\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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A major naturally occurring TFA is vaccenic acid (
It has been revealed that intake of TFAs-rich diet reduces HDL cholesterol level and raises LDL cholesterol level in healthy subjects [9]. Moreover, retrospective cohort study shows that intake of TFAs-rich diet is associated with higher risks of cardiovascular disease (CVD) [10]. These findings are supported by systematic review and meta-analysis [11, 12]. Furthermore, de Souza et al. also reveal that mortality of CVD is associated with intake of industrial TFAs, but not ruminant TFAs [11]. Consideration of those adverse effects of industrial TFAs on health, US Food and Drug Administration decided to eliminate industrial TFAs from food supply until 2018. Moreover, Denmark, Switzerland, Austria, Canada and Singapore have policy to limit or diminish industrial TFAs in food. Some other countries in Asia such as Korea and China obligate to labeling of content of TFAs. These governmental regulations reduce intake of industrial TFAs from daily diet, although industrial TFAs are contained in food in many countries [13, 14].
Emerging evidences suggest that intake of TFAs is associated with the development of various diseases. Systematic review by Barnard et al. indicates that intake of TFAs is associated with risk of cognitive disorders [15]. Moreover, Golomb et al. reports that dietary TFAs intake is negatively related to memory of the word in younger adults [16]. In addition, intake of TFAs is inversely related to sperm count in young healthy men [17]. However, since these studies do not distinguish between industrial TFAs and ruminant TFAs, it cannot be concluded that the adverse effects are caused by intake of industrial TFAs.
A systematic review by de Souza et al. also analyzes the effects of intake of TFAs on diabetes [11]. Intake of TFAs has no association with the risk of diabetes. However, intriguingly, when TFAs are divided into industrial and ruminant TFAs, intake of ruminant TFAs reduces the risk of diabetes. Although there is no data about industrial TFAs in the study, these results suggest that intake of industrial TFAs elevates the risk of diabetes. This hypothesis is supported by in vitro study using rat fed with industrial TFAs-rich diet [18]. However, other groups report that industrial TFAs do not alter insulin responsiveness in epidemiological study [19], in vivo [20] and in vitro study [21]. Hence, the roles of industrial TFAs in development of insulin resistance and diabetes remain unclear.
What causes the differences in the effects of industrial TFAs on insulin resistance and diabetes? Osso et al. analyzed the effects of industrial TFAs for about 8 weeks [18]. On the other hand, Louheranta et al. and Lovejoy et al. analyzed for 2–4 weeks, respectively [19, 20]. Moreover, Granados et al. cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes for 24 h in the presence of 100 μM elaidate [21]. We focused on the exposure period to industrial TFAs. To examine the effects of persistent exposure to industrial TFAs, 3T3-L1 preadipocytes were cultured and differentiated into adipocytes in the presence of 10 μM elaidate which is close to physiological concentration in human plasma [4, 8]. Persistent exposure to elaidate before and during differentiation impaired insulin-dependent glucose uptake and translocation of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) to the plasma membrane [22]. On the other hand, culture of 3T3-L1 adipocytes with 10 μM elaidate for 24 h did not alter insulin-dependent glucose uptake. Thus, our findings reveal new factor “period” for consideration of adverse effects of TFAs and emphasize the risk of persistent intake of industrial TFAs for development of diabetes.
Stimulation with insulin activates insulin-signaling cascades [23]. In brief, insulin binding to insulin receptor activates its kinase domain, and insulin receptor phosphorylates itself and insulin receptor substrates followed by activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K). PI3K converts phosphatidylinositol (3,4)-bisphosphate (PIP2) to phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PIP3). PIP3 acts as a scaffold of Akt at the plasma membrane, and it enables mTORC2 and PDK to phosphorylate and activate Akt. Activated Akt accelerates translocation of GLUT4 storage vesicles (GSVs) to the plasma membrane [24], and GLUT4 transports extracellular glucose into the cells. Our unpublished data indicate that insulin-dependent phosphorylation of Akt, but not insulin receptor, is suppressed in adipocytes persistently exposed to elaidate. Therefore, suppressive effects of elaidate on insulin signaling are partial but not overall. One possibility is that expression or activation of PI3K, mTORC2 or PDK1 may be repressed in adipocytes persistently exposed to elaidate. Another possibility is that alternation in fatty acid composition of phospholipids affects activation of Akt. It is reported that saturated fatty acid-contained phosphatidylcholine prevents full activation of Akt in vitro [25]. Moreover, oleate-contained PIP3 enhances activation of Akt in vitro [26]. Thus, we should carefully analyze the effects of elaidate on insulin signaling around Akt.
Our previous data also indicate that incorporated elaidate may affect insulin responsiveness of adipocytes. Elaidate acts as a ligand and can activate G protein-coupled receptor 120 at several hours [27], although culture of adipocytes with 10 μM elaidate for 20 min or 24 h did not alter insulin-dependent glucose uptake [22]. Therefore, ligand property of elaidate will not be involved in an impairment of insulin responsiveness. Another possibility is that incorporated elaidate impairs insulin responsiveness. Extracellular fatty acids are incorporated through FATP and CD36 [28, 29], and then fatty acids are converted into acyl-CoA derivatives by acyl-CoA synthetase [30]. Acyl-CoA derivatives are degraded by β-oxidation or esterified into lipid species such as triglyceride and phospholipid. It is reported that elaidate is esterified into triglyceride and phospholipid of heart of rats fed with elaidate-contained diets [31]. Moreover, elaidate is incorporated into adipose tissue of rabbits fed with elaidate-contained diets [32], although intracellular distribution of elaidate in lipid species of adipocytes is not fully understood. Therefore, we provide new data about intracellular lipid distribution of elaidate in adipocytes.
3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes were purchased from Japanese Collection of Research Bioresources (Osaka, Japan). Cells were cultured in Dulbecco’s modified Eagles medium containing 4.5 mg/L d-glucose (DMEM-high Glucose; Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS, S1820; Biowest, Nuaillé, France), 50 units/ml penicillin and 50 μg/ml streptomycin (P7081; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO). Before differentiation into adipocytes, cells were cultured for 10 days in the presence of 10 μM of bovine serum albumin (BSA)-conjugated elaidate (E4637; Sigma-Aldrich), stearate-d35 (BX-245; Olbracht Serdary Research Laboratories, Toronto, Canada), oleate-d17 (9000432; Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, MI), elaidate plus stearate (S4751; Sigma-Aldrich), elaidate plus oleate (O1382; Sigma-Aldrich) or BSA alone (vehicle), which was prepared as described [22]. Then, cultured 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes were differentiated into adipocytes using 3-isobuthyl-1-methylxanthine (I7018; Sigma-Aldrich), dexamethasone (D4902; Sigma-Aldrich) and insulin (I5500; Sigma-Aldrich) for 8 days in the presence of BSA-conjugated fatty acids as described [22].
Subcellular fractionation was performed as described by Rangel et al. [33]. In brief, cells were washed twice with cold phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and once with lysis buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4/250 mM sucrose/1 mM EDTA). Then, scraped cells were homogenized in lysis buffer with 7 mL-scale Dounce homogenizer (Kontes Glass Co, Vineland, NJ), and the homogenates were centrifugated at 1000 ×
Total lipids were extracted from each fraction using a modified Bligh & Dyer method [34]. Triglyceride, free fatty acid and phospholipid in total lipids were separated with thin-layer chromatography (Silica gel 60, no. 1.05721.0001; Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) using development solvent (petroleum ether:diethyl ether:acetic acid = 82:18:1, v/v/v). Isolated triglyceride, free fatty acid and phospholipid was hydrolyzed and methylated using 10% toluene (no. 209-06791; Wako, Osaka, Japan) and hydrogen chloride-methanol reagent (5–10%) (X0038; Tokyo Chemical Industry Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) for 1 h at 100°C. Then, amount of fatty acids in each lipid species was analyzed by GC-MS-QP2010 Ultra (SHIMADZU, Kyoto, Japan) as described [22]. Efficiency of extraction, isolation and methylation was normalized with triheneicosanoin (B-422; Olbracht Serdary Research Laboratories) for triglyceride, nonadecanoic acid (N5252-1G; Sigma-Aldrich) for free fatty acid and 1,2-diheptadecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (no. 1400; Matreya LLC Inc., Pleasant Gap, PA) for phospholipid. The amount of fatty acids was also normalized with cell number.
To examine whether incorporated extracellular elaidate is esterified into lipid species of adipocytes, total lipid was extracted from adipocytes exposed to elaidate for 18 days, and it was separated by TLC followed by analyzing with GC-MS. In major lipid species of adipocytes was triglyceride, phospholipid and free fatty acid, and diacylglycerol and monoacylglycerol were in trace amounts. Therefore, we analyzed the amount of elaidate in triglyceride, phospholipid and free fatty acid and revealed that elaidate was contained in triglyceride and phospholipid (Figure 1). On the other hand, the non-esterified form of elaidate was not detected (Figure 1, free fatty acid). Moreover, the amount of elaidate in triglyceride was higher than that in phospholipid. These results suggest that incorporated extracellular elaidate is mainly esterified into triglyceride and phospholipid in adipocytes.
Extracellular elaidate is incorporated into adipocytes, and esterified into triglyceride and phospholipid. 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes were cultured for 10 days and differentiated into adipocytes for 8 days with 10 μM elaidate. Amount of elaidate in triglyceride, free fatty acid and phospholipid were analyzed by GC-MS after separated by TLC as described in Section 2.1. Results are represented as means ± S.D., n = 5 independent experiments. ND means not detected.
Since phospholipids are a component of membranes of various organelles [35], we further examined intracellular distribution of elaidate-contained phospholipids using subcellular fractionation methods. Cells were homogenized and organelles in the lysates were enriched by centrifugation (Figure 2A). TLC and GC-MS analysis revealed that elaidate was contained in phospholipid of nuclear, mitochondrial, cytosolic and plasma membrane fraction (Figure 2B). The amount of elaidate in phospholipid of mitochondrial fraction was higher than that of nuclear, cytosolic and plasma membrane fraction, suggesting that elaidate-contained phospholipids are mainly distributed in mitochondria.
Elaidate-esterified phospholipid is distributed in various organelles membrane. 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes were cultured and differentiated into adipocytes as described in
Is the intracellular distribution of elaidate-contained phospholipids specific to elaidate or not? Therefore, we compared elaidate (trans-C18:1) with stearate (C18:0) which has similar steric structure to elaidate, or oleate (cis-C18:1) which is cis form of elaidate (Figure 3A). For trace of incorporated extracellular stearate and oleate, we used deuterium-labeled stearate (stearate-d35) and oleate (oleate-d17). As shown in Figure 3B, incorporated extracellular stearate-d35 (dark gray bars) and oleate-d17 (light gray bars) were esterified into phospholipid of each organelle, and stearate-d35 or oleate-d17-contained phospholipids were mainly distributed in the mitochondria fraction. It is reported that extracellular [3H]-raveled arachidonate is incorporated into cells and the distribution ratio of [3H]-raveled arachidonate in the mitochondria is lower than that in other organelles at several minutes after addition of [3H]-raveled arachidonate into the medium [36]. However, the distribution ratio of [3H]-raveled arachidonate dramatically rises at 24 h. Since cells were exposed to fatty acid for 18 days, incorporated elaidate, stearate-d35 and oleate-d17 may be transferred from other organelles to the mitochondria. Therefore, the mitochondrial distribution of elaidate is not specific to elaidate.
Amount of elaidate-contained phospholipids in organelles is different from that of stearate or oleate-contained phospholipids. (A) Structure of elaidate, stearate and oleate. (B) 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes were cultured for 10 days and differentiated into adipocytes for 8 days with 10 μM elaidate (black bar), stearate-d35 (dark gray bar) or oleate-d17 (light gray bar). Amount of elaidate, stearate-d35 or oleate-d17 in phospholipid of each fraction were analyzed using GC-MS. (C) Total amount in phospholipids was calculated by summing up the amount of elaidate, stearate-d35 or oleate-d17 in each fraction. Results are represented as means ± S.D., n = 3 independent experiments.
Intriguingly, although the amount of elaidate was similar to that of stearate-d35 and higher than that of oleate-d17 in the nuclear, mitochondrial and cytosolic fraction, the amount of elaidate in the plasma membrane fraction was significantly higher than that of both stearate-d35 and oleate-d17. What causes the difference in the amount of these fatty acids in organelles? As shown in Figure 3C, the total amount of elaidate in phospholipid was higher than that of oleate-d17, but not stearate-d35. There were several possibilities that oleate-d17 was degraded through β-oxidation pathway, the amount of incorporated oleate-d17 into adipocytes was lower than that of elaidate, and oleate-d17 tend to be esterified into other lipid species such as triglyceride or to be removed from phospholipid by phospholipases compared with elaidate. It is reported that β-oxidation rate of oleate is higher than that of elaidate in rat heart homogenate [37]. Moreover, our unpublished data showed that the amount of oleate-d17 in triglyceride is higher than that of elaidate at 6 h after addition of those fatty acids into the culture medium of adipocytes, although there was no difference in total amount of oleate-d17 and elaidate. Since oleate and elaidate have a different steric structure, it may result in a difference between oleate and elaidate in metabolism and esterification into or removal from phospholipid.
Although steric structure of elaidate is similar to that of stearate, there was a difference in the amount of elaidate and stearate-d35 in the plasma membrane fraction (Figure 3B). Moreover, the amount of stearate-d35 was not significantly but slightly low in the mitochondrial fraction and high in the nuclear and cytosolic fraction compared with that of elaidate (Figure 3B). It is known that stearate is desaturated by stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD-1; n-9 desaturase) and converted into oleate [38]. We detected that exposure to stearate increases the amount of oleate but not stearate in adipocytes (unpublished data), suggesting that stearate is converted into oleate in adipocytes. Since elaidate is already desaturated at n-9 position, elaidate may be less likely to be metabolized by SCD-1. However, the different amount of elaidate and stearate in phospholipid was not only explained by the difference in the metabolism, suggesting that there are differences between elaidate and stearate in esterification into or removal from phospholipid. Therefore, the differences in both metabolism and esterification into or removal from phospholipid may result in different amounts of elaidate and stearate in phospholipid of organelles.
Thus, since elaidate has a double bond but exhibits linear-shaped structure, it may cause unique distribution of elaidate in phospholipid of various organelles membrane.
Next, we examined whether incorporation and esterification of elaidate into lipid species may disturb the equilibrium state of metabolism or distribution of other fatty acids. Therefore, we analyzed the amount of palmitate, palmitoleate, stearate and oleate, which were mainly contained in total lipid of adipocytes and calculated fatty acid composition (%). On the other hand, the amount of linoleate (C18:2), linolenate (C18:3) and arachidonate (C20:4) may be trace amount in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and we could not detect these fatty acids. As shown in Figure 4A, there was no difference in the fatty acid composition of triglyceride and free fatty acid. On the other hand, the percentage of oleate in phospholipid was slightly but significantly low in adipocytes exposed to elaidate compared with vehicle (Figure 4A).
Fatty acid composition of phospholipid is altered in adipocytes exposed to elaidate. (A) Analysis of fatty acid composition of lipid species in adipocytes cultured with vehicle (white bars) or elaidate (black bars). Fatty acid composition (%) was calculated by the amount of each fatty acid dividing by total amount of palmitate, palmitoleate, stearate, elaidate and oleate. Results are represented as means ± S.D., n = 5–8 independent experiments. ND means not detected. (B) Analysis of fatty acid composition of phospholipid in organelles in adipocytes cultured with vehicle (white bars), elaidate (black bars), stearate-d35 (dark gray bars) or oleate-d17 (light gray bars). Fatty acid composition (%) was calculated by the amount of each fatty acid dividing by total amount of palmitate, palmitoleate, stearate-d35, stearate, oleate-d17, elaidate and oleate. Results are represented as means ± S.D., n = 3 independent experiments. (C) Fatty acid equilibrium (%) between monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and saturated fatty acid (SFA) or bent shaped and linear shaped chain fatty acid in 18-carbon fatty acid. Results are represented as means, n = 3 independent experiments.
Further analysis with subcellular fractionation revealed that the percentage of oleate was low in phospholipid of mitochondrial and plasma membrane fraction in adipocytes exposed to elaidate (Figure 4B, compare white bars with black bars). Moreover, this alteration was observed in both mitochondrial and plasma membrane fraction of adipocytes differentiated with oleate-d17 but not stearate-d35 (Figure 4B, see dark and light gray bars). Since there was no difference in the percentage of 16-carbon fatty acids (palmitate and palmitoleate), we surmised that elaidate limitedly affects the equilibrium of 18-carbon fatty acids. The equilibrium between monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and saturated fatty acid (SFA) in 18-carbon fatty acids was maintained in adipocytes exposed to elaidate, stearate-d35 and oleate-d17 in both mitochondrial and plasma membrane fraction (Figure 4C, upper panels). However, when the steric structure was considered, elaidate has similar linear-shaped structure to stearate, and raises the percentage of linear-shaped chain fatty acid (Figure 4C, lower panels). Thus, in phospholipid of adipocytes exposed to elaidate, the equilibrium between bent and linear-shaped chain fatty acid was disturbed, although the equilibrium between MUFA and SFA was maintained.
The alteration was small compared with the total amount of fatty acid in phospholipid. However, since activation of insulin signaling occurs in the local area of the plasma membrane such as raft [39], elaidate may locally disturb the equilibrium of fatty acid of phospholipid and partially suppress the insulin signaling.
How does incorporated and esterified elaidate affect the equilibrium of fatty acid of phospholipid? There were possibilities that elaidate competes with incorporation of extracellular oleate into adipocytes or esterification of oleate into phospholipids, or elaidate indirectly reduces the amount of oleate through alteration of synthesis or metabolism of intracellular oleate. To examine the possibility of competitive inhibition, cells were exposed to 10 μM elaidate plus 1 to 10 μM oleate, which was expected oleate to competitively inhibit incorporation or esterification of elaidate into phospholipid and reduce the amount of elaidate. However, there was no difference in the amount of elaidate between cells exposed to elaidate and elaidate plus oleate (Figure 5). Since incorporated extracellular oleate and elaidate may exhibit different intracellular dynamics (see Section 2.2.3), elaidate does not compete with extracellular oleate in an incorporation into adipocytes or esterification into phospholipid. These results suggest that elaidate may alter synthesis or metabolism of intracellular oleate which results in a reduction of the amount and percentage of oleate in phospholipid.
Elaidate does not compete with oleate. The amount of elaidate in phospholipid of mitochondria and plasma membrane fraction in cells differentiated with 10 μM elaidate plus 1, 2.5, 5 or 10 μM oleate. Results are represented as means ± S.D., n = 3 independent experiments. Significant difference was calculated by Student’ s
Intracellular oleate is synthesized from stearate by SCD-1, and it is reported that SCD-1 prefers stearate than palmitate [40]. Therefore, reduced activity of SCD-1 may lead to reduced amount of oleate but not palmitoleate. However, it may raise the amount of stearate, although persistent exposure to elaidate did not alter the amount and percentage of stearate (Figure 4). Since the amount of palmitate and palmitoleate in triglyceride was significantly high in adipocytes exposed to elaidate compared with control (data not shown), reduced supplementation of palmitate from triglyceride to phospholipid may result in the prevention of increased amount of stearate, and maintain the equilibrium of MUFA and SFA, but not bent and linear-shaped chain fatty acid.
Our results were illustrated in Figure 6. In adipocytes, incorporated extracellular elaidate is mainly esterified into triglyceride. The rest is esterified into phospholipid of various organelles such as mitochondria, plasma membrane, nucleus and cytosolic vesicles. Moreover, distribution of elaidate into phospholipid is not competitively inhibited by oleate and stearate (data not shown), suggesting that elaidate may exhibit unique intracellular dynamics or incorporation into cells is not a rate-limiting step. Furthermore, elaidate reduces the amount of oleate which results in the reduction of the percentage of oleate in phospholipid of mitochondria and plasma membrane. Intriguingly, esterification of elaidate and reduction of oleate disturbs the equilibrium between bent and linear-shaped chain fatty acid in phospholipid but not unsaturated and saturated fatty acid. Therefore, elaidate-esterified phospholipid may be recognized as oleate-esterified phospholipid.
Intracellular distribution of elaidate and its effects on fatty acid composition of lipid species. Incorporated extracellular elaidate is esterified into triglyceride (TG) and phospholipid (PL) of organelles. Elaidate reduces the amount of oleate in phospholipid of mitochondria and plasma membrane, and disturbs the equilibrium between bent shaped and linear shaped chain fatty acid in phospholipid.
To clarify the molecules which may recognize elaidate as oleate-esterified phospholipid and command to maintain the equilibrium of MUFA and SFA, we should separate phospholipid classes such as phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylinositol and analyze its fatty acid composition, since enzymes which are involved in synthesis and metabolism of phospholipids (e.g. acyl-CoA synthases, acyltransferases and phospholipases) have substrate specificity to lipid classes and its fatty-acyl chain [41]. Thus, the maintenance of the equilibrium between MUFA and SFA in our results cannot be explained without a recognition system of fatty acids. Therefore, further analysis also enables us to elucidate the recognition system of fatty acids.
Note that certain phospholipids such as phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylcholine have the potential to affect insulin signaling [25, 26]. Further analysis of alteration of fatty acid composition in phospholipid classes will lead to elucidate the mechanism for suppression of the insulin signaling.
Our recent study reveals the deteriorative effects of elaidate on insulin responsiveness of adipocytes. In this chapter, we show for the first time that elaidate alters fatty acid composition of lipid species of adipocytes. Since lipid species may have important roles in regulation of insulin signaling, we should consider the effects of elaidate on lipid species to analyze the mechanism for an impairment of insulin responsiveness.
This work was supported in part by a Grant-in Aid for Young Scientists (B) (no. 17 K15494 to K.I.) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this chapter.
In past 20 years, scanning probe microscopes have emerged as an essential technique in various fields. The atomic force microscope (AFM) uses the most common scanning probe technique for materials characterization [1, 2]. Major advantages of AFM involves its high resolution in three dimensions, the sample is not necessary to be conductive and it does not need to be operated within a vacuum. It help in studying a large range of topographies and many types of materials can be imaged under it. AFM is capable of imaging 3D topography information from the angstrom level to the micron scale with extraordinary resolution. In AFM, the
A representation of the AFM.
Evidences such as blood, fibers, hair, soil, finger prints, gunshot residue, pollen etc. are found on the crime scene at nano or even at molecular level. At present, different nanotechnologies such as the application of nanoscale powders, high resolution scanning and transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy are applied for the examination of various evidences for forensic investigations [4, 5]. Nevertheless, forensic trace depiction of forensic evidences at the nanoscale does not yield applicable forensic information as explained by Inman and Rudin [6, 7] with the principle of divisible matter. Examination of such type of evidences require combination of sophisticated instrumentation which can help in proving the facts and can provide a conclusive results which can provide justice to the society. As mentioned earlier AFM technique has showed application for the examination of such type of evidences which is centered with an extremely high resolution scanning probe microscope to sense intermolecular and interatomic forces between a sharp probe and the specimen. AFM is highly applied in forensic field as it has the biggest advantage of examination of evidences in minimal non-destructive manner as well as possess imaging capabilities to examine the sample in various environmental conditions. As it possess highly accurate piezoelectric scanners its lateral resolution is hundreds of times better than the diffraction limit of traditional optical microscope. The sample is scanned by the tip of the cantilever which results into the deflection because of the attractive or repulsive forces between sample and tip molecules. The cantilever’s deflection is measured by the laser beam which is later converted into an electrical signal by photodiodes, thus helping in imaging of the topography surfaces of the sample at the nano-level.
Sample preparation art is in fact a simple procedure of critical-path steps, where every single step makes a large difference. The sample preparation in AFM is easier as compared to the other electron microscope techniques [8]. Further, AFM provides advantage of operating in almost any environment conditions, such as aqueous solutions, in air, vacuum, or other gases. Typically, AFM is operated at three different modes namely contact mode, noncontact mode, and tapping mode. Contact is a static mode, and tapping and noncontact are dynamic modes, as the cantilever oscillates in tapping and noncontact modes. This is achieved by adding an extra piezoelectric element that oscillates up and down between 5 and 400 kHz to the cantilever holder. The contact mode is the mode where the tip of the cantilever scans the sample in close contact with the surface. This mode is used usually for surface force measurements. In noncontact mode, the tip flies about 5–15 nm above the sample surface. Whereas in tapping mode the tip of probe touches the sample, and moves completely away from the sample in each oscillation cycle. The tip usually taps the sample during each oscillation in tapping mode, hence it is often the most stable mode used in air. In noncontact mode the cantilever stays close to the sample all the times and possess much smaller oscillation amplitude. The contact mode imaging is heavily influenced by frictional and adhesive forces which may damage samples and distort image data. The non-contact imaging mostly provides low resolution and can get hindered by the contaminant thus producing interfere with oscillation. On the other side the tapping mode imaging overcome the disadvantages of the other two modes. It eradicates the frictional forces by spasmodically contacting the surface and oscillating with appropriate amplitude to avoid the tip from being trapped by adhesive meniscus forces from the contaminant layer.
In general, for particle analysis in AFM the smaller the size of the particles the flatter/smoother the substrate should be that is the size of the particles should be greater than the topographical features of the substrate. Commonly used substrates are glass cover slips, highly ordered pyrolytic graphite, silicon oxide wafers, mica and atomically flat gold. For biological samples like imaging DNA12 and proteins, atomically flat substrates are used while for fine-size features examination like bio-cells, colloids, quantum dots and carbon nanotubes, glass, mica and silicon substrate are used. If a sample comes in the form of a bulk material such as wood or epoxy-resin, metal discs are used as a substrate. The adhesive used in this case is typically carbon tape or thermal wax [3].
In case of biological samples, in order to observe biological structures in their native state, they are supposed to be attached to a smooth solid substrate to resist the lateral forces exerted by the scanning tip, in that reverence, mica, glass and silicon oxide have proved to be excellent substrates for the examination. Muscovite mica, is a non-conducting layered mineral composed of multiple 1 nm thick layers [9]. It can be cleaved simply with the help of adhesive tape to yield clean, atomically flat surfaces which are negatively charged. Mica is most normally used substrate for imaging double-stranded DNA, DNA-protein complexes, protein arrays, densely packed proteins, supported lipid films and animal cells. Also, the mica surface can be modified with silanes which helps in both to promote adsorption or to allow covalent binding of the biomolecules [10]. Glass represents another suitable substrate for imaging biological samples. For imaging cells and other large structures glass cover slips are flat enough for imaging adsorbed molecules while in some cases, silicon oxide wafer scan also be used instead of glass. Though they are more expensive and difficult to handle, they offer much smoother surface than glass. Hydrophobic substrates, highly orientated pyrolytic graphite, which is atomically flat over large areas [11] are also preferred for biological sample preparation. Hydrophobic surface can be obtained by coating the mica surface with carbon for immobilizing DNA [12, 13].
For imaging document, adhesives and fibers sample under AFM, the frequently used substrate is microscope slide. Usually the samples are cut as per the required area to be imagined under the AFM and then double-sided adhesives are applied to affixed the sample at its fixed position as when the AFM tip is scanning it does not get deviated from the position. For soil sample analysis usually the grains are pressed into pressure-sensitive adhesive putty to provide suitable support during the scanning process thus this allows for retrieval of the grains afterwards or realignment if necessary during analysis [14, 15, 16].
The hair samples are priory washed before been examined under microscope using solvent namely sodium dodecyl sulfate solution or doubled distilled water. The substrate like metal discs or glass slide can be used as they are stable and shown eligible drift or creep. Adhesives such as conductive sticky carbon pads or double-sided tape are used to fix the sample at its position. If conductive sticky carbon pads are used as an adhesive then the hair sample are lowered onto the pads and pressed into place using tweezers, so that the fibers did not roll on the pad and hence pick up any contamination from the adhesive [14, 17, 18]. Researchers have also used epoxy as an adhesives at the sample ends to ensure that no interference with the top surface occurs and the adhesion between the hair sample and AFM disc keeps the middle of the sample fixed to the disc during AFM measurements [19].
This section recapitulates a number of AFM studies that illustrates applicability of AFM in relation forensic traces evidence analysis and its potential for crime investigations or reconstruction.
Blood stains are the most common type of forensic evidence found on the crime scene. The blood stains play very important role in the time determination of the actual criminal activity, hence determination of the age of bloodstains can prove to be highly effective in solving the crimes in shorter time duration. This information can provide a good perceptions regarding the victim time of death or to create a link between the suspects to the crime scene at the time when crime was committed. These area has attracted much attention worldwide over the years of various researchers since very few techniques such as electron paramagnetic resonance, high-performance liquid chromatography, quantification of RNA degradation and hyperspectral imaging [20, 21, 22]. In the review published by Bremmer et al. [23] they mention about the invasive techniques such as HPLC method, RNA analysis and EPR. Hyperspectral imaging are applied for the same problem. Even though HSI is a promising technology it has high error rate of about 2.7 days as per Edelman et al. [22].
Research has been done where the application of AFM is explored to study morphological changes of red blood cells (RBCs) to determine the relation with the time of death of individual. Wu et al. [24] has studied, the time-dependent, morphological changes of RBC in three different conditions such as room-temperature condition (controlled), outdoor environmental condition (uncontrolled) and low-temperature condition (controlled) using AFM on clean glass or newly peeled mica. They found that the substrate types have different effects on cellular morphology of RBC. Further, the RBC showed typical biconcave shape on mica and biconcave shape or flattened shape on glass, also the mean volume of RBCs on mica was significantly larger than that of cells on glass. In relation to the time, the changes in cell volume and adhesive force of RBC under the controlled room-temperature condition were similar to those under the uncontrolled outdoor-environmental condition as the time lapse. However, under the controlled low-temperature condition, the changes in cell volume happened mainly due to the RBCs collapse and the adhesive force curves exhibited the high alternations in RBC viscoelasticity. They concluded that AFM has significant application in forensic medicine or investigations, in relation to the estimation of age of bloodstain. Figure 2 shows the morphological comparison of RBCs on mica (a) and glass.
Morphological comparison of RBCs on mica (a) and glass (c) and (d). (a) and (d) RBCs in typical biconcave shape. (c) A flattened RBC. (a1) presents a height profile extracted from the cross section indicated by the dashed line in (a). The AFM-measured concave depth (CD) and width (CW) (FWHM) of RBC are 368.2 nm and 3.125 mm, respectively. (c1) and (d1) present the height profiles from the dashed lines in (c) and (d), respectively. The CD and CWin (d) are 219.6 nm and 2.561 mm, respectively. (b) and (e) present histograms of CD (b) and CW (e) of RBCs on various substrates. (f) and (g) indicate the differences of cell volume (f) and adhesive force (g) between RBCs on mica and on glass.
Chen and Cai did study on the morphological changes in a whole erythrocyte and of the erythrocyte membrane surface ultrastructure using tapping mode atomic force microscopy (TM-AFM) on mica substrate exposed in air over a 5-day period. They observed that the erythrocyte showed deformation of whole cell and membrane surface of unfixed erythrocytes as the time lapse. After 0.5 days of exposure, the fissures and cell shrinkage was observed and at 2.5 days of exposure, the development of nanometer-scale protuberances was observed, also the protuberances number increases with increasing time. Hence the present study presented the application that the changes of cell shape and cell membrane surface ultrastructure can prove to be helpful to estimate the time of death [25].
Lamzin and Khayrullin in their work studied the changes of RBC membranes stiffness in sRBC and the form and size of RBC probed using AFM by storing samples for 35 days at standard temperature conditions as shown in Figure 3. Their research revealed that statistically significant increase of YM values of RBC were observed as well as alteration of their form to echinocytes and spheroechinocytes of sRBC within 35 days at +4°C was noticed. They mentioned that this work can prove to be useful as an immediate criteria for applicability of sRBC for blood transfusion [26]. Marco Girasole et al. has exploited the full potential of atomic force microscopy (AFM) to investigate various characteristic of the erythrocytes’ life, death and interaction with the environment. As per Marco Girasole et al. [27] AFM is still a continuously growing technique which can be applied for studying more variant information in relation to the RBCs biochemical or biophysical status at different environmental conditions.
The AFM image of the dry specimen prepared from sRBC after 1 day (a) and 35 days (b) of storage.
Threes Smijs et al. applied atomic force microscopy to investigate the elasticity of RBCs from the peripheral zone of 4–8 day old bloodstains. They observed that the elasticity of six RBCs from a 5 day old bloodstain seemed homogenous with a mean Young’s modulus of 1.6 ± 0.4 GPa. As the time lapse, a significant age effect was observed in RBC elasticity that is on 4 days: 0.8 ± 0.1 GPa; 5 days: 1.7 ± 0.9 GPa; 6 days: 2.3 ± 0.6 Gpa; 7 days: 4.5 ± 0.6 GPa; 8 days: 6.0 ± 1.8 GPa; probe spring constants 25.16–67.48 N/m. They found that a bloodstain age determination with a 24 h precision only for 6–7 day old stains can be done. The silicon tip condition was regularly checked using scanning electron microscopy as an increase in bluntness was noticed after four to six cell indentations [28].
Cavalcanti and Silva studied biophysical properties that is morphology and elasticity of RBCs using atomic force microscopy. They aimed to investigate the time since death (TSD) from blood smears by analyzing changes occurring in the RBCs of a group of voluntary. Further, they also investigated that whether any difference in TSD analysis occurs on three different surfaces such as glass, metal, or ceramic after blood smears deposition occurs on these surfaces. They calculated force × distance curves obtained from RBCs membrane surface deformation as a function of time. They observed that there is no appreciable difference in the structure of RBCs over 28 days but significant differences were noticed on glass, metal, or ceramic surfaces. They concluded that the use of AFM in crime scenes still requires the development for accurate estimation of the TSD for blood spots [29]. Strasser et al. also explored erythrocytes in a blood sample to study elasticity changes in a fresh blood spot on a glass slide. At first they found presence of several RBCs in “doughnut-like” structure, which could easily be detected due to their typical “doughnut-like” appearance further the elasticity pattern showed a decrease over time which may be due to alteration of the blood spot during the drying and coagulation process. They concluded that these preliminary data can demonstrates the capacity for development of calibration curves, which have potential in estimation of bloodstain ages during forensic investigations [30]. Different body fluids are also been utilized for the extraction of DNA because of its use as a forensic tool during investigation. AFM can add in the characterization of the “trace DNA” deposited on various surface during any mutual contact. The stiffness of DNA’s double strand can be discriminated from its single strand and counting of the copied DNA can be done by using AFM [31].
Document examination involves techniques which causes less or no damage to the documents and allows maximum retrieval of data from it. The determination of the sequence of strokes is still a big problem in the field of forensic document examination. Till today the optical microscope are used with different illumination methods and magnifications in determination of sequence of strokes. But the use of same does not provide a reliable results in every cases because of the interaction of the light with crossing ink lines, the depth of focus, low resolving power as well as low magnification range of the optical microscopes. Kasas et al. [32] studied line crossing problem on paper printed form dot matrix printers and different ball-point pens on plain paper. They found that AFM produces qualitatively similar results and overcomes some of the scanning electron microscope limitations, i.e., vacuum and specimen’s conductive coating. Figure 4 shows the cut-outs of crossings of ball-point pen strokes on dot matrix printed letters in newer printer ribbon and worn printer ribbon. They concluded that AFM is a powerful alternative to the SEM for line crossing problem. Brandao et al. in their work has focused on the problem of counterfeiting which involves making an imitation or copy manufactured without the legal sanction of the government. They explored AFM and Raman techniques for the examination of both authentic and counterfeit Brazilian driver licenses, and national and international banknotes. The AFM results showed that the parameters, such as roughness and topographic profiles of the chalcographic region of banknotes and Brazilian driver licenses, can be successfully visually discriminate between authentic and counterfeit documents. They also showed the application of statistical analysis using the Student\'s t-test which showed that the asymmetry values obtained from series numbers and micro-letter regions can help in identifying the counterfeiting. They also indicated that the paper used to counterfeit the Brazilian driver license and the real banknote was an “office” type with inkjet printing by the use of the AFM technique [33]. Further the combination can also help to recognize the crossing lines between ballpoint pens, and ballpoint pens and printers, to discriminate between genuine and counterfeit medicines, to identify counterfeit documents produced from washing methods, to determine the microstructural information on textile fibers (discriminate between carpets, clothes, cars, etc.) in a crime scene investigation. The combination provides fast, very reliable, and reproducible analysis.
Cut-outs of crossings of ball-point pen strokes on dot matrix printed letters. (a) Newer printer ribbon; (b) worn printer ribbon.
Chen et al. in their work highlighted the quality of AFM compared to SEM for forensic forgery investigations in relation to crossing lines. They examined topographic features of four papers namely duplicator, copper printing, glassine and kraft paper on which crossing lines were done with three different types of oil-based pens as shown in Figure 5. For all pens they establish similar differences in height profiles analogous to the inks accumulations at the places where the first pen stroke overlay with the edge of second pen stroke. The work do showed the usefulness of AFM imaging to detect crossing lines under the selected test conditions [15]. As per Ellen, AFM imaging technique can provide high potential in forensic document examination especially in cases to study crossing lines and document forgery cases which can further be explored [34]. Although the many research is been done to prove the usefulness of AFM imaging to detect crossing lines but the overall paper surface roughness hampers the detection of erased, partially erased lines or slightly printed ink patterns on the pages. The height profiles of ink streaks on documents differs on the different types of the paper as the absorption differs. These hinder the correct interpretation of the height images. Though if AFM imaging is applied in these types of investigations the confirmation can only be achieved by usage of other instruments such as Raman spectroscopy to convey the final crucial decisive information.
Duplicator paper (1), copper printing paper (2), glassine paper (3) and kraft paper (4); (a) topographic image, (b) amplitude image.
Hair can prove to be a useful evidence in crimes in relation to determine the history of drug intake and abuse as well as exposure to toxins as the chemical composition of hair does not change by the external environment. Hair is the most encountered evidence in a forensic investigation and can act as a good source of DNA. The mitochondrial DNA present in the hair shaft and nuclear DNA is mostly within the root sheath paly important role in DNA examination [35]. AFM offers unique advantages for analysis of hair surface, primarily due to the high image resolution as well as an ease of sample preparation. Durkan and Wang employed atomic force microscopy in a forensic approach to distinguish between different hair care products on the basis of the deposits left behind. They studied AFM techniques on hair samples that which were washed/treated with a number of different shampoos/conditioners and 2-in-1 products as shown in Figure 6. They found that the exocuticle carries a negative charge and gets deposits on unwashed hair with a mean roughness of up to 50 nm. Further they found that washing hair with shampoos reduces the roughness of hair + deposits to typically below 10 nm also the 2-in-1 products, conditioners or shampoos shows deposits that cover the entire surface, with roughness up to 30 nm. They concluded that the measurement of surface roughness combined with images of the resulting surface deposits can prove effective to distinguish between the effects of different hair care products [17].
(a) AFM image of unwashed human hair. Scale bar is 5 lm. (b) The same image after flattening, where the debris on the hair is now more prominent. (c) Side-lit 3D representation of an area of hair revealing that particulates and deposits are relatively uniformly distributed across the hair surface. Scale bar is 3 lm. (d) Smaller scale image showing deposits on hair, away from particulates and cuticle edges. Scale bar is 200 nm. (e) Cross-section through topography of a 35 lm long section of hair with four cuticle edges in the range 200–500 nm thick with a lateral spacing approximately 7 lm, and where the deposits can be seen as ripples/bumps. (f) AFM topography image revealing woodgrain striations, characteristic of the exocuticle. (g) Cross-section through a clean hair devoid of deposits, for comparison to
The surface topography of human hair is defined by the cuticles which helps in cosmetic properties determination of the hair. The cuticles condition has the potential to aid in the medical diagnosis and forensic sciences. AFM offer unique advantages in hair surface analysis as it provides high resolution image and the simplicity of sample preparation. Gurden used an algorithm for the automatic examination of AFM images of human hair. By using a series of descriptors such as tilt angle, step height and cuticle density, the cuticular structure of hair was characterized and quantitatively investigated. They studied 38 AFM images consisting of hair samples untreated and bleached hair samples along with examination of the root and distal ends of the hair fiber. The multivariate classification technique partial least squares discriminant analysis was used to test the capability of the algorithm for further characterization of the images according to the hair properties. They were able to classify 86% hair images correctly. They study the classification of hair properties based on several cuticular descriptors by calculating it form the height images of various hair parts. The cuticular descriptors provided information on hair surface properties which can be correlate between the hair structure characteristics and environmental conditions the hairs are exposed to. Though the direct forensic relevance of this work was not established but the study do created extensive database of hair image along its mechanical properties [36].
Jeong et al. [18] have given an interesting contribution by studying the effects of aging on normal Korean hair diameter and surface features using AFM. They examine 60 Korean volunteers of various ages who had no hair diseases and studied hair diameter, hair surface, cuticular descriptors and micro-scale mechanical properties to determine their associations with aging. They found that hair diameter increases for the first 20–30 years of life and later showed decrease. AFM images of most of the younger subjects showed clear scale edges of hair while of older subjects revealed dilapidated structures, poorly defined scale edges and undulated surfaces. The cuticular descriptors, surface roughness showed increase significantly with age. Also the force to distance analysis confirmed its dependence on age. They concluded that aging causes changes in hair diameter and surface structure. These work done by Jeong et al. do contribute in estimating the age from forensic trace evidences like hair. The hair surface area studies were done by Tomes et al. using both SEM and AFM which showed little difference in quality of surface profiles obtained. For forensic hair imaging, the minimally invasive AFM technique can be preferred over SEM [37].
AFM is also used to investigate the effects of ethnicity, fatigue and water absorption on the tensile strength of hair and found in different ethnic hair types namely Caucasian, Asian and African and the results indicated that they have different mechanical properties [38]. Seshadri did the similar study on the tensile strength of hair by imaging the cuticular structure of hair. They found that hair shows stress-strain curve for keratinous fiber. Also the chemical, mechanical damage and conditioner treatment does not have any effect on the stress-strain curve or its tensile properties [39]. DelRio and Cook [19] provided interesting data of hair samples untreated virgin hairs and conditioned and bleached hairs. They stated an indentation modulus of 2.4 ± 1.1 GPa and 1.8 ± 0.9 GPa respectively for virgin and the bleached hairs samples while for the conditioned hairs, the indentation modulus varied between 0.05 and 0.5 GPa. They performed all the measurements on a 5 by 5 μm area.
Diatoms are a group of algae found in oceans and fresh waters possessing tough silica wall (SiO2) which is resistant to decay. Diatoms plays very crucial role in cases of drowning to determine whether it is antimortem or postmortem drowning, hence proving useful in forensic investigation. The recovery of diatoms from different organs, their quantitative and qualitative composition examination prove to be very trustworthy proof to determine the place and time of drowning in many cases [40]. They are studied in forensic geoscience in relation to transfer from different environments to clothing to obtain information of the crime scene and the perpetrator [41]. Newer techniques namely nuclear magnetic resonance, AFM, inductively coupled plasma (ICP) hyphenated technologies, fluorimetry and automatic diatom identification and classification are also been used for diatom study. AFM is used to study the diatoms morphological characteristics which can act as an indicator of its location, its growth cycle henceforward demonstrating its usefulness in forensic application. AFM has the potential to differentiate diatoms on the basis of its feature and can individualized atoms by scanning the objects that are 8″ long and having a diameter of 0.5″. Even the largest diatoms can be scanned in this range also the technique has the additional advantage of scanning the object in vertical and horizontal axis [42].
Almqvist et al. explored the possibilities of AFM to study diatoms in relation to its biomineralization and micromechanical properties. They studied the silica shell of the diatom Naviculapelliculosa (Bréb.) Hilse. The structure was imaged and the shell’s micromechanical properties were studied in semi-quantitatively manner. The results indicated that the diatom’s overall hardness and elasticity are same as that of silicas. Figure 7 shows the separated epitheca and hypotheca of one cell. They also showed that certain areas of the shell were significantly harder or more elastic which can be detect in different crystalline phases [43].
The separated epitheca and hypotheca of one cell [
In most the crime, fingerprints are the most common type of evidence found on to the crime scene. A fingerprints are impression of friction ridges on human finger. The discovery, visualization of latent fingerprints constitutes an important part of any crime investigation. Finger prints consist of exogenous and endogenous compounds. The endogenous part mainly includes the skin remnants, sweat gland and sebaceous secretions along with many different inorganic and organic substances. The finger prints remains unchanged throughout the life of an individual hence they play very important role in person identification. Usually visible and latent fingerprints are found at the crime scene. The visible prints do not require any aid to be visualized while the latent prints are invisible thus require physical, chemical and instrumental techniques to be visualized [44]. Very few researchers have tried to explore the use of AFM in fingerprint investigation.
Atomic force microscopy technique highlight its use to study the deposition characteristics and detection efficiency of fingerprint details. Direct application of the AFM is not soon in the examination of comparison of the fingerprint but the use of AFM is shown in the fingerprint cases by some researchers. Jones et al. used AFM to characterize the various substrates erstwhile of fingermark deposition in relation to the surface roughness, maximum height variation, skew and kurtosis. The finger prints were developed using iron oxide powder on formica, polyethylene and unplasticised polyvinylchloride surfaces [45]. As per Goddard et al. the limitation of the AFM height imaging to study the fingerprint ridge is the surface roughness when it is in the same order of magnitude as the height of the ridges as shown in Figure 8 [46]. The same problem avail with lifted finger prints as well as the prints present on the metal surfaces. The roughness of the surface on which the finger prints are present is main obstacle for routine applications of AFM in fingerprint analyses. In case were the surface roughness can be reduced atomic force microscopy can be useful in recovering the missing details that are essential to reconstruct a fingerprint. This problem was overcome by using scanning Kelvin probe force microscopy performed by Williams and McMurray. They studied the fingerprints deposited on metallic surfaces. They were able to retrieve sufficient ridge detail of fingerprint which were physically removed. Furthermore they demonstrated the use of Volta potential mapping to examine the fingerprint present on planar brass substrates [47].
AFM images from the polished and printed brass surface showing 3D image of part of ridge detail.
Gunshot residues (GSR) mainly contains unburned or partially burnt propellant powder, particles from the ammunition primer, grease, smoke, metal residues and lubricants from the fired cartridge while the organic compounds in GSR originate from propellant and firearm lubricants [48, 49]. The analysis of the inorganic GSR can evidence to be useful in forensic reconstruction of shooting incidents. Techniques such as neutron activation analysis, ICP, atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), and SEM combined to energy dispersion analysis are used for inorganic GSR analysis [50, 51, 52, 53]. Neutron activation analysis are used for analysis of barium and antimony and for lead analysis conventional AAS and ICP are useful. High-resolution ICP-MS are reported to identify lead, barium and bismuth concentrations upto 1 ng/mL [54]. SEM-EDX is considered as golden standard of forensic GSR analysis as it has the ability to characterize GSR both chemically and morphologically. The SEM analysis is a time-consuming process. The organic GSR analysis are done by using gas chromatography, HPLC or GS-MS [55]. For both inorganic and organic GSR characterization time of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry, Raman micro-spectroscopy and ablation-ICP/MS are reported [56, 57]. Apart from these, AFM technique have shown a great applicability in forensic GSR analysis on the basis of its morphological structure in relation to solving the crime [58].
The estimation of shooting distance plays a vital role in firearm cases also when combined with other evidence it helps in reconstructing shooting events. The bullet entrance hole appearance and the GSR patterns around the wound are usually used to estimate the firing distance [59, 60, 61]. Most commonly used color test Griess test along with series of modified and improved Griess tests are used to determine the presence of nitrites and hence for estimation of muzzle to target distance. Mou et al. reported the application of atomic force microscopy and Fourier transform infrared attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy. They use the techniques for firing distance estimation or muzzle-to-target shooting distance as well as the manufacturers of the cartridge and its powder. In their work, standard procedures contain test firing at various distances along with the evidence pattern comparison. They observed that for the samples the Winchester SuperX and CCI cartridges GSR particle sizes increased as the shooting distance decreased. From the AFM images of GSR they found that particles size distribution is inversely proportional to the shooting distance. AFM can be applied for the investigation of various materials unrelatedly to their conductivity. AFM is a non-destructive technique which helps in measurements in either air, liquid, or controlled atmospheres thus allowing the intact sample to be characterized without any pretreatments of the samples. The AFM images of GSR particles showed with different shapes like spherical, twins-like, irregular, boomerang-like, non-spherical, heart-like, rod-like and cube/rectangular-like as shown in Figure 9. The results indicated that the particles size distribution was inversely proportional to the shooting distance [62]. As per Jones when AFM is used for the GSR particles analysis the powder get stuck on the probe tip, thus drastically changing the shape and size of the powder particles resulting into the newer shape formation hence significantly alters the subsequent analysis [63]. This could be considered as a drawback of AFM for the analysis of fine GSR particles. But these same was overcome by Mou et al. which prove to be useful in firing distances determination.
AFM images of GSR particles showing various particle shapes, twins-like (a), heart-like (b), boomerang-like (c), and rod and cube like (d). The bullet type is CCI and the shooting distance is 10 ft.
D’Uffizi et al. in their work examine the GSR particles deposited on the bullet and on the shooter hands using combination of scanning electron microscopy + energy-dispersive spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy and selected-area X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The GSR samples were collected using double-sided tape. They studied the micromechanical and micromorphological features of gunshot residue particles. Of importance in this investigation the use of AFM itself (Nanoscope IIIa Digital Instruments microscope, tapping mode, frequency: 250–390 kHz) was done to examine the height and phase imaging [64]. Some research has shown the applicability of AFM in context to forensic gunshot and explosive investigation with regards to physicochemical characterization that can be detected on hairs and in between the ridges of fingermarks.
The mechanical properties of the organic and inorganic particles present in GSR and explosives, were studied by Xu et al. They showed the application of AFM techniques, including force volume mode, phase imaging as well as Kelvin probe force microscopy with resonance enhancement for dielectric property mapping was used to map the local physical properties of mock explosive materials. These work will allow the identification of sub-micrometer heterogeneities in relation to their electrical and mechanical properties [65].
One of the recent advancements showed the use of AFM as a characterization technique for explosives detection. The surface morphology of explosives such as triamino-trinitro-benzene, plastic-bonded explosives, ammonium perchlorate was analyzed through AFM [66, 67, 68]. The surface morphology of such explosives helps in understanding the different characteristics of explosives which can help in identification [69].
Accumulation of explosives namely 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and triacetone triperoxide (TATP) in chemically treated hair sample was studied by Oxley et al. [70] using AFM and SEM. The interaction of TNT and TATP as a function of chemical pretreatment with acetonitrile, neutral and alkaline hydrogen peroxide, methanolic potassium hydroxide and potassium permanganate was studied and further the morphological changes which resulted from these treatments were studied. Hair examination surface showed different degrees of smoothening. Density functional theory calculations were employed to known the possible nucleation sites of TATP microcrystals on the hair samples. From their calculations study they concluded that the dark hair adsorbs explosives better than light hair. The authors have showed the use of AFM on their previously described applications of AFM in hair structure investigations [17, 36, 71]. Studied reported shows that AFM play a vital role in trace evidence analysis in post-explosion cases. These studies indicate that recently the potential of the AFM technology has been explored in relation to the forensic evidences analysis and the full potential of technology is yet to be discovered. The possibility of mapping a number of physical and chemical material properties prove to be a worthy contribution in distinguishing the different components in complex heterogeneous structure of explosive residues samples. The AFM technology is only a complementary technique its use can be enhanced if combined with other analytical technique which can prove to be of great importance in forensic context for not only examination of GSR or post explosives residues but also for other trace evidences found on to the crime scene.
Valle et al. [72] used AFM to investigate and identify several characteristics of firearms. Replica molding of the head of these cases was done using the fired cartridge cases and the surface morphology of replicated areas at the breech faces were studied. In this framework, the method showed reproducibility of different copies of the similar sample indicating that they are indistinguishable over all the accessible length scales.
Researchers have also shown the utility of AFM in fire investigation cases. In fire cases the determination of source of fires plays very important role in order to validate [73, 74]. In fire cases, molten electric marks are found on the electric arc bead. Examination of these marks can help to determine the source of the fire. Gao et al. used OM and AFM to examine a molten mark on copper wire by artificially creating the molten mark inflicted on the wire under laboratory conditions. The AFM results showed that the technique is an brilliant add-on to examine the copper molten mark and thus provide excellent data to confirm the actual causes of fire [75].
Soils vary among different areas and possess characteristics due to their natural effects and transfers made by human being and other living beings with time. Examination of soil in forensic context can help in determination of crime location. Investigative and interpreting the soil or sediment can help in their origin determination [76]. Konopinski et al. studied the grain surface texture of quartz sand using AFM. AFM analysis provide topographical data from the grain surface that permits statistical analysis, 3D reconstruction and quantitative valuations of the microscopic surface textures. AFM offers numerous statistical methods which can discriminate between grain surface textures and also helps in creating automated database to compile and generate reports. AFM has great potential to be used for forensic analysis where sample preservation is extremely valuable. As per Konopinski et al. using AFM helps in quantifiable measurement of quartz grain surface textures which opens up a number of possibilities for forensic quartz grain surface texture analysis as it provides a corroborative independent verification of quartz type classifications as shown in Figure 10 [14].
Topography (a) and amplitude (b) maps offset from clearly visible is the interface between two different surface textures.
Sullivan et al. in their work investigated the surface characteristics of plastic wrapping materials of forensic interest in soil environments in order to determine the environmental factors that influence the degradation process of such polymers. They buried polyethylene bags and poly (vinyl chloride) sheeting in model environments surrounding different soil types, moisture content, pH and temperature. Atomic force microscopy was used to study the changes which results on the polymer surface at a nanometre level. They found that over a 2-year burial period, the degradation of polyethylene was greater by an increased moisture content and a raised soil pH. The plasticizer content of poly (vinyl chloride) was got affected by burial, thus leaching of the same was observed in all environments continually over the burial period. The surface roughness measurement of plastics using atomic force microscopy was sensitive to the burial environment and demonstrates the potential of technique to measure relatively subtle changes to burial items when exposed to different environments conditions [77].
Pressure sensitive adhesive tapes are utilized for various purposes in criminal activities such as packaging of controlled drugs, the restraint of an individual during robbery and offences against a victim, the enclosure of explosive devices and for concealment. To identify chemical constituents techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and pyrolisis–gas chromatography–mass-spectrometry are applied in forensic science laboratories for the discrimination of PSAs. However, AFM can offer supplementary and useful analytical data on PSAs as it has the capability to map the adhesives surface morphological and mechanical properties also AFM can give nanoscopic information. With respect to forensic application it holds the ability to interpret the physical data obtained from evidence found at a crime scene and linking it to a particular suspect [16]. Figure 11 shows the AFM phase images for transparent cello, brown packaging tape and electrical insulation tape.
AFM phase images for (a) transparent cello, (b) brown packaging tape and (c) electrical insulation tape.
Fibers are an important trace evidence that can provide valued evidence to support an association of individual to a crime scene. Standard forensic examinations of man-made fibers usually involves microscopic techniques such as visible, polarized light and fluorescence microscopy as well as micro-spectrophotometry. Infrared spectroscopy is also used to identify the fiber polymer type present if two fibers are indistinguishable by microscopic techniques. Man-made fibers namely polyamides, polyacrylics and polyesters are analyzed using techniques such as FTIR, circular dicroism, Raman spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, transmission electron microscopy and wide angle X-ray diffraction [78]. Forensic comparison of fibers is mainly focused on morphological analysis and spectral analysis. Shady Farah et al. in their study, analyzed polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fiber on three different materials such as plain fibers of pet, a common textile fiber and plastic material. They studied the morphological feature of the fiber using AFM [79].
The ability of the AFM to reconnoiter the nanoscopic morphological changes in the surfaces of fabrics was studied by Canetta et al. This study was focused on two natural namely cotton and wool and a regenerated cellulose (viscose) textile fibres. All the fiber samples were exposed to different environmental stresses for different lengths of times. The surface texture parameters of the environmentally stressed fabrics was measure quantitatively as a function of the exposure time from the obtained AFM images. In the AFM images the nanoscale the finest details of the surfaces of three weathered fabrics was clearly distinguishable between the detrimental effects of the executed environmental conditions. The heights and roughness’s of the unexposed and exposed fiber surfaces was measured by analyzing the obtained AFM images. Figure 12 shows the AFM height images of cotton fibre exposed to loam and riverside soils, and pond and sea waters for 2 and 6 weeks. This study confirmed that the AFM can prove to be a very powerful tool in forensic examination of textile fibers to provide significant fiber examination as an evidence due to its proficiency of distinguishing between different environmental exposures or forced damages to fibers [80].
AFM height images of cotton fibre exposed to loam and riverside soils, and pond and sea waters for 2 and 6 weeks.
In crimes involving digital evidences the data recovery plays very crucial role. Damaged SIM cards are highly useful evidence in such cases. The data obtained from such SIM cards give insights about the link between criminal and aids in future investigation. Nardi et al. used AFM for the enhancement and characterization of a forensically authenticated technique for sample processing and data extraction from a damaged SIM card. They develop a process to view the underside of the embedded EPROM/flash memory arrays present in smart card microcontrollers [81, 82, 83].
Atomic force microscopy works by running a sharp tip attached to a cantilever and sensor over the sample surface and measures the surface forces between the probe and the sample. As the cantilever runs laterally the sample surface, it moves up and down due to the surface features and the cantilever deflects accordingly. This deflection is computed using an optical sensor, with the laser beam being reflected on the back of the cantilever onto the light detector. AFM provides various advantages over other techniques. AFM can operate in ambient air or under liquid, it does not need to be operated in a vacuum hence it is increasingly being used to image biological samples as well as nanoparticles. AFM has resolution in the order of fractions of a nanometer and provide a 3D imaging technique. The AFM allows the topographic characterization of surfaces at resolutions not attainable by optical microscopy. The lateral resolution of the AFM is limited by the tip size and shape and is typically on the order of a few nanometers. The height (
Undeniably, the AFM power to measure topography, morphology, adhesion forces, elastic modulus, dielectric properties and energy dissipation characteristics via minimal invasion. Furthermore, the 3-Dimentional multi-parameter function provide information add-on in cases of trace fusion imaging. Considering the practicality, sampling and sample logistics are still remains desirable in AFM, though with respect to SEM the tedious work of sample preparation as well as high vacuum settings are not required. AFM has its advantages while studying, optimizing, understanding and validating techniques for examination of trace evidences found at the scene of crime. Also, microtraces evidences physiochemical features imaging can be done which can assist in classification and comparison. Though it has such advantages, roughness of substrate do hamper one or other way while studying the sample height measurements. Certain researchers have answer to this solution by accompanying surface roughness along with larger scan areas in supplementary phase imaging. In practice, AFMs can image rough surfaces as long as the roughness does not surpass the limit of scanner in vertical,
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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This new technology can be used in various wireless power transfer applications with different specifications, necessities, and restrictions such as in electric vehicles and consumer electronics. A typical ICWPT system involves a loosely coupled magnetic coupling structure and power electronics circuitries as an integrated system. In this chapter, the emphasis is placed on the magnetic coupling structure, which is the most important part of the system. Although this technology has motivated considerable research and development in the past two decades, still there are several theoretical studies such as the level of the operating frequency, operating at high secondary circuit quality factor, coupling efficiency, etc., that need further investigation to fully develop the governing mathematical relationships of this technology.",book:{id:"5187",slug:"wireless-power-transfer-fundamentals-and-technologies",title:"Wireless Power Transfer",fullTitle:"Wireless Power Transfer - Fundamentals and Technologies"},signatures:"Ali Abdolkhani",authors:[{id:"179618",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Abdolkhani",slug:"ali-abdolkhani",fullName:"Ali Abdolkhani"}]},{id:"78626",title:"Electricity Storage in Local Energy Systems",slug:"electricity-storage-in-local-energy-systems",totalDownloads:221,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Traditionally, power system operation has relied on supply side flexibility from large fossil-based generation plants to managed swings in supply and/or demand. An increase in variable renewable generation has increased curtailment of renewable electricity and variations in electricity prices. Consumers can take advantage of volatile electricity prices and reduce their bills using electricity storage. With reduced fossil-based power generation, traditional methods for balancing supply and demand must change. Electricity storage offers an alternative to fossil-based flexibility, with an increase expected to support high levels of renewable generation. Electrochemical storage is a promising technology for local energy systems. In particular, lithium-ion batteries due to their high energy density and high efficiency. However, despite their 89% decrease in capital cost over the last 10 years, lithium-ion batteries are still relatively expensive. Local energy systems with battery storage can use their battery for different purposes such as maximising their self-consumption, minimising their operating cost through energy arbitrage which is storing energy when the electricity price is low and releasing the energy when the price increases, and increasing their revenue by providing flexibility services to the utility grid. Power rating and energy capacity are vitally important in the design of an electricity storage system. A case study is given for the purpose of providing a repeatable methodology for optimally sizing of a battery storage system for a local energy system. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Ribeiro-Barros",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171036/images/system/171036.jpg",institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"University of Lisbon",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",value:91,count:1}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. 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This will ensure that we discover ways to live in our world that allows us and other beings to flourish. We can no longer rely on medicalized approaches to health that wait for people to become ill before attempting to treat them. We need to live in harmony with nature and rediscover the beauty and balance in our everyday lives and surroundings, which contribute to our well-being and that of all other creatures on the planet. This topic will provide insights and knowledge into how to achieve this change in health care that is based on ecologically sustainable practices.
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