar",fullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar"}]},{id:"74096",title:"Time Frequency Analysis of Wavelet and Fourier Transform",slug:"time-frequency-analysis-of-wavelet-and-fourier-transform",totalDownloads:1219,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Signal processing has long been dominated by the Fourier transform. However, there is an alternate transform that has gained popularity recently and that is the wavelet transform. The wavelet transform has a long history starting in 1910 when Alfred Haar created it as an alternative to the Fourier transform. In 1940 Norman Ricker created the first continuous wavelet and proposed the term wavelet. Work in the field has proceeded in fits and starts across many different disciplines, until the 1990’s when the discrete wavelet transform was developed by Ingrid Daubechies. While the Fourier transform creates a representation of the signal in the frequency domain, the wavelet transform creates a representation of the signal in both the time and frequency domain, thereby allowing efficient access of localized information about the signal.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Karlton Wirsing",authors:[{id:"325178",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlton",middleName:null,surname:"Wirsing",slug:"karlton-wirsing",fullName:"Karlton Wirsing"}]},{id:"60864",title:"Statistical Methodology for Evaluating Business Cycles with the Conditions of Their Synchronization and Harmonization",slug:"statistical-methodology-for-evaluating-business-cycles-with-the-conditions-of-their-synchronization-",totalDownloads:1328,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The importance of the topic of business cycle research and their interaction is due to the fact that the cyclical nature of development is a universal feature of the market economy (regardless of the level of development of the country’s economy and the principles of its organization). In all cases, cyclical ups and downs depend not only on internal system cyclical processes and their factors in countries but also on the consequences of intercountry interaction. The ability to measure and predict business cycles, taking into account their mutual influence, is a prerequisite for the development of an adequate business policy of countries and their associations.",book:{id:"6703",slug:"statistics-growing-data-sets-and-growing-demand-for-statistics",title:"Statistics",fullTitle:"Statistics - Growing Data Sets and Growing Demand for Statistics"},signatures:"Elena Zarova",authors:null},{id:"54366",title:"Solution of Differential Equations with Applications to Engineering Problems",slug:"solution-of-differential-equations-with-applications-to-engineering-problems",totalDownloads:6815,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Over the last hundred years, many techniques have been developed for the solution of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. While quite a major portion of the techniques is only useful for academic purposes, there are some which are important in the solution of real problems arising from science and engineering. In this chapter, only very limited techniques for solving ordinary differential and partial differential equations are discussed, as it is impossible to cover all the available techniques even in a book form. The readers are then suggested to pursue further studies on this issue if necessary. After that, the readers are introduced to two major numerical methods commonly used by the engineers for the solution of real engineering problems.",book:{id:"5513",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",title:"Dynamical Systems",fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems - Analytical and Computational Techniques"},signatures:"Cheng Yung Ming",authors:[{id:"191017",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Y.M.",slug:"cheng-y.m.",fullName:"Cheng Y.M."}]},{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1695,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"15",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82432",title:"A Modern Review of Wavelet Transform in Its Spectral Analysis",slug:"a-modern-review-of-wavelet-transform-in-its-spectral-analysis",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105559",abstract:"The spectral analysis, in much aspects as are the wavelet transform in its numerous versions and its relation with other transforms and special functions requires a special review, since the exploration in the frequency domain to the wavelet transform is more detailed and majorly more specific in different applications. For example, the wavelet transform of special function can be very useful to create and design special signal filters or, for example, to the interphase between reception-emission devices with sensorial parts of the human body. Also the quantum wavelet transform is very useful in the spectral study of traces of particles. Likewise, in this chapter, these aspects are considered as an inherent property of the wavelet transform in the spectral exploration of some phenomena. Finally, general results to the discrete case are given, which is analyzed to the wavelet transform and its spectra.",book:{id:"11150",title:"Recent Advances of Wavelet Transform and Their Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11150.jpg"},signatures:"Francisco Bulnes"},{id:"82378",title:"Covers and Properties of Families of Real Functions",slug:"covers-and-properties-of-families-of-real-functions",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100555",abstract:"We present results on the relationships of the covering property GΦΨ for Φ,Ψ∈OΛΩΓ and G∈S1SfinUfin of a topological space and the selection property GΦ0Ψ0 of the corresponding family of real functions. The result already published are presented without a proof, however with a citation of the corresponding paper. We present a general Theorem that covers almost all the result of this kind. Some results about hereditary properties are enclosed. We also present Scheepers Diagram of considered covering properties for uncountable covers.",book:{id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of Topology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg"},signatures:"Lev Bukovský"},{id:"82356",title:"Geometric Properties of Classical Yang-Mills Theory on Differentiable Manifolds",slug:"geometric-properties-of-classical-yang-mills-theory-on-differentiable-manifolds",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105399",abstract:"Gauge theories make up a class of physical theories that attempt to describe the physics of particles at a fundamental level. The purpose here is to study Yang-Mills theory at the classical level in terms of the geometry of fiber bundles and differentiable manifolds. It is shown how fundamental particles of bosonic and fermionic nature can be described mathematically. The Lagrangian for the basic interactions is presented and then put together in a unified form. Finally, some basic theorems are proved for a Yang-Mills on compact four-dimensional manifolds.",book:{id:"11502",title:"Manifolds - Recent Developments and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11502.jpg"},signatures:"Paul Bracken"},{id:"82335",title:"Straight Rectangular Waveguide for Circular Dielectric Material in the Cross Section and for Complementary Shape of the Cross Section",slug:"straight-rectangular-waveguide-for-circular-dielectric-material-in-the-cross-section-and-for-complem",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104815",abstract:"This chapter presents wave propagation along a straight rectangular waveguide for practical applications where there are two complementary shapes of the dielectric profile in the cross section. In the first case, the cross section consists of circular dielectric material in the center of the cross section. In the second case, the cross section consists of a circular hollow core in the center of the cross section. These examples show two discontinuous cross sections and complementary shapes that cannot be solved by analytical methods. We will explain in detail the special technique for calculating the dielectric profile for all cases. The method is based on Laplace and Fourier transforms and inverse Laplace and Fourier transform. In order to solve any inhomogeneous problem in the cross section, more than one technique can be proposed for the same mode-model method. We will explain in detail how and where the technique can be integrated into the proposed mode-model. The image method and periodic replication are needed for fulfilling the boundary condition of the metallic waveguide. The applications are useful for straight rectangular waveguides in millimeter regimes, where the circular dielectric material is located in the center of the cross section, and also for hollow waveguides, where the circular hollow core is located in the center of the cross section.",book:{id:"11150",title:"Recent Advances of Wavelet Transform and Their Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11150.jpg"},signatures:"Zion Menachem"},{id:"82204",title:"Some Solvability Problems of Differential Equations in Non-standard Sobolev Spaces",slug:"some-solvability-problems-of-differential-equations-in-non-standard-sobolev-spaces",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104918",abstract:"In this chapter an m-th order elliptic equation is considered in Sobolev spaces generated by the norm of a grand Lebesgue space. Subspaces are determined in which the shift operator is continuous, and local solvability (in the strong sense) is established in these subspaces. It is established an interior and up-to boundary Schauder-type estimates with respect to these Sobolev spaces for m-th order elliptic operators, the trace of functions and trace operator are determined, the boundedness of trace operator and the extension theorem are proved, the properties of the Riesz potential are studied regarding these Sobolev spaces, etc. It is considered a second-order elliptic equation, and we study the Fredholmness of the Dirichlet problem in the Sobolev space generated by a separable subspace of the grand Lebesgue space. It is also considered one spectral problem for a discontinuous second-order differential operator and proved the theorem on the basicity of eigenfunctions of this operator in subspace of Morrey space, in which the infinitely differentiable functions with compact support are dense.",book:{id:"11149",title:"Differential Equations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11149.jpg"},signatures:"Bilal Bilalov, Sabina Sadigova and Zaur Kasumov"},{id:"82011",title:"Spatial Statistics in Vector-Borne Diseases",slug:"spatial-statistics-in-vector-borne-diseases",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104953",abstract:"Vector-borne diseases are those caused by the bite of an infected arthropod, such as the Aedes aegypti mosquito, which can infect humans with dengue or Zika. Spatial statistics is an interesting tool that is currently implemented to predict and analyze the behavior of biological systems or natural phenomena. In this chapter, fundamental characteristics of spatial statistics are presented and its application in epidemiology is exemplified by presenting a study on the prediction of the dispersion of dengue disease in Chiapas, Mexico. A total of 573 confirmed dengue cases (CDCs) were studied over the period of January–August 2019. As part of the spatial modeling, the existence of spatial correlation in CDCs was verified with the Moran index (MI) and subsequently the spatial correlation structure was identified with the mean squarer normalized error (MSNE) criterion. A Generalized Linear Spatial Model (GLSM) was used to model the CDCs. CDCs were found to be spatially correlated, and this can be explained by a Matérn covariance function. Finally, the explanatory variables were maximum environmental temperature, altitude, average monthly rainfall, and patient age. The prediction model shows the importance of considering these variables for the prevention of future CDCs in vulnerable areas of Chiapas.",book:{id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg"},signatures:"Manuel Solís-Navarro, Susana G. 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Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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