Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10754",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The Nature, Causes, Effects and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment",title:"The Nature, Causes, Effects and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book examines global warming and climate change over the past five decades in mainly subtropical and tropical countries. The amount and types of changes in these countries vary with the environment but are often less than those occurring in the Arctic and northern countries. Chapters address such topics as the controversy surrounding global warming, the effects of climate change on agriculture, changes in land use and hydrology, and more.",isbn:"978-1-83968-612-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-611-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-613-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94777",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"the-nature-causes-effects-and-mitigation-of-climate-change-on-the-environment",numberOfPages:434,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8994a915a306910a01cbe2027aa2139b",bookSignature:"Stuart A. Harris",publishedDate:"March 9th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10754.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3996,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:15,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 1st 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 1st 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 30th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 19th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 17th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"12539",title:"Dr.",name:"Stuart",middleName:"Arthur",surname:"Harris",slug:"stuart-harris",fullName:"Stuart Harris",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12539/images/system/12539.jpg",biography:"Stuart Arthur Harris has a BSc (Honours), MSc, and Ph.D. in Geology and a DSc in Geography from the Queen Mary University of London. His experience includes geology, water supply, and engineering. Before becoming Government Soil Surveyor in Guyana, Dr. Harris engaged in soil survey work in Egypt and Iraq for the consulting firm Hunting Technical Services. He also taught in the geography departments of the University of Chicago, Wilfred Laurier University, and the University of Kansas before joining the University of Calgary in 1969. The National Research Council of Canada asked Dr. Harris to study the relationship of climate to permafrost in 1973 and thus he carried out detailed studies of the permafrost landforms in northwest Canada, China, Iceland, the Alps, Poland, Russia, China, Mongolia, New Zealand, and Kazakhstan, and on the Tibetan Plateau. Dr. Harris has published more than 200 papers, books, and reports. In 1996, he received the Nikolai Mihailovich Prjevalsky Medal from the Russian Geographical Society for his research on Alpine permafrost.",institutionString:"University of Calgary",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Calgary",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"870",title:"Climate Change",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-sustainability-climate-change"}],chapters:[{id:"77321",title:"Global Warming and Climate Change (GWCC) Realities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97820",slug:"global-warming-and-climate-change-gwcc-realities",totalDownloads:235,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The study attempted to investigate the urgency of the global warming and climate change by analyzing the available data from the secondary sources. The document analysis technique was used to examine the available literature. When it comes to the urgency of global warming and climate change, the study showed that there are two schools of thought. One is in support of the motion, claiming that global warming is a real phenomenon triggered by anthropogenic behavior, while the other is opposed to the motion, claiming that global warming and climate change are complicated phenomena, and that forecasting future climates is difficult due to the various players involved, about which climate specialists know little or nothing. Based on document analysis, study infers that there is certain uncertainty about the future of the climate, because climate always changes, and it cannot be certainly affirmed that the climate change is man- made (anthropogenic activities) or is due to natural occurrence. However, it is evident that the global surface temperature, borehole temperature, sea surface temperature, and the sea level is increasing over the years. The study suggests that for the humanity to be certain about their future, treating the global warming and climate change as an act of urgency and working towards prevention and mitigation by limiting the production of greenhouse gases and mindfully consuming the natural resources would be the plausible solution for the larger problem of Global Warming and Climate change.",signatures:"Yonten Chophel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77321",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77321",authors:[{id:"351571",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Yonten",surname:"Chophel",slug:"yonten-chophel",fullName:"Yonten Chophel"}],corrections:null},{id:"79908",title:"Causes and Mechanisms of Global Warming/Climate Change",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101416",slug:"causes-and-mechanisms-of-global-warming-climate-change",totalDownloads:171,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Comparison of the average mean surface air temperature around the world during 1951–1978 with that for 2010–2019 shows that the bulk of the warming is around the North Atlantic/Arctic region in contrast to the Antarctic ice sheet. Obviously, the temperature change is not global. Since there is a substantial difference between solar heat absorption between the equator and the poles, heat must be moving to the North Pole by surface ocean currents and tropical cyclones. The cold, dry Arctic air coming from Siberia picks up heat and moisture from the open oceans, making the sea water denser so that the warm water sinks slowly down to c. 2000 m. A deep-water thermohaline flow (THC) transports the excess hot (c. 18°C) water south to Antarctica. It is replaced by a cold (c. 2°C) surface water from that area. The latter quickly cool western Europe and Siberia, and glaciers start to advance in Greenland within about 10 years. The THC flow decreases in Interglacials, causing the increased build-up of heat in the Northern Hemisphere (c. 60% currently stored in the Atlantic Ocean), and the ice cover in the Arctic Ocean thaws. Several such cycles may take place during a single major cold event.",signatures:"Stuart A. Harris",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79908",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79908",authors:[{id:"12539",title:"Dr.",name:"Stuart",surname:"Harris",slug:"stuart-harris",fullName:"Stuart Harris"}],corrections:null},{id:"79474",title:"Social Representation of Climate Change among Young Spanish University Students",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98258",slug:"social-representation-of-climate-change-among-young-spanish-university-students",totalDownloads:82,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Understanding the similarities and differences between what the population think and the available science on the causes, processes, consequences and solutions of anthropogenic alteration of climatic phenomena opens a window to demonstrate that the common culture surrounding Climate Change (CC) can have a greater influence than its scientific representation, since the weight of certain variables associated with the ways in which this common culture is constructed in societies generates differences in the degree of importance given to the phenomenon. Understanding the social representation of CC among university students is of great interest, since communication about it is usually restricted to the field of research and its threat potential has barely reached the general public, causing a discontinuous flow that does not connect significantly with climate science, resulting in different beliefs about climate change and a common culture around it that generates doubts and uncertainties.",signatures:"Amor Escoz-Roldán, Pablo Ángel Meira-Cartea and José Gutiérrez-Pérez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79474",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79474",authors:[{id:"352283",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Amor",surname:"Escoz-Roldán",slug:"amor-escoz-roldan",fullName:"Amor Escoz-Roldán"},{id:"423443",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo Ángel",surname:"Meira-Cartea",slug:"pablo-angel-meira-cartea",fullName:"Pablo Ángel Meira-Cartea"},{id:"423444",title:"Dr.",name:"José",surname:"Gutiérrez-Pérez",slug:"jose-gutierrez-perez",fullName:"José Gutiérrez-Pérez"}],corrections:null},{id:"76898",title:"The Relationship between Land Use and Climate Change: A Case Study of Nepal",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98282",slug:"the-relationship-between-land-use-and-climate-change-a-case-study-of-nepal",totalDownloads:669,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Land Use and Climate change are interrelated to each other. This change influences one another at various temporal and spatial scales; however, improper land uses are the primary causal factor on climate change. It studies relevant literature and Nepal’s case to assess the relationship between land use and climate change. Similarly focuses on how land-use impacts climate change and vice versa. In recent centuries land-use change significant effects on ecological variables and climate change. Likewise, understanding the research on both topics will help decision-makers and conservation planners manage land and climate.",signatures:"Pawan Thapa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76898",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76898",authors:[{id:"349566",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Pawan",surname:"Thapa",slug:"pawan-thapa",fullName:"Pawan Thapa"}],corrections:null},{id:"79716",title:"Climate Change and Its Consequences in Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101444",slug:"climate-change-and-its-consequences-in-agriculture",totalDownloads:66,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The process of global warming over the past two centuries has become a major and challenging topic among researchers and policymakers at the international level. The process of global warming has accelerated following the increase in greenhouse gas emissions due to excessive consumption of fossil fuels after the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century. The growing trend of the population due to scientific advances in the field of medical sciences, rising levels of education, and health among human societies have had a tremendous impact on reducing mortality and increasing the global population. Consumerism and diversity in consumption patterns among human societies have caused more pressure on the earth’s natural resources and excessive use of fossil fuels for industrial production, which has exacerbated pollution and increased greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide has led. Global warming can have undesirable consequences in various fields, including agriculture, water resources, plant and animal life, and biodiversity. This chapter deals with the consequences and effects of global warming on agricultural climate indicators. Finally, some agricultural adaptation strategies with these changes are presented.",signatures:"Golam Ali Mozaffari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79716",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79716",authors:[{id:"350179",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Golam",surname:"Ali Mozaffari",slug:"golam-ali-mozaffari",fullName:"Golam Ali Mozaffari"}],corrections:null},{id:"78089",title:"Climate Smart Crops for Food Security",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99164",slug:"climate-smart-crops-for-food-security",totalDownloads:290,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"After ensuring the food security for over 50 years, the green revolution is eventually reaching its biological limits which are very much reflected by the ongoing stagnancy in yield increased over the past few decades. Meeting the increasing food demands due to increasing population is the greatest challenge for today’s plant scientists. Changing climatic conditions are posing additional threats to crop growth, productivity and yield. After successfully deploying gene editing to modify simple traits, scientists are now embarked on more ambitious adventures in genomics to combat challenges of food security in the wake of increasing population and climate change adversaries. The chapter outlines use of new technologies in tailoring crops beyond simple traits aiming to harvest the desired diversity lost during domestication and manipulating complex traits, which evolved over evolutionary timescale with special emphasis on the development of climate smart crops.",signatures:"Saima Rashid, Muhammad Bin Mushtaq, Iqra Farooq and Zulqurnain Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78089",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78089",authors:[{id:"213124",title:"Mr.",name:"Zulqurnain",surname:"Khan",slug:"zulqurnain-khan",fullName:"Zulqurnain Khan"},{id:"418116",title:"Ms.",name:"Saima",surname:"Rasheed",slug:"saima-rasheed",fullName:"Saima Rasheed"},{id:"418117",title:"Ms.",name:"Iqra",surname:"Farooq",slug:"iqra-farooq",fullName:"Iqra Farooq"},{id:"418118",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Bin Mushtaq",slug:"muhammad-bin-mushtaq",fullName:"Muhammad Bin Mushtaq"}],corrections:null},{id:"79202",title:"Pulses Farming; An Adaptive Strategy to Climate Change in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions: A Case Study of Itigi District in Singida Region, Tanzania",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100739",slug:"pulses-farming-an-adaptive-strategy-to-climate-change-in-arid-and-semi-arid-regions-a-case-study-of-",totalDownloads:47,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study assessed pulses farming as an adaptation to climate change in semi-arid areas. FGD, Household Questionnaires, Key Informant Interview and Observation were used to collect primary data from four study villages; Itigi, Ipande, Damweru and Kitopeni. A total of 106 heads of households were involved in the study through questionnaires and quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed statistically and through content analysis technique respectively. Cereals among maize, millet and sorghum have lost their economic significance among farmers while pulses including chickpea, lentils and beans are potentially currently cultivated by more farmers. Climate change effects such as shifting and shortening of rainfall season and increasing drought have contributed to the decline of cereal crop yields. Specifically shifting of rainfall season and drought interaction vitally influence the decline of cereal crop yields, F (1, 99) = 198.770, p = 0.000 and the same causes have led to the adoption of chickpea and lentils farming in the study area as shifting of rainfall season was statically significant to the adoption of pulses farming, X2 = 9.138, df = 2, p = 0.010 and drought was, X2 = 106.000, df = 3, p = 0.000 as the pulses are found adoptive drought condition and shortened rainfall season. This has enhanced food and nutrition assurance to farmers, increased household income and farmers’ livelihood.",signatures:"Julius Jackson Nyaombo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79202",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79202",authors:[{id:"347788",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Julius",surname:"Jackson Nyaombo",slug:"julius-jackson-nyaombo",fullName:"Julius Jackson Nyaombo"}],corrections:null},{id:"79367",title:"Carbon Sequestration in Agroforestry Technologies as a Strategy for Climate Change Mitigation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100036",slug:"carbon-sequestration-in-agroforestry-technologies-as-a-strategy-for-climate-change-mitigation",totalDownloads:117,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Worldwide agroforestry has been recognized as a potential greenhouse gases mitigation strategy under Kyoto protocol. And this is due to its potential in carbon sequestration. There are several agroforestry technologies with different rate in carbon sequestration. In that respect carbon sequestration can depend on type of technology, climate, time since land use change and previous land use. Our knowledge in this topic from the tropical countries such as Tanzania is how ever very limited. To address this challenge this study was undertaken in Kilombero District where the local community are practicing various agroforestry technologies. The objective of this study was to understand the carbon sequestration in different trees species in agroforestry technologies and also to understand which agroforestry technology provide the greatest benefit in term of carbon sequestration. Ecological survey was conducted and a total of 90 plot engaged in different agroforestry technologies were randomly selected from three villages of different altitudinal range. Pivot table was used in analysis and allometric equation was used for computing biomass and carbon. The result shows that Mangifera indica contributed highest carbon over all the tree species encountered during ecological survey with 189.88 Mg C ha−1. Home garden, Mixed intercropping, Parkland and Boundary with 19 514.19 MgCha−1, 648.44MgCha−1,144.79 MgCha−1 and 139.29 Mg C ha−1 respectively were the agroforestry technology practiced in Kilombero. From the results Home garden contributed more to carbon sequestration and this study results can be used to inform practitioners and policy makers on the most effective agroforestry technologies for carbon sequestration since agroforestry technologies are expected to play important role as climate change mitigation strategy.",signatures:"Lazaro Elibariki Nnko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79367",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79367",authors:[{id:"350421",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Lazaro",surname:"Elibariki Nnko",slug:"lazaro-elibariki-nnko",fullName:"Lazaro Elibariki Nnko"}],corrections:null},{id:"77614",title:"Macro Analysis of Climate Change and Agricultural Production in Myanmar",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98970",slug:"macro-analysis-of-climate-change-and-agricultural-production-in-myanmar",totalDownloads:183,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study attempts to examine the effect of climate change on agricultural production in Myanmar. The study is based on country level data of Myanmar cereal crops for the time span of 2009 to 2019 obtained from various sources such as FAO STAT and Department of Agriculture and Department of Meteorology. This study is mainly used by multiple regression model to find out the best fit in the model. The research found that a 1°C increase in temperature in the growing period may decrease with production of cereal by 3849347 ton. A 1mm increase in rainfall in the growing period may decrease production of cereal by 5762 ton. The research found that change in temperature is adversely affected on production of cereal crops in Myanmar. The policies aiming to enhance production of cereal crops should focus on adoption of climate change adaptation measures in Myanmar.",signatures:"Thida Htoo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77614",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77614",authors:[{id:"348644",title:"Dr.",name:"Thida",surname:"Htoo",slug:"thida-htoo",fullName:"Thida Htoo"}],corrections:null},{id:"77699",title:"Rainfall Trends in Humid Temperate Climate in South America: Possible Effects in Ecosystems of Espinal Ecoregion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99080",slug:"rainfall-trends-in-humid-temperate-climate-in-south-america-possible-effects-in-ecosystems-of-espina",totalDownloads:96,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In central Argentina, the annual rainfall regime shows increasing since the 2nd half of the 20th century. The aim of this work was to evaluate the long-term changes in the intensity of rainfall in the central-north region of Entre Ríos between 1945 and 2019, based only on daily precipitation records aggregated at yearly, monthly and seasonal levels. We used monthly rainfall data for the period 1945–2019 from 6 localities in Province of Entre Rios, Argentina. The change detection analysis has been conceded using Pettitt’s test, von Neumann ratio test, Buishand’s range test and standard normal homogeneity (SNH) test, while non-parametric tests including linear regression, Mann-Kendall and Spearman rho tests have been applied for trend analysis. Like the regional results, this study observed a sustained increase in monthly rainfall to the breaking point in the 1970s, but then the annual rate of increase was even higher. The average annual rainfall in the region prior to that date was 946 mm, while after the same 1150 mm, equivalent to 21.5% higher than the 1945–1977 average and 8.5% higher according to the historical average 1945–2019.",signatures:"Julian Alberto Sabattini and Rafael Alberto Sabattini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77699",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77699",authors:[{id:"327438",title:"Dr.",name:"Julian",surname:"Alberto Sabattini",slug:"julian-alberto-sabattini",fullName:"Julian Alberto Sabattini"},{id:"347614",title:"Prof.",name:"Rafael Alberto",surname:"Sabattini",slug:"rafael-alberto-sabattini",fullName:"Rafael Alberto Sabattini"}],corrections:null},{id:"76948",title:"Delineation and Dimension of Deforestation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98290",slug:"delineation-and-dimension-of-deforestation",totalDownloads:248,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Deforestation is induced by human activities, cascading into associated cost and economic benefits. The concepts, dimensions and, deforestation caused by deliberate human activities were extensively examined. The chapter also highlighted the rationale for deforestation, environmental dimension to deforestation and contributions of forestry and forest by products to livelihoods. The segmented cases and experiences to create awareness on the need to discourage deforestation were explored. While recognizing that forest provides useful support for majority of rural dwellers, the justification for forest protection is advocated. Some communities depend on forests for their main livelihood, and use medicinal therapies derived from indigenous plants found in the forest. Forest remains an important pool of biodiversity and deforestation must be avoided. The chapter conclude that awareness of the impact of deforestation by the citizenry should be encouraged and supported by policies.",signatures:"Moses Z. Sithole and Isaac A. Agholor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76948",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76948",authors:[{id:"347546",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Moses",surname:"Sithole",slug:"moses-sithole",fullName:"Moses Sithole"},{id:"348916",title:"Dr.",name:"Isaac",surname:"Agholor",slug:"isaac-agholor",fullName:"Isaac Agholor"}],corrections:null},{id:"79333",title:"Meteorological Drought and Temperature in Sudano-Sahelian Region of Nigeria under Increasing Global Warming",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100108",slug:"meteorological-drought-and-temperature-in-sudano-sahelian-region-of-nigeria-under-increasing-global-",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study examinesmeteorological drought and temperature in the Sudano-Sahelian region of Nigeria under increasing global warming. Rainfall data of 60 years (1961 to 2020) and temperature of 40 years (1981–2020) for nine stations were used to quantify drought occurrences as well as the pattern of temperature. The Bhalme and Mooley Drought Index (BMDI) and Student’s t-test were used to indicate if changes have occurred in the amount of rainfall and temperature (increase or decrease) over space and time in the study region. The BMDI was used because it is simple and able to depict historically documented droughts better than other indices. The student’s t-test was used to determine if the sub-period means of the series have altered significantly over time. Results show that the spatial and temporal occurrence and duration varied from one sub-area to another. Also, its intensity was mainly from mild to moderate. Results also show a consistent alternation between drought and wet years over the study period. The trend of temperature shows a tendency towards decreasing temperature during the period of study although it was not significant. The study concludes that the study region experiences climate variability that may well be part of global climate change.",signatures:"Ojonigu F. Ati, Kayode Aremu, Adewale F. Olatunde, Iliya B. Abaje and Emmanuel O. Oladipo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79333",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79333",authors:[{id:"328984",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"O. Oladipo",slug:"emmanuel-o.-oladipo",fullName:"Emmanuel O. Oladipo"},{id:"418072",title:"Prof.",name:"Ojonigu F.",surname:"Ati",slug:"ojonigu-f.-ati",fullName:"Ojonigu F. Ati"},{id:"418255",title:"Prof.",name:"Kayode",surname:"Aremu",slug:"kayode-aremu",fullName:"Kayode Aremu"},{id:"418258",title:"Dr.",name:"Iliya B.",surname:"Abaje",slug:"iliya-b.-abaje",fullName:"Iliya B. Abaje"},{id:"418259",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewale F.",surname:"Olatunde",slug:"adewale-f.-olatunde",fullName:"Adewale F. Olatunde"}],corrections:null},{id:"78122",title:"The Impact of Global Warming and Climate Change on the Development of Agriculture in the Northern Latitudes of the Eurasian Continent",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99392",slug:"the-impact-of-global-warming-and-climate-change-on-the-development-of-agriculture-in-the-northern-la",totalDownloads:185,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the northern regions of the Eurasian continent, an increase in the sum of active temperatures up to 1500–2000 °C degrees is observed, which creates more favorable conditions for growing crops. The study reveals the prerequisites for the development of crop production in the northern latitudes and analyzes the yield of crops according to the Doctrine of Food Security. Also considered the yields of the main crops in the northern countries of Europe. In the south of the European part of the Eurasian continent, a decrease in crop yields is expected due to climate change and severe aridity. At the same time, this process will have a more negligible effect in the central regions. Improving the thermal regime in the North of the Far East will also increase the yield of fruit and berry, and vegetable crops. In the northern part of the circumpolar belt, an improvement in the thermal regime with a relatively insignificant change in climate humidity will create conditions for increasing crops’ productivity and growing a more comprehensive range of crops, especially in river valleys.",signatures:"Inga Ryumkina, Sergey Ryumkin, Anastasiia Malykhina, Dmitry Ursu and Andrey Khanturgaev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78122",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78122",authors:[{id:"350937",title:"Dr.",name:"Inga",surname:"Ryumkina",slug:"inga-ryumkina",fullName:"Inga Ryumkina"},{id:"423769",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Ryumkin",slug:"sergey-ryumkin",fullName:"Sergey Ryumkin"},{id:"423770",title:"Ms.",name:"Anastasiia",surname:"Malykhina",slug:"anastasiia-malykhina",fullName:"Anastasiia Malykhina"},{id:"429441",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Andrei",surname:"Khanturgaev",slug:"andrei-khanturgaev",fullName:"Andrei Khanturgaev"},{id:"429442",title:"Mr.",name:"Dmitry",surname:"Ursu",slug:"dmitry-ursu",fullName:"Dmitry Ursu"}],corrections:null},{id:"79398",title:"Sustainable Water Flows in Era of Climate Change",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101064",slug:"sustainable-water-flows-in-era-of-climate-change",totalDownloads:120,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The flow of water in rivers is of paramount importance to maintain supply of food and energy requirements to a great extent. The minimum flow in perennial rivers is subjected to groundwater availability, it is further replenished by the water added through precipitation. Climate change not only increases the melting of glaciers and sea level rise, but also influences the surface water flow and quality. As agriculture is directly affected by changing precipitation pattern, the reduction in water resources and untimely addition of water, both act havoc to the food production process. This interconnection makes agriculture even more vulnerable to the scenarios of global warming and climate change. Studies on food-energy-water nexus has opened new avenues of research in sustainable water management. The role of sustainable flow of water in rivers is highlighted which needs to be understood in era of climate change.",signatures:"Deepika Pandey",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79398",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79398",authors:[{id:"347417",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepika",surname:"Pandey",slug:"deepika-pandey",fullName:"Deepika Pandey"}],corrections:null},{id:"77551",title:"Recent Climate Shocks in the Sahel: A Systematic Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98882",slug:"recent-climate-shocks-in-the-sahel-a-systematic-review",totalDownloads:114,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Africa, the Sahel is increasingly susceptible to climate shocks such as droughts, sandstorms (winds), and floods. Through a systematic review this work tracks the frequency with which these shocks are reported in the literature during the period 1975–2020. This work examines trends to identify which shocks are most reported, documenting their spatial distribution and evaluating the impacts of climatic and non-climatic drivers. In general, 388 shocks were reported in 164 relevant peer review papers. Southern Niger recorded 15.97% of all the shocks while Ethiopia and Senegal recorded 11.85% and 10.85% respectively. Also, West African Sahel saw about 49.97% of all shocks followed by East African Sahel with 29.89% and Central African Sahel with 12.11%. Generally, droughts (n = 219), appear to be the most frequently reported shocks followed by floods (n = 123) and winds (n = 46). The 1975–1985 decade recorded the most shocks (n = 207), followed by the 1997–2007 decade which saw (n = 80) shocks while between 1986 and 1996 a total of 52 shocks were recorded. 52% of the shocks are driven by climatic factors while 47% are driven by non-climatic drivers.",signatures:"Terence Epule Epule, Driss Dhiba and Abdelghani Chehbouni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77551",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77551",authors:[{id:"348146",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Terence Epule",surname:"Epule",slug:"terence-epule-epule",fullName:"Terence Epule Epule"},{id:"348462",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelghani",surname:"Chehbouni",slug:"abdelghani-chehbouni",fullName:"Abdelghani Chehbouni"},{id:"348463",title:"Prof.",name:"Driss",surname:"Dhiba",slug:"driss-dhiba",fullName:"Driss Dhiba"}],corrections:null},{id:"79120",title:"Recent Climate Change Adaptation Strategies in the Sahel: A Critical Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100110",slug:"recent-climate-change-adaptation-strategies-in-the-sahel-a-critical-review",totalDownloads:170,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Climate change adaptation continues to be central on the agenda of most African countries. Current understanding of the state of adaptation is limited in Africa. The Sahel is selected because of persistent declines in precipitation and rising temperatures. Here, we examine the status of adaptation actions across the Sahel by reviewing the primary peer review literature. A total of 70 peer review papers that document 414 discrete adaptations provide a snapshot of adaptations developed between 1975 and 2020. From a country-to-country perspective, Kenya has the highest number of reported adaptation actions (75 or 18.1%). From a regional standpoint, West Africa recorded about 261 or 18.1% of all adaptation actions reported. Income diversification of livelihoods, and water harnessing were reported as the most used adaptation actions in the Sahel. Based on categories, technically based adaptation actions are the most used options. The period 2008–2016 registered 65.2% of all adaptations. 98% of adaptation actions are reported to be driven by climate while non-climatic drivers account for 95% of adaptation actions. The findings presented here are proxies of climate change adaptation; some relevant information might be found in gray literature which not used because gray literature is less standardized because it is not subject to peer review.",signatures:"Terence Epule Epule, Abdelghani Chehbouni and Driss Dhiba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79120",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79120",authors:[{id:"348146",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Terence Epule",surname:"Epule",slug:"terence-epule-epule",fullName:"Terence Epule Epule"},{id:"348462",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelghani",surname:"Chehbouni",slug:"abdelghani-chehbouni",fullName:"Abdelghani Chehbouni"},{id:"348463",title:"Prof.",name:"Driss",surname:"Dhiba",slug:"driss-dhiba",fullName:"Driss Dhiba"}],corrections:null},{id:"80079",title:"Transformation Action to Combat Desertification: A Direct Carbon Saving Mechanism in South Syria for Post-Conflict Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101462",slug:"transformation-action-to-combat-desertification-a-direct-carbon-saving-mechanism-in-south-syria-for-",totalDownloads:31,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Climate change has been visible through observed deterioration in the environment. Despite the different mitigation policies, greenhouse gas emission growth have increased over the last decade. Undeniably, war and conflict have the potential to further exacerbate inequalities and put major stress on meeting the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Despite the civil war in Syria entering its 10th year, carbon emissions have declined by 1.5 percent from 2015 due to the economic slowdown, which resulted in approximately 13 million Syrians in need of humanitarian assistance. As a consequence of the protracted crisis, families have suffered significant losses of assets and income generation opportunities, in both rural and urban areas, which has increased the vulnerability of the land, fostered illegal over-pumping of irrigation water, and poverty of the population in South Syria. Investing in renewable energy, such as installing solar panels to pump water for irrigation, or operating medium-small factories, can help communities in coping with the impact of climate change including drought, hence improving their resilience. The research investigated the current humanitarian initiatives on solar panels, at a small scale of households and industrial uses as a twin-track approach, for humanitarian, development, and peace nexus. This process helps in laying the basis for climate change resilience and combatting land desertification.",signatures:"Fidaa Fawwaz Haddad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80079",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80079",authors:[{id:"346916",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Fidaa",surname:"Fawwaz Haddad",slug:"fidaa-fawwaz-haddad",fullName:"Fidaa Fawwaz Haddad"}],corrections:null},{id:"77831",title:"Droughts and Floodings Implications in Agriculture Sector in Rwanda: Consequences of Global Warming",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98922",slug:"droughts-and-floodings-implications-in-agriculture-sector-in-rwanda-consequences-of-global-warming",totalDownloads:53,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Global warming driven either by human activities that emit greenhouse gases in the atmosphere or by natural shifts in weather patterns results in climate change. Short as well as long climate changes have impacts on the people’s livelihoods worldwide through the intensification of natural desert, increased temperatures and precipitations, lack of access to (clean) water among others. This description is true in Rwanda as climate change affects agricultural sector which is proven to be a cornerstone of sustainable development of the country. However, it is possible to minimize the negative effects of climatic changes by reducing the vulnerabilities to it. This requires sound adaptation measures and mitigation strategies. Using literature review, this chapter shed light on ambitious mechanisms developed by the government of Rwanda to combat and to adapt to the effects of climate change, especially in its agricultural sector.",signatures:"Muneza Lydie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77831",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77831",authors:[{id:"350301",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Muneza",surname:"Lydie",slug:"muneza-lydie",fullName:"Muneza Lydie"}],corrections:null},{id:"77262",title:"Evaluation of Climate Change-Induced Impact on Streamflow and Sediment Yield of Genale Watershed, Ethiopia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98515",slug:"evaluation-of-climate-change-induced-impact-on-streamflow-and-sediment-yield-of-genale-watershed-eth",totalDownloads:309,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the 21st century, changes in induced climate can significantly affect the water resources system in the watershed. Understanding climate change disrupts hydrological processes can facilitate sustainable water resource strategies to resilient impacts of global warming. The hydrological response of watersheds will be accelerated by climate change, altering the rainfall, magnitude & timing of runoff, and sediment yield. The study investigates climate change aspects on the hydrological responses using Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model interfaced with Geographical Information System (GIS) of Genale Basin, Ethiopia. The calibrated SWAT was applied to simulate the impact of climate, and the SUFI-II algorithm was used for parameter optimization & finalization. The change of climate scenarios was built using the outcomes bias-corrected CORDEX RCM daily precipitation, min/max temperature for Ethiopia under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5. The average monthly change of streamflow from −16.47% to 6.58% and − 3.6% to 8.27% under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, respectively (2022–2080). The monthly average sediment yield change was −21.8% to 6.2% and − 5.6% to 4.66% for the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios, respectively, over 2022–2080. It implies that the climate change-induced impacts on sediment yield are more significant than streamflow and suggest substantial adaptive management in watershed systems.",signatures:"Tufa Feyissa Negewo and Arup Kumar Sarma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77262",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77262",authors:[{id:"347544",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Tufa",surname:"Feyissa Negewo",slug:"tufa-feyissa-negewo",fullName:"Tufa Feyissa Negewo"},{id:"348198",title:"Prof.",name:"Arup",surname:"Kumar Sarma",slug:"arup-kumar-sarma",fullName:"Arup Kumar Sarma"}],corrections:null},{id:"78417",title:"The Energy and Climate Change Nexus in Uganda: Policy Challenges and Opportunities for Climate Compatible Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99353",slug:"the-energy-and-climate-change-nexus-in-uganda-policy-challenges-and-opportunities-for-climate-compat",totalDownloads:234,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Although Uganda has abundant energy resources including hydropower, oil and gas, biomass, geothermal, and solar energy, energy poverty is still very high and constrains socio-economic transformation. Biomass energy accounts for approx. 88% of the energy mix and only up to 28% of the country population have access to electricity, and the two energy sources are climate sensitive. The reliance on biomass energy is a driver to deforestation and forest degradation that also reduces the country’s resilience to climate hazards such as flooding, drought and landslides. Besides, deforestation is driver to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adversely affects the delivery of ecosystem services. Uganda is also warming very first and rainfall patterns are becoming more variable. Coupled with increasing occurrence and severity of drought, intense rainfall, flooding and landslides, energy supply systems are becoming more vulnerable. While Uganda is currently not a major emitter of GHG, emissions will rise significantly in the future given the country’s rapidly growing population and urbanization that are increasing demand for energy and exacerbated by ongoing oil and gas development. Therefore, as Uganda strives to attain a middle-income status country, building climate resilient and transiting to decarbonized energy systems is not only a necessity but transformational to reducing energy poverty, increasing access to clean and affordable energy services, spurring investment and economic growth, job creation, improved health and poverty reduction. In this chapter, we examine the nexus between energy and climate change in Uganda, focusing on energy as both a driver and victim of climate change while at the same time exploring opportunities for achieving enhanced access to affordable, reliable and clean energy as a contribution to sustainable, green and resilient development.",signatures:"Revocatus Twinomuhangi, Arthur Martin Kato and Adam M. Sebbit",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78417",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78417",authors:[{id:"348185",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Arthur",surname:"Martin Kato",slug:"arthur-martin-kato",fullName:"Arthur Martin Kato"},{id:"348191",title:"Dr.",name:"Revocatus",surname:"Twinomuhangi",slug:"revocatus-twinomuhangi",fullName:"Revocatus Twinomuhangi"},{id:"349944",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam M.",surname:"Sebbit",slug:"adam-m.-sebbit",fullName:"Adam M. Sebbit"}],corrections:null},{id:"77666",title:"Climate Change in Ethiopia: Implication on Human Capital in Rural Community - Case Study of Bilate Basin Agro-Pastoral Livelihood Zone of Sidama",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98993",slug:"climate-change-in-ethiopia-implication-on-human-capital-in-rural-community-case-study-of-bilate-basi",totalDownloads:46,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objective of this study was to examine the trends of climate change and its subsequent impact on human capital development under the reference of human health and education of rural community of drought prone areas in Western Sidama (6.36°–7.14°N Latitude and 38.01°–38.56°E) of Ethiopia. Tropical Application of Metrology using SATellite (TAMSAT) data of both monthly rainfall and temperature was collected from Ethiopian National Meteorological Agency (NMA) for the period of 1987–2017. Data on perceived climate change; change driven impacts people experienced mainly on their health and education and copying or/and adaptation strategies affected community practiced was collected by employing both survey and participatory rural appraisal (PRA) techniques. In order to collect data from the household level, survey was employed for 400 households who were systematically sampled from 245,592 households of five drought prone administrative districts whereas PRA was employed to collect community level data. Mann–KENDALL TEST AND SEN’S SLOPE ESTIMATES (MAKESENS) and descriptive statistics were employed to analyze these data. The analysis result shows that there is increasing and decreasing trends of both temperature and rainfall, respectively. And increasing trend is statistically significant for temperature (α = 0.05; N = 31). Consequently, this change of climate variables has brought negative impacts on human capital mainly on health and education through various paths. Physiological inconvenience, prevalence of various diseases, and malnutrition were the main paths through which climate change impacts on human health were seen whereas students’ failure in standard exam attributed to a roll over impacts of climate change since early child hood, increasing school dropout rate and decreasing demand of the households to family education mainly owing to diminish in agricultural yields were the education dimension impacts of change in climate variables. Though a temporary migration to less stress adjacent areas, receiving aids and use of health extension services were a household level copying mechanisms observed, the first two were seen to reproduce unintended negative effects such as interethnic conflicts, forcing children to drop the school and aid dependency syndrome among receivers that the household themselves, aid organizations and government should work in consortium on building resilience both at household and community levels.",signatures:"Firew Bekele Worana and Cheru Atsimegiorgis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77666",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77666",authors:[{id:"348725",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Firew Bekele",surname:"Worana",slug:"firew-bekele-worana",fullName:"Firew Bekele Worana"}],corrections:null},{id:"79399",title:"Mitigating Climate Change Effects on Maternal and Prenatal Health in Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101267",slug:"mitigating-climate-change-effects-on-maternal-and-prenatal-health-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:43,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Generally, women and children have been considered at-risk populations, especially pregnant women, and their unborn babies. In the past decade, there has been overwhelming evidence linking climate change—extreme heat and air pollution—to adverse pregnancy, reproductive, and overall maternal health outcomes across the globe. This formative report highlights the effects of climate change. Using autoethnography and an adapted Delphi method—the combination of the different expert opinions—this report makes contextualized recommendations for women to mitigate the effects of climate change on maternal health outcomes in Nigeria.",signatures:"Adebanke L. Adebayo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79399",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79399",authors:[{id:"351171",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Adebanke L.",surname:"Adebayo",slug:"adebanke-l.-adebayo",fullName:"Adebanke L. Adebayo"}],corrections:null},{id:"77171",title:"Climate Change and Its Potential Impacts on Insect-Plant Interactions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98203",slug:"climate-change-and-its-potential-impacts-on-insect-plant-interactions",totalDownloads:440,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The most dynamic and global environmental issue to date is climate change. The consequences of greenhouse effect and climate change from rising temperatures, frequent droughts, irregular rainfall, etc. are already evident. Insects and plants are affected by climate change and extreme weather events and the direct impact of anthropogenic climate change has been reported on every continent, in every ocean and in most major taxonomic groups. In the modern period, as a result of natural cycles and anthropogenic activities and their effects on the global climate, plants are typically susceptible to new environmental factors, i.e. higher levels solar radiation, rise in temperatures, greenhouse effect and changes in rainfall patterns over the seasons. Increased temperatures, CO2 and rapid changes in rainfall patterns can dramatically alter the biochemistry of plants and thus plant defence responses. This can have important implications in insect fertility, feeding rates, survival, population size, and dispersal. The relationships between plants and insects are thus changed with significant consequences for food security and natural ecosystems. Similarly, mismatches between plants and insect pollinators are caused by the acceleration of plant phenology by warming. Human nutrition which depends on insect pollination can be affected with reduction in plant reproduction and fitness. Thus, understanding abiotic stress reactions in plants and insects is relevant and challenging in agriculture. In the preparation and implementation of effective strategies for future insect pest management programmes, the impact of climate change on crop production, mediated by changes in the populations of extreme insect pests should be carefully considered.",signatures:"Somala Karthik, M.S. Sai Reddy and Gummudala Yashaswini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77171",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77171",authors:[{id:"416107",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Somala",surname:"Karthik",slug:"somala-karthik",fullName:"Somala Karthik"},{id:"416115",title:"Prof.",name:"M.S.",surname:"Sai Reddy",slug:"m.s.-sai-reddy",fullName:"M.S. Sai Reddy"},{id:"416969",title:"Ms.",name:"Gummudala",surname:"Yashaswini",slug:"gummudala-yashaswini",fullName:"Gummudala Yashaswini"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3681",title:"Global Warming",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"global-warming",bookSignature:"Stuart Arthur Harris",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3681.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12539",title:"Dr.",name:"Stuart",surname:"Harris",slug:"stuart-harris",fullName:"Stuart Harris"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3364",title:"Environmental Change and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f0013fc334c3511dfd22f3eeafa84a00",slug:"environmental-change-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Steven Silvern and Stephen Young",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3364.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"120857",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",surname:"Silvern",slug:"steven-silvern",fullName:"Steven Silvern"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Over the years, many classification methods have been developed for cardiomyopathies based on aetiology, structural models and the functional approach. The new concepts and events that have occurred in cardiology generally and in cardiomyopathies specifically are sufficient changes to justify this book. Developments in cardiomyopathies have advanced at a rapid rate, largely because of the progress that has been made in instrumental analysis and the integration of clinical cardiology with other fields of basic research. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Abdominal wall hernias are mostly diagnosed by typical history and clinical examination; however, in some cases, the history is not typical, especially in patients with marked abdominal distention, and overweight patients or in cases of occult hernias. Although most abdominal hernias are asymptomatic, the fear of developing complications like irreducibility, incarceration, and strangulation may necessitate prophylactic surgical repair; thus, early and accurate diagnosis is important. Before 20 years, herniorrhaphy was considered for imaging of hernias; however, in recent years, computed tomography (CT) (especially multidetector CT (MDCT)), together with ultrasound represented the mainstay of the diagnosis of abdominopelvic wall hernias by imaging, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) could be used as a diagnostic aid in a minority of cases. Each imaging modality has its own privilege. The main advantage of ultrasound is the dynamic ability for assessment, while the main advantage of computed tomography is the multiplanar reformatting [1, 2, 3], allowing identification and accurate diagnosis of the hernia type, its content, and also the associated complications. MDCT technology also has the benefit of fast acquisition times, which reduces motion artifact, such as those related to bowel peristalsis and respiration. MDCT also has the postprocessing ability to manipulate the data to create three-dimensional surgical planning models [4]. Radiologists should be familiar with common sites of hernias and their detailed normal anatomy in order to reach the diagnosis easily [5] (Figures 1, 2).
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Figure 1.
Normal appearance of the umbilicus by ultrasound, short axis.
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Figure 2.
Normal appearance of the linea alba by ultrasound, long axis.
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The absence of a reducible mass or a palpable defect does not rule out the presence of hernia. The term “hidden hernia” describes the situation when physical examination fails to demonstrate a palpable defect or a reducible mass, but the hernia sac is identified on surgical exploration [6]. The role for diagnostic imaging is to support clinical suspicion. Another important issue is to distinguish other lesions mimicking hernias, like desmoid tumors in the abdominal wall, seromas, abscesses, and hematomas. In inguinal region, abscesses, lipomas, and encysted hydrocele of the spermatic cord represent the most common lesions which could be put in the differential diagnosis of masses seen in the common sites of inguinal region hernias. In the next few pages, we will discuss our experience in imaging of the common hernias which we confront in practice.
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2. Inguinal hernia
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Patients are usually diagnosed clinically, and most of the cases are operated without referral for imaging. There are two common types, direct and indirect; both are related to the inguinal ligament. By ultrasound, the inguinal ligament is seen as a dense echogenic line, and followed inferomedially, till the pubic region. The differentiation between direct and indirect inguinal hernias is by the relation of the hernia sac to the inferior epigastric artery where the more common indirect inguinal hernia lies lateral to it. The sac of the less common direct inguinal hernia lies medial to the inferior epigastric artery. The appearance of hernia sac is variable, and the defect of the hernia sac ranges from 0.2 to more than 3 cm and reaching 4 cm in some cases. The advantage of ultrasound over computed tomography lies mainly in the ability to perform a dynamic scan. A linear transducer (10–15 MHZ) is used to scan the inguinal region. If the sac is clear from the beginning of the scan, provocative tests could be excluded; otherwise, the simple use of Valsalva maneuver is recommended as a first-line dynamic maneuver, and the size of the defect is measured before and after the maneuver. The second provocative test is simple standing for 30 s, again the size of the defect is measured before and after standing (Figure 3 (A), (B)), and the third test is to let the patient walk steadily for 2 min and then examine the patient in the standing position before lying supine (Figure 4 (A), (B), and (C)) (Table 1). The relatively echogenic edge of the sac is easily identified, and the content is usually fat, or omentum, less commonly bowel (Figure 5), or a mix of all these. The relation to spermatic cord has to be determined. Irreducibility has to be reported if present. It is always recommended to examine the asymptomatic side (Figure 6). The examination should extend to include the scrotal sac in male patients, to assess the extension of the sac, and to detect associated hydrocele. Color Doppler is occasionally used to see the vascularity and hence to indicate viability of the contents inside the sac. Care must be taken not to press too much with the transducer, because this may reduce small hernias (Table 2).
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1- Valsalva maneuver
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2- Standing and supine position
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3- Provocative walking
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\n\n
Table 1.
Dynamic maneuvers used for ultrasound of the inguinal hernia.
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Transducer: linear, 10–15 MHZ
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Check type, and relation to the inferior epigastric vessels (direct, indirect)
(A), (B), (C) inguinal hernia with provocative tests.
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Figure 5.
Right inguinal hernia with bowel content.
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Figure 6.
Comparison of the normal right inguinal hernia, to the left side of the inguinal canal with indirect inguinal hernia.
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On computed tomography, the deep inguinal ring, is lateral to the inferior epigastric artery. The indirect inguinal hernia passes from lateral to medial, along the canal, and the neck is lateral and above the inferior epigastric vessels. The direct inguinal hernia enters the canal medial to the deep inferior epigastric artery, through Hesselbach’s triangle, superior to inguinal ligament. The inferior epigastric and femoral vessels, are of key importance when diagnosing inguinal hernias as mentioned before in contrast to enhanced CT discriminating between direct and indirect hernias[4].
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3. Umbilical hernia
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Acquired umbilical hernia is usually associated with multiparty and increased body mass index. Commonly, the patient is referred to ultrasound if the hernia is not obvious clinically, due to its dynamic and real-time capabilities, and ability to compare both sides of the abdominal wall. It is important for the radiologist to assess the hernia orifice and size of the defect (Figure 7). In small-sized hernias, contents of the hernia sac are usually only omental fat (which appears slightly hyperechoic); however, intestinal loops may be present in larger size umbilical hernias, and it could be easily identified by the appearance of dirty shadowing of gas and peristaltic movement (Figure 8). Color and power Doppler could be used to assess its viability. The use of Valsalva maneuver has been described for both ultrasound and computed tomography [7], and in our center, this is done in the supine position. Operator dependence and long learning curve are drawbacks for ultrasound scanning. Differentiation between true hernia and other masses like desmoid tumors, or collections whether inflammatory like abscesses or noninflammatory like seromas located in the paraumbilical region, is detected by both ultrasound and computed tomography.
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Figure 7.
Clear defect of hernia orifice, umbilical hernia.
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Figure 8.
Umbilical hernia with intestine.
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Small hernias could be assessed by a linear transducer 10–15 MHZ, while larger size umbilical hernias with large-sized defect should be assessed by a curvilinear transducer 7–15 MHZ. The diagnostic yield of the ultrasound decreases with large-sized hernias; hence, it is recommended in this case to refer to multidetector computed tomography, where sagittal and axial reconstruction could add some information in addition to axial sections. The presence of the surgeon or the referring physician at the time of scanning is suggested to facilitate diagnosis.
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4. Epigastric hernia
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It occurs in the midline above the umbilicus till the xiphisternum. Diastasis of the rectus abdominis muscle often predisposes to epigastric hernias and fatty hernia of the linea alba. Defects are usually small sized, and the content is almost always fat [8]. They have to be differentiated from other causes of epigastric pain. They could be confused with paraumbilical hernia/swelling if they are near to the umbilicus. The defect is usually small (less than 1 cm) and appears as a hypoechoic interruption of the echogenic linea alba (Figure 9).
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Figure 9.
Midline epigastric hernia.
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5. Spigelian hernia
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It is named after the anatomist (Adriaan van der Spieghel) and is a rare lateral abdominal wall hernia. Most of these hernias have narrow neck and wide fundus, hence predisposing to irreducibility, incarceration, and strangulation [9] (Figure 10). Spigelian hernias are common in obese women, and clinical diagnosis is difficult. The hernia classically occurs caudal to the umbilicus but cranial to the junction of the linea semilunaris and the inferior epigastric vessels. Spigelian hernias traverse through the full thickness of the abdominal wall muscles [4]. Before three decades, herniorrhaphy (using contrast) was the mainstay for radiological diagnosis; however, in the last few years, the use of ultrasound has become much increased, with the capability of dynamic scanning and comparison to the asymptomatic side. A linear transducer (10–15 MHZ) is usually used for scanning; however, in obese patients, a curvilinear transducer (2–7 MHZ) is used. The use of color Doppler is helpful in the diagnosis of serious complications and incarceration and strangulation by checking the viability of the intestinal loops [8]. The second choice for diagnosis in modern imaging is computed tomography which displays excellent anatomy of the abdominal wall, especially with multidetector modern scanners; however, the risk of radiation makes it the second choice after ultrasound. An important point in either ultrasound or CT is the ability to identify the hernia orifice at the junction of the semilunar line and the semicircular line. It is important to establish a confident relationship between the radiologist and the surgeon in diagnosis of this type of hernia, as a number of cases of Spigelian hernia are falsely negative on radiologic investigation.
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Figure 10.
Ultrasound Spigelian hernia.
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6. Femoral hernia
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It is a rare hernia that is more common in females, likely attributed to increased intrapelvic pressure. A linear transducer of 10–15 MHZ is used, and scanning begins by identifying the echogenic inguinal ligament, then sweeping the probe inferomedially to identify the common femoral vein (Figure 11), where the usual site of hernia defect is medial to it. The importance of early diagnosis lies in the small size of the hernia sac of this type of hernia, making it prone to higher incidence of serious complications like strangulation. The differentiation of femoral hernia from direct and indirect inguinal hernias is not easy from the clinical point of view, and in this moment, the use of cross sectional imaging tool like CT is much more useful. On CT, the sac of an incarcerated femoral hernia lies lateral to the pubic tubercle, while the sac of the inguinal hernias is usually located medial to the pubic tubercle. Compression of the femoral vein within the canal is an important sign which could be demonstrated by both CT and ultrasound [10].
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Figure 11.
Left femoral hernia, note the sac is medial to left common femoral vein.
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7. Obturator hernia
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It is a rare type of hernia that is related to the obturator foramen and is associated with high risk of complications, hence, high morbidity. Referral for imaging is usually due to unexplained groin pain. On computed tomography, the hernia sac protrudes through the obturator foramen and lying between the obturator externus muscle from the posteromedial aspect and the pectineus muscle from the antero-lateral aspect [11].
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8. Incisional and Para-stomal hernias
\n
It is an important type of hernia that is related to the surgical incision or laparoscopy stomas. They are commonly associated with vertically oriented incisions and less frequently with transverse incisions. They could also occur with laparoscopy port sites. Para-stomal hernias are incisional hernias that occur around a stoma [4]. Incisional hernias are associated with high rate of postsurgical complications, with or without weakness of the abdominal wall muscles. The prognosis of the incisional hernia is highly related to how much of the thickness of the abdominal wall is involved by the hernia. Diagnosis could be done by ultrasound especially with the use of dynamic maneuvers; however, in cases of recurrent large incisional hernias, we recommend the use of CT as the edge of the hernia orifice may appear beyond the scope of the curvilinear abdominal low-frequency ultrasound probe. Also in cases of lateral incisional hernias (especially subcostal type), better localization of the hernia orifice is made by the modern multislice CT scanners, using the coronal and sagittal reconstruction.
\n
\n
\n
9. Role of imaging in complications of hernias and postoperative period
\n
Complications of hernias include irreducibility (Figure 12), obstruction, incarceration (Figure 13 (A) and (B)), and strangulation. Differentiating irreducibility from incarceration in terms of imaging is important. In our experience, simple failure of the hernia sac contents to reduce back into the sac after provocative tests should be defined as irreducibility, while presence of adhesion in addition to irreducibility signifies incarceration, and the addition of impedance of the vascular supply to the contents which are usually bowel loops signifies “strangulation.” The use of color Doppler in diagnosing vascular compromise should be taken with caution, as the absence of positive vascularity may not be always associated with strangulation, and the presence of positive blood flow within the loops does not exclude strangulation. Vascular compromise is rather suggested by indirect signs of like thickening of the bowel wall, and presence of fluid inside the hernia sac.
Clinical evaluation of recurrent hernias is usually limited due to the existence of mesh (made of nonabsorbable material), and tissue fibrosis or large body habitus, contraction of the abdominal wall muscles, or any cause of distension. Under these circumstances, we usually resort to multi-detector row computed tomography for proper diagnosis. Complications after surgical hernia repair may comprise high percentage of cases, depending on surgical technique and the status of the hernia sac vasculature. Approximately one-half of these complications may require surgical re-intervention, and accurate diagnosis at multi-detector row CT is necessary for optimal patient treatment [2]. Assessment of the herniectomy site includes assessing the wound area for any collections, hematoma, seroma (Figures 14 and 15), stitch abscess, and recurrence. It is important to compare to the asymptomatic side and to assess the size of any collection present. Follow-up may be necessary for some complications such seroma, which have high rate of recurrence even after ultrasound-guided aspiration. The assessment of inserted mesh includes assessment of the edge and competence of the mesh, detecting any surrounding collections, and to exclude mesh failure, this is usually associated with dense posterior shadowing.
\n
Figure 14.
Seroma postinguinal hernia repair.
\n
Figure 15.
Seroma postumbilical hernia repair.
\n
\n
\n
10. Magnetic resonance imaging.
\n
The use of magnetic resonance imaging was recently suggested for occult inguinal hernias [12]. It may be considered as the alternative imaging of choice, only if ultrasound and computed tomography failed to answer the question about the suspected hernia site. Magnetic resonance imaging is an important multiplanar imaging, however, its use is only resorted to, only after other cheaper and more available imaging modalities, like ultrasound and CT [9].
\n
\n\n',keywords:"hernia, ultrasound, imaging, abdominal wall, strangulation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/55564.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/55564.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55564",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55564",totalDownloads:2184,totalViews:2147,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:3,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:65,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"November 3rd 2016",dateReviewed:"April 12th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 30th 2017",dateFinished:"May 24th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Abdominal wall hernias are usually suggested by the patient’s history and confirmed by physical examination; however, the history may be not typical, especially in patients with abdominal pain, distention, and overweight patients or in patients with small hernias located in unusual sites. Although most abdominal hernias are asymptomatic, the fear of developing complications like irreducibility, incarceration, and strangulation may necessitate prophylactic surgical repair; thus, early and accurate diagnosis is important. Before 20 years, herniorrhaphy was considered for imaging of hernias; however, in recent years, computed tomography (CT) (especially multidetector CT (MDCT)), together with ultrasound represented the mainstay of the diagnosis of abdominopelvic wall hernias by imaging, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) could be used as a diagnostic aid in a minority of the cases. Each imaging modality has its own privilege. The main advantage of ultrasound is the dynamic ability for assessment, while the main advantage of computed tomography is the multiplanar reformatting, allowing identification and accurate diagnosis of the hernia type, its content, and also the associated complications. Radiologists should be familiar with common sites of hernias and their detailed normal anatomy in order to reach the diagnosis easily.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/55564",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/55564",book:{id:"5928",slug:"hernia"},signatures:"Mohamed Abdelmohsen Bedewi and Mohamed El-sharkawy",authors:[{id:"200358",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Bedewi",fullName:"Mohamed Bedewi",slug:"mohamed-bedewi",email:"mohamedbedewi@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"205023",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Sherif",middleName:null,surname:"Elsharkawy",fullName:"Mohamed Sherif Elsharkawy",slug:"mohamed-sherif-elsharkawy",email:"sherif_elsharkawy@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Inguinal hernia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Umbilical hernia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Epigastric hernia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Spigelian hernia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Femoral hernia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Obturator hernia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Incisional and Para-stomal hernias",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Role of imaging in complications of hernias and postoperative period",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Magnetic resonance imaging.",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bedewi MA, El-Sharkawy MS, Al Boukai AA, Al-Nakshabandi N. Prevalence of adult paraumbilical hernia. Assessment by high-resolution sonography: A hospital-based study. Hernia. 2012;16(1):59–62\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Aguirre DA, Santosa AC, Casola G, Sirlin CB. Abdominal wall hernias: Imaging features, complications, and diagnostic pitfalls at multi-detector row CT. Radiographics. 2005;25:1501–1520\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Harrison LA, Keesling CA, Martin NL, Lee KR, Wetzel LH. Abdominal wall hernias: Review of herniography and correlation with cross-sectional imaging. Radiographics. 1995;15:315–332\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Trainer V, Leung C, Owen RE, Venkatanarasimha N. External anterior abdominal wall and pelvic hernias with emphasis on the key diagnostic features on MDCT V. Clinical Radiology 2013; 38:388–396\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Rettenbacher T, Hollerweger A, Macheiner P, Gritzmann N, Gotwald T, Frass R, Schneider B. Abdominal wall hernias: Cross-sectional imaging signs of incarceration determined with sonography. AJR American Journal of Roentgenology. 2001;177:1061–1066\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Herrington JK. Occult inguinal hernia in the female. Annals of Surgery. 1975;181(4):481–483\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Jaffe TA, O’Connell MJ, Harris JP, Paulson EK, DeLong DM. MDCT of abdominal wall hernias: Is there a role for Valsalva’s maneuver? AJR American Journal of Roentgenology. 2005;184:847–851\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Smereczyński A1, Kołaczyk K1, Lubiński J1, Bojko S1, Gałdyńska M1, Bernatowicz E1. Sonographic imaging of Spigelian hernias. Journal of Ultrasonography. 2012;12(50):269–275\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Light D, Chattopadhyay D, Bawa S. Radiological and clinical examination in the diagnosis of Spigelian hernias. Annals of the Royal College of Surgens of England. 2013;95(2):98–100\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Suzuki S, Furui S, Okinaga K, et al. Differentiation of femoral versus inguinal hernia: CT findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2007;189:W78–83\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Miller PA, Mezwa DG, Feczko PJ, et al. Imaging of abdominal hernias. Radiographics. 1995;15:333–347\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Light D, Ratnasingham K, Banerjee A, Cadwallader R, Uzzaman MM, Gopinath B. The role of ultrasound scan in the diagnosis of occult inguinal hernias. International Journal of Surgery. 2011;9(2):169–172\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mohamed Abdelmohsen Bedewi",address:"mohamedbedewi@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
College of Medicine, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Alkharj, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
King Khalid University Hospital, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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1. Introduction
Due to the vital role of water for humanity, it is necessary to improve and maintain its quality. Environmental and global changes especially industrial wastes and domestic and agricultural activities are the main water pollution source. Worldwide, several water resources even underground water resources are contaminated, and they are not a suitable quality for drinking. Because of the rising living standards, growing world population, unconscious water consumption, and urbanization lead to increasing water supply costs. In most cases, as it contains different and large number of pollutants, wastewater lead to ecosystem hazards for being released around without being processed. So a few decades later, the world could face a major problem with freshwater supply [1]. In the past, very little financial resources have been allocated for wastewater because water supply received more priority than wastewater treatment (WWT). But, because of the increasing rapid population growth and trends in urbanization, WWT plays an important role in human life. Recently, because of the impact of sewage contamination of groundwater, rivers, and lakes, the growing awareness of wastewater treatment is now receiving greater attention from researchers and environmentalists. Research study results revealed that WWT, which is managed appropriately, has a large share in the growing economy when water resources treatment and supply are done in an appropriate manner [2, 3]. Safe, reliable, and sustainable treated WWT strategies have a vital role because of several challenges including adoption of low-cost WWT technologies. To prevent the spread of diseases, WWT systems are crucial, and they should have high levels of hygienic standards for reuse in agricultural and other areas. Lack of WWT can lead to environmental pollution, and it may cause a hazardous effect for the health of humans. To improve global health and to prevent spread of disease, reliable collection and treatment of wastewater are very important. Wastewater treatment and their reuse need innovative and appropriate technologies. Recently, WWT technologies including electrochemical technologies have regained their importance worldwide. In some cases, the electrochemical mechanism for metal recovery is very simple. These technologies have reached comparably with other technologies in terms of cost and efficiency [4]. Economic issues besides environmental and social aspects must be considered when choosing the most appropriate WWT method [5, 6]. All scientists and environmentalists desire widespread recognition of the need to implement more sustainable WWT techniques. Wastewater treatment technologies follow two main approaches: first is the development of a single indicator integrating different criteria and second is the development of a set of multidisciplinary indicators [7, 8]. When large volumes of treated wastewater contain low concentrations of chemical constituent discharge-receiving water body, it may still lead to water quality problem. Discharges from industrial activities have been identified as one of the major sources of aquatic pollution in industrialized countries. After 1990, to remove toxic pollutants in wastewater, scientists focused on persistent organic pollutants including PCBs, PAHs, and especially heavy metals due to destructive effects [9, 10]. People’s anxieties also increase because of pollutions caused by heavy metals. Pollutions caused by heavy metals spread into the aqueous systems from many industries such as metal plating and smelters, eluents from plastics, mining, and textile industries [11]. Toxic heavy metals including mercury and chromium are discharged to the environment, and unfortunately they cannot biodegrade in nature [12, 13]. Heavy metals can be traveled through the food chain via bioaccumulation, the increase of heavy metals in human body causes some major diseases like brain, pancreas, and heart diseases, and they can lead to wide spread capillary damage and gastrointestinal irritation besides possibly necrotic changes in some tissue [14]. Even at low concentrations, heavy metals can cause serious toxic and harmful effects on the organism and the environment. The World Health Organization (WHO) limited heavy metal concentrations. Such as in drinking water, maximum acceptable limit of copper concentration is offered as 1.5 mg L−1, when the limit concentrations of metals containing hazardous waste are different [15, 16]. Ion exchange, extraction, membrane filtration, and chemical precipitation especially adsorption techniques have been applied to remove heavy metals; on the other hand, generally adsorption technique is one of the most chosen method because of its simplicity, nontoxicity, cost-effectiveness, and local availability to remove toxic heavy metals from aqueous medium [12, 17, 18, 19]. In addition, heavy metal removal from different samples by natural adsorbents using adsorption is in the most appropriate technique, and the use of natural adsorbents has been the preferred choice for many researchers [20, 21]. In large number of studies, activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, clays, nanosized metal oxides, zeolites, and various biosorbents were used. However, statistical and optimization research using RSM with CCD or Box-Behnken design about heavy metal removal under various physicochemical parameters is restricted and very rare. Although numerous studies are in literature about heavy metal removal sorption using different materials, there are very little studies with the application of WWT using methodological approach. Classical and conventional methods cannot depict all factor combinations, which affect the experiment. At the same time, these methods take a lot of time to experiment for the determination of the optimum levels. Limitations can be eliminated using a statistical experimental design, which is optimizing all the effecting parameters collectively. In order for modeling of process parameters, RSM that contains a small number of experiments is widely used in various processes especially in adsorption [22]. Experimental design technique is a suitable tool for developing, improving, and optimizing process and multifactor experiments. It researches the common relationship between various factors for the most favorable conditions of the process, which helps to determine the interactions among optimized parameters [22, 23]. The primary target of RSM is to detect the optimum operational conditions for the system or to detect a region that compensates the operating specifications. The aim of this study was to present heavy metal removal from wastewater using RSM as a statistical technique. After discussion of wastewater treatment techniques as detail, several heavy metal removal methods from industrial wastewater will be presented.
2. The aim of wastewater treatment
There are two aims of wastewater treatment: firstly to purify wastewater without harming the public health and/or causing other nuisance and secondly to gain energy, nutrients, water, and other valuable resources from wastewater during purification steps.
3. Wastewater composition
Contaminated waters contain (Figure 1) various pollutants such as nutrients, various chemical compounds, and numerous pathogenic microorganisms besides toxic compounds. Inorganic solids, organic solids, and pathogenic microorganisms along with metals constitute a significant part of wastewater. While inorganic solids include salt, sediment, soil, and especially metals, organic solids contain food wastes, paper, and another household waste material. During WWT step, the removal of primarily organic particles especially suspended solids is vital prior to discharge to the environment. The proteins, lipids and carbohydrates are biodegradable components of wastewater. Biodegradable components contain carbon, and they can be converted to carbon dioxide. If these biodegradable organics are not removed from the wastewater, oxygen demand will exert in the receiving watercourse. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD) is typical measures of organic matter. BOD is the most widely used parameter to quantify organic pollution of water. BOD is the measurement of the dissolved oxygen that is used by microbes in the chemical oxidation of organic matter.
Figure 1.
Typical wastewater composition.
4. Water pollutants
It is important to understand the nature of water pollutants because wastewaters contain a large number of pollutants; however, toxicity is observed when the acceptable limits are exceeded. Wastewater contents depend on industrial, agricultural, and municipal wastewater. There are various water pollutants in nature, and they can be categorized as microbiological, radioactive, particulate, organic, and inorganic chemical contaminants. Harmful microbes such as viruses, fungi, bacteria, algae, plankton, and other microorganisms are basic components of bio-pollution in the water. These microorganisms may be responsible for various diseases. Organic toxic pollutants include many insecticides such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, herbicides, and other pollutants were manufactured for use in various industries. However, heavy metals are the most common inorganic water pollutants. Microbiological, radioactive, particulate, organic, and inorganic chemical water contaminants remain either in suspended, colloidal, or in solvated form.
5. Wastewater treatment methods
Because of the increasing population and rapid pollution of water resources, WWT and reuse are an important issue. The efficient use of existing water resources and treatment of polluted water resources with affordable and cheap technologies have been the focus of scientists. WWTs are needed for three reasons; these are water source reduction, WWT, and recycling. Recently, during purification step, while primary treatment includes preliminary physical and chemical purification processes, secondary treatment depends on biochemical decomposition of organic solids to inorganic or stable organic solids. Finally, after the third step called tertiary treatment processes, wastewater is converted into good-quality water, and it can be used for drinking or medicinal supplies. At the end of this step, almost all of the pollutants (up to 99%) can be removed from water. To producing good-quality and safe water, all these three processes should be combined together. Otherwise, it will not be possible to obtain safe water from the wastewater. Many advanced methods and techniques have been used for the recycle of safe water from wastewater, but economic and effective water treatment is still a serious problem. Treatment of wastewater and recycling technologies have been classified (Figure 2), and it is carried out in three stages. They are:
Primary treatment methods
Secondary treatment methods
Tertiary treatment methods
Figure 2.
Wastewater treatment and recycling methods.
These methods are briefly described below.
5.1 Primary treatment methods
In order to remove organic matter and suspended solids from wastewater by means of physical operations, for example, sedimentation and gravity separation, they are done in primary treatment stage. Preliminary treatment, which is described as preparation for secondary treatment, is in fact intended to produce a liquid waste suitable for biological treatment.
5.1.1 Screening separation method
Screening separation method is used to remove solid wastes from wastewater. It is the process where suspended and floating materials including wood, paper, kitchen refuse, pieces of cloth, cork, hair, fibers, and fecal solids are removed from wastewater. In a WWT, screening is generally used as the first operation step. For this purpose, various size screens are used, and their size is selected as per the requirement. Finer particles such as sand and small pebbles can be eliminated by using screening separation method.
5.1.2 Filtration method
About 0.1–0.5 mm pore size is used in filtration separation method, water is passed through a medium having fine pores, and the filtration process is completed. Various membranes and filters, for example, cartridges, can frequently be used to remove suspended solids, greases, oils, and bacteria from the wastewater. The main purpose of filtration separation method is to separate the small solids and remove oil (they can be reduced up to 99%). Filtered water is used for many purposes such as ion exchange, adsorption, or membrane separation processes. In pharmaceutical and biotechnological industries, to the production of pure water, filtration separation method has become the main focus as promising separation tool for WWT. The used membrane has a key role due to selectivity, low fouling, and performance stability for long-term operation in the filtration separation method. Because of these advantages, this method and its performance are becoming more and more important. In addition, it is one of the important enrichment techniques for trace heavy metal ions along with simplicity and rapidity of the procedure. For all these reasons, many scientists have focused on this subject to develop and use alternative and effective membranes [24, 25].
5.1.3 Centrifugal separation method
This method is provided for separating components of a fluid or solid particles, but it is used especially for suspend solid from wastewater. Various types of centrifugal machines have been used to remove suspended noncolloidal solids in the centrifugal separation method. To separate solids from wastewater, centrifugal devices with various sizes are used. Density of suspended solids is the most important parameter when separating solid materials by centrifugation. In addition, oils and greases can be reduced and separated during application of centrifugal separation method.
5.1.4 Sedimentation and gravity separation method
Sedimentation and gravity separation method are based on the removal of suspended solids, grits, and silts from aqueous media. Suspended solid materials settle down to the bottom of the tank under the influence of gravity; this event may vary depending on solid size and density. Some chemicals can sometimes be added to accelerate sedimentation process. Although this method can reduce suspended solids only up to 60%, purification of wastes is a very useful separation application. Water treatment in this technique can be used in many areas such as water for membrane filtration processes and ion exchange method. It is generally applied out prior to conventional treatment.
5.1.5 Coagulation method
Coagulation processes are a particularly effective cleaning method for containing oil-in-water emulsions such as sea, lakes, and rivers besides most industrial wastes contain especially oil or petroleum. After sedimentation and gravity separation method, if there are non-settleable solids in wastewater, this is called processing coagulation with the addition of certain chemicals to precipitate these non-settleable solids and non-precipitating deposits. There are some natural coagulants such as aluminum salts, iron materials, alum, starch, and activated silica and also some polymers that can be used as coagulants. In this process, the most important controlling factors are contact time, temperature, and pH. In addition, during biological treatment processes, to remove microbes and any organics in the water, some certain coagulants can be added. Coagulation processes play an important role in recycling and removing pollutants from wastewater.
5.1.6 Flotation method
In order to remove suspended solid including oils, greases, biological solids, and other solids from wastewater, flotation separation method is used. In these processes, suspended solids are removed by adhering them with either air or gas. Various chemicals like alum and activated silica are used to successfully apply the flotation process to wastewater because they help flotation separation method. For paper and refinery industries, flotation separation method is an effective method for WWT because suspended solids that oil and grease is can easily be removed (up to 75–99%) by these processes. Recently, to separate mixed plastic is too difficult using gravity separation; therefore, for WWT and recycling purposes, plastic flotation method has been used as effectively [26].
5.2 Secondary treatment methods
Secondary treatment techniques have been used to remove soluble and insoluble pollutants from wastewater as biological. The main objective of this process is to convert the organic and inorganic solids into fluorinated residues that are finely divided and dissolved in the wastewater and to remove of soluble and colloidal organics and suspended solids besides reducing BOD and COD through biological process. When water has a high microbe concentration like bacterial and fungal strains, secondary treatment techniques should be selected for treatment because organic matter is converted into other products via these microbes; besides, they detoxify toxic inorganic matter. After this process is applied to wastewater, toxic organic and inorganic substances can be removed [27].
5.2.1 Aerobic separation method
In biological treatment processes, organic matter can be biodegradable by aerobic and facultative bacteria. Aerobic processes depend on temperature, the oxygen amount and availability of oxygen, and the biological activities of the bacteria. If bacterial growth is accelerated by adding some chemicals to the medium, the organic pollutant oxidation rate as biological will also be increased. Aerobic treatment techniques are the most effective method for removing suspended, volatile, and dissolved organics, nitrates, and phosphates besides BOD and COD. Because of the production of a huge amount of biosolids, aerobic treatment techniques have a big disadvantage; however, the biodegradable organic amount can be reduced substantially (up to 90%) using this method.
5.2.2 Anaerobic separation method
Anaerobic decomposition, called putrefaction, occurs when free dissolved oxygen is not present in wastewater, and this process is called as anaerobic treatment technique. In this treatment technique, organic matters convert into other organics including sulfur and carbon by anaerobic and facultative bacteria. There are two metabolic phases named acidogenic phase and methanogenic phase in the anaerobic separation technique. Some gases such as methane, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and nitrogen can be released. To reduce the biological load of wastewater, this method is very vital [1].
5.3 Tertiary treatment methods
For the production of safe water that people can consume, tertiary water treatment techniques are very important, and they should be applied to wastewater. In this last step, wastewater is subjected to final treatment using some vital techniques, and they are briefly summarized below.
5.3.1 Distillation method
The distillation method is based on the principle that the water is evaporated to the boiling point and the steam is distilled by cooling. After this process, purified water can be obtained free from impurities up to 99% in addition to wastewater is also freed from the volatile pollution. The obtained water by the distillation method is usable in levels of laboratory applications and medicinal preparations. In addition, to prepare potable water from the sea, distillation separation method is an effective tool.
5.3.2 Crystallization method
The crystallization method, which is based on the increasing principle of the concentrations of pollutants up to the crystallization point, is an effective method for obtaining quality water. Crystallization technique is useful to remove high concentrations of total dissolved solids including soluble organics and inorganics from wastewater, and it can be created either by mixing some solvents or by evaporation. This process is generally used for wastewater released to the environment from paper and dying industries. In addition, crystallization can be used for pH control because of other constituents including sulfite bicarbonate [1].
5.3.3 Evaporation method
When compared to other techniques, evaporation separation method is a natural process and suitable method but only for small wastewater volumes due to its high-energy consumption. However, this technique has some problems such as pollution, calcification, and foaming that have occurred in the presence of suspended solids and carbonates in the wastewater. Thus, to increase the evaporation rate and to reduce energy consumption, vacuum evaporation step can be used. Under natural conditions, water surface molecules escape from the surface, and they generally collected pure water. Recently, to recycle water process, mechanical evaporators and sometimes vacuum evaporation have also been used. Using evaporation separation technique is effective for the removal of pollutants including organic and inorganic compounds, but some volatile organic compounds may recirculate into the water during the evaporation phase. Evaporation treatment technique is applicated to various industry wastewaters like pharmaceutical, petroleum, and fertilizer industries. The obtained water from evaporation treatment technique has been used for different purposes including cooling in towers and boilers [28].
5.3.4 Solvent extraction method
Solvent extraction separation method is an important tool to dissolve pollutants from wastewater using various organic solvents like phosphoric acid. Acetone, methanol, hexane, ethanol, and acetonitrile are the most commonly used organic solvents. In this technique, some organic solvents are added to the wastewater to facilitate contaminant removal. The technique is very effective to remove oils, greases, and various organics. However, the process is often used for extraction and separation of heavy metals like lead, cobalt, and chromium using extraction and separation techniques from various industrial wastewater and effluents [29].
5.3.5 Oxidation and advanced oxidation method
To remove various toxic and hazardous chemicals especially endocrine-disrupting chemicals from wastewater, chemical oxidation techniques are preferred, and it is a promising technology for the treatment of wastewaters containing pharmaceuticals products. Organic compounds that are oxidized by oxidation of readily degradable species such as alcohols and carboxylic acids are the main components of this process [30]. Ozone, hydrogen peroxide, and Fenton’s reagent are commonly used as chemical oxidation reagent. The chemical oxidation rate depends on some variables such as the presence of catalyst, temperature, and pH. Also, pollutants and nature of oxidants identify the rate of chemical oxidation. Various organic pollutants including hydrocarbons, dyes, and phenols can be removed from wastewater using chemical oxidation treatment technique. Recently, there has been a continuously increasing worldwide concern for the development of alternative wastewater reuse and recycling methods. Single oxidation separation method can sometimes be inadequate for the total decomposition of organic contaminants in wastewater. This requires advanced oxidation processes, which involve the use of more than one oxidation process at the same time [31]. Summarize, advanced oxidation process has big advantage because in this process all organic contaminants can be commonly oxidized to carbon dioxide form.
5.3.6 Precipitation method
The precipitation method based on the principle that the solubility of the contaminants is reduced and the precipitates which are converted into the solid form are easily separated from the water surface is an effective method for removing metal ions and various organic contaminants from wastewater. Chemical precipitation is a physicochemical process and a very flexible approach to various pollutant removals and can be applied at several stages during wastewater treatment. In industrial applications, precipitation has been the most common technology for metals [32]. In this process, to reduce solubility of the dissolved pollutants, it can be carried out either by lowering the temperature of the water or by adding some chemicals like sodium bicarbonates and ferric chloride, but chemical addition is not preferred because it increases the cost. Common applications of precipitation separation method are wastewater treatment from chromium and nickel plating industries and water recycling besides water softening and removal phosphate from water.
5.3.7 Ion exchange method
Ion exchange technique provides advantages due to it being technologically simple and enables efficient removal of even traces of impurities from solutions, high treatment capacity, high-removal efficiency, and fast kinetics when compared other usual methods. It can be applicable to various industrial wastewaters to remove hazardous materials. Ion exchange treatment technique depends on toxic or undesirable ions, which are replaced with others ions. There are two types of ion exchangers, which can be classified as cation and anion exchangers. Ion exchangers are natural or synthetic resins with active sites on their surface. Synthetic resins are widely preferred because of their effectiveness in removing heavy metals from wastewater [33]. In order to remove hazardous ions from wastewater, some resins including zeolites, sodium silicates, and acrylic and metha-acrylic resins are used as the most common. Reversible process and low-energy requirements are the most important advantages of this method. Using this method, organic and inorganic pollutants can be reduced about by 95%, but pretreatment may be needed if the wastewater contains oil or grease.
5.3.8 Filtration method
Recently, from the industrial sources, a large amount of oily wastewaters has been generated. The most serious pollutants are oil-in-water emulsions because of treatment cost and ineffective of using treatment methods [34]. Using micro-filtration, a suspended solid pollutant that is a particle size from 0.04 to 1 mm can be removed. Microfiltration separation technique has been widely used to remove macromolecules, emulsion droplets, suspended particles, and microorganisms from various industrial fields including food, pharmaceutical, biotechnological, and petrochemical. In the last decade, membrane separations have been developed using various organic/inorganic membranes like ceramic membranes. It is becoming a promising technology for industrial processes and is utilized currently for oil field-produced WWT. When compared to traditional treatment methods, they have some advantages including high oil removal efficiency, low-energy cost, and compact design. Perhaps the most important advantage is that it does not require any chemicals. Some materials such as cellulose, fiberglass, and cotton can be used as filters in filtration method. Recently, several researchers focused on the new inorganic membrane development, for example, natural mineral-based ceramic membranes, carbon membrane, and zeolite membrane [35].
5.3.9 Reverse osmosis method
As membrane technology has been developed, membrane filtration mechanism became a feasible option for wastewaters. Reverse osmosis treatment technique that is called as hyperfiltration is the wastewater purification system that relies on the membranes’ development technology. Using membrane filtration mechanism has shown results of very high efficiency in the filtration of wastewater. According to various studies from literature, when it is used, removal percentage has been achieved as at least 99.9% for COD, total organic carbon, suspended solids, coliforms, and pathogens. To achieve the required filtration, various membranes including cellulose, polyether, and polyamide are used in this process. In this process, the most important parameter is free energy, and other considerable parameters can be identified as pressure, pH, and operation time. To remove the soluble pollutants which contain macro- and microlevel nonpolar, ionic and toxic materials from the wastewater reverse osmosis is a very suitable separation technique. Reverse osmosis treatment technique is the most economic process because the water obtained from this process is of ultrapure water. It can be used in pharmacy and medicines because it can remove various microbes, bacteria, and viruses at high percentages (up to 99.99%) when compared other techniques [36].
5.3.10 Electrolysis method
Electrolysis method based on the redox reaction principle can be expressed as the separation and deposition of the dissolving materials on an electrode surface. During electrolysis separation method, metal ions are deposited on the electrode and separated from the wastewater. In the last decade, electrochemical oxidation methods have been an increasing interest because they can be applicable to WWT. In this process, various electrodes and anodes such as iron electrode, boron-doped diamond electrode, PbO2 electrode, and graphite electrode [37, 38] have been used to remove different pollutants from wastewater.
5.3.11 Electrodialysis method
To remove various ions and other pollutants which have serious impact on the environment from wastewater, several methods have been used. Electrodialysis technique may be one of the most effective methods among these techniques because of recent progress in membrane technology. Electrodialysis, which is a membrane separation technology, depends on an electric potential difference, which is used to drive ion migration toward oppositely charged electrodes. In this process, under the influence of electric current, water-soluble ions pass through the membranes that are made of ion exchange material [39]. Certain factors, for example, nature of pollutants, applied current amount, temperature, and pH, must be kept in mind to remove dissolved solids. This method has been used to produce potable water from brackish water and for water source reduction [40].
5.3.12 Adsorption method
Adsorption separation method is an attractive process because it can be easily applied to WWT, which includes efficiency and flexibility. When it is compared with other treatment methods, it appears superior than others. Some factors that affect adsorption efficiency including the type of adsorbents, pollutant concentration, adsorbent particle size, pH, contact time, and temperature are very important for this process. A pretreatment may be needed to successfully apply the adsorption technique to wastewater because of the presence of suspended particles and oils. To remove pollutants especially heavy metals from wastewater, various adsorbents such as activated carbons from different materials [41, 42], Astragalus [19], carbon nanotubes [43], and a large number of biosorbents [44] have been used by different studies in the literature. However, novel and effective adsorbents with local availability besides economic suitability are still needed. Adsorption technique has two main problems: the first is the regeneration of columns and column life used as an adsorbent and the second is the management of the exhausted adsorbent.
6. Heavy metal removal from industrial wastewater using response surface methodological approach
Nowadays, because of rapid technological development especially in developing countries, environmental pollution is a serious problem for the ecosystem because wastewaters contaminated with toxic heavy metals are discharged directly or indirectly into the environment. Unlike most organic contaminants, heavy metals including As, Hg, and Cr are hazardous due to its nonbiodegradable nature [33, 45]. Thus, to protect the people and the environment, these hazardous ions should be removed from wastewater [46]. For example, while industrial wastewaters which contain Cr ions range from 0.5 to 270 mg L−1, inland surface water tolerance limits 0.1 mg L−1, and potable water Cr level should not exceed 0.05 mg L−1 according to various health organization such as the WHO and EPA [47, 48]. To remove heavy metal ions from wastewater, many conventional techniques such as membrane filtration, reverse osmosis, ion exchange, chemical precipitation, electrodialysis, electrochemical treatment, and adsorption have been employed. While most of these methods suffer from operational costs for the treatment process and high capital, the adsorption method is better than the other methods due to its flexibility in design, simplicity of operation, and facile handling, and it is considered more efficient and economical [45, 49]. Since the dynamic characteristics of the adsorption process are complex, it is essential to have optimum working conditions in order to achieve optimum pollution removal efficiency. Process optimization is crucial to determine design parameters value, which is achieving the optimal obtained response level. The RSM is one of the most used methods because of its developing, improving, and optimizing of the processes especially in the presence of complex interactions. It is also used to determine the ideal points of independent variables that are effective under optimum conditions and to evaluate the interactions of these variables [50]. Its greatest advantage is the decreased experimental trial number required to interpret multiple parameters. Therefore, RSM optimization process contains three main steps: (a) appropriate experimental design selection, (b) model coefficient estimation using analysis of variance (ANOVA), and (c) model validation based on prediction and experimental runs of the process response validation of the final model [51]. This experimental design method for an adsorption process is more practical than other approaches because it allows for the opportunity to monitor and interpret interactions between variables and to describe the overall effect of the parameters on the process. The RSM has been successfully used; in addition, its greatest applications have been in industrial research [52].
There are numerous studies, and different results were obtained using various adsorbents reported such as by Anupama et al. [53]. They used a CCD with RSM for removing Cr(VI) from aqueous medium [53]. They investigated the effect of some parameters including pH and temperature on adsorption, and the optimum pH, time, and adsorbent dose were found to be 2.32, 25.76 min, and 1.79 g L−1. Also various adsorption kinetic models and isotherms were compared to find fit model. Jain et al. [54] studied Cr(VI) removal from aqueous solution using Box-Behnken model with combined RSM approach by chemically treated Helianthus annuus flowers. They investigated three effective factors for Cr(VI) removal. It was reported that the optimum pH, adsorbent dose, and initial concentration of Cr(VI) were found to be 2.0, 5.0 g L−1, and 40 mg L−1, respectively [54]. In an another study [55], Box-Behnken design has been applied to evaluate operating variables interaction for Cr (VI), Ni (II), and Zn (II) ions adsorption on Bacillus brevis. They carried out a total of 17 experiments and used a quadratic model. Based on this model, it was reported that the regression equation coefficients were calculated, and the data fitted to a second-order polynomial equation for these metal ions removal with immobilized on B. brevis. According to another study, to evaluate and optimize Cr ions, adsorption on activated carbon experimental conditions using RSM as an efficient approach for predictive model building was performed by Sahu et al. [56]. A full factorial CCD was employed, and based on ANOVA, a high coefficient (R2 = 0.928) was obtained. In addition, satisfactory prediction of second-order regression model was derived. According to optimized process parameters, Cr(VI) removal percentage was obtained higher than 89% [56]. Kaplan Ince et al. [57] studied a batch experimental system for removal Pb(II) using clay, and optimized experimental approach was applied to some alcoholic beverages including beer and wine samples. Various effective parameters were investigated using a Box-Behnken experimental design methodology and RSM. They reported that the optimal conditions used for Pb(II) removal were pH of 5, contact time of 31 minutes, 75 mg for adsorbent dosage, and 100 rpm for agitation speed. Based on these results, maximum Pb(II) ion removal was calculated as 120 mg g−1 from aqueous medium using an ETAAS [57]. Balan et al. (2009) examined the efficiency of Cd(II) removal from aqueous solutions using sphagnum moss peat as biosorbent. They carried out a CCD for experimental design to evaluate an analysis of results and to optimize process parameters including the pH of solution, biosorbent dosage, and Cd(II) initial concentration. The optimum values of experimental parameters were obtained as 4.72 for pH, 14.7 g L−1 for biosorbent amount, and 13.64 mg Cd L−1 for initial concentration of Cd(II) [58]. In another study, removal of Cr(VI) from simulated wastewater using RSM was examined by Bhatti et al. [59]. They investigated the performance of a laboratory scale electrocoagulation system for the removal of Cr(VI) using Al-Al electrodes. They obtained an interaction between voltage × time and amperage × time coefficient of determination as 0.8873 and 0.9270, respectively. For the optimization of process variables including pH, voltage, and treatment time, the RSM was used. Prediction model results were validated through laboratory scale batch experiments [59]. In another similar study, to remove arsenic from contaminated water by arsenite, an electrocoagulation method with stainless steel electrode was used. A response surface methodology approach was performed to optimize significant process variables such as treatment time and solution pH. They obtained pH as 5.2, treatment time ¼ 20 min for 10, and 55–100 mg L−1 of initial arsenic concentration. It was stated that the waste elimination with electrocoagulation is a sustainable treatment technology with quick start-up, shorter treatment time, and minimum sludge generation [60]. An alginate-coated chitosan nanoparticle was carried out for heavy metal removal from industrial effluents by Esmaeili and Khoshnevisan [61]. To optimize the process of biomass for heavy metal removal from synthetic and industrial effluents containing nickel, an RSM approach was performed. Under optimum experimental conditions, which they obtained as a dose of 0.3 g biomass, pH of 3, 70 mg L−1 of initial concentration nickel, and 30 min contact time, maximum removal efficiency of biomass was found as 94.48% [61]. The Cd removal from wastewater and simulated aqueous solution was examined by Iqbal et al. [62] using a polyurethane material as adsorbent. The effect of operating parameters including adsorbent dosage, pH of solution, and metal ion concentration was modeled by RSM combined with CCD. Experimental runs and independent variables optimum values for Cd adsorption were obtained as 305 mg L−1 Cd ion initial concentration, pH 4.9, contact time 932 min, and adsorbent dose 1.3 g for polyurethane material. Based on the experimental results, to predict the response with good accuracy and reliability, it was mentioned that the RSM proved to be the best statistical model [62]. Ince and Kaplan Ince [63] examined the removal of Cr from industrial wastewater using RSM combined with CCD besides investigated as an efficient approach for examining predictive model building and optimization. To predictive regression models and optimize experimental variables, statistical design was modeled. The experimental parameters such as pH and agitation speed were selected for optimization. They obtained ideal Cr ion removal conditions as pH of 5.0, contact time 23.0 minutes, adsorbent dosage of 69.4 mg, and agitation speed of 135 rpm. The Cr removal efficiency was found at 23.16 mg g−1. Also, significant independent parameters and their interactions were verified by means of the ANOVA. The proposed adsorption process was applied to various industrial wastewaters. It was stated that a CCD method was identified to yield a maximum Cr ion removal of 99% [63].
7. Conclusions
The choice of method to be used in the treatment of water/wastewater depends on the wastewater type and its composition besides the economic aspect. For example, high-grade contaminated water containing solid waste and poor color must be subjected to tertiary water treatment after primary and secondary water treatment processes. If the water does not contain any solids and is contaminated by other contaminants including inorganic, organic, and biological pollutants, the application of the tertiary treatment technique is sufficient. While surface waters are often polluted by organic, inorganic, and biologic pollutants, secondary and tertiary methods of treatment are needed in the treatment of these waters, and only tertiary methods of treatment should be used since groundwater is exposed to hazardous metal ions and anion pollution. The present study summarized removing heavy metal ions in various industrial wastewaters exposed to heavy metal pollution and was focused on optimizing the removal method and determining optimum experimental conditions.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest in the research.
\n',keywords:"response surface methodology, water, chemical techniques, toxic wastes, optimization",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68822.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68822.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68822",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68822",totalDownloads:2179,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:9,dateSubmitted:"July 8th 2019",dateReviewed:"July 30th 2019",datePrePublished:"August 28th 2019",datePublished:"July 29th 2020",dateFinished:"August 28th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Advanced water/wastewater treatment techniques including ion exchange separation, filtration separation, and adsorption are essential in the removal of nonbiodegradable toxic wastes from water. In the current study, removal of heavy metal ions from water/wastewater and the use of response surface methodology (RSM) for experimental optimization were examined thoroughly. The objective of this work was to summarize the removal of heavy metal ions from water/wastewater using various chemical techniques and to emphasize the superiority of RSM in these studies.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68822",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68822",signatures:"Muharrem Ince and Olcay Kaplan Ince",book:{id:"9407",type:"book",title:"Biochemical Toxicology",subtitle:"Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Biochemical Toxicology - Heavy Metals and Nanomaterials",slug:"biochemical-toxicology-heavy-metals-and-nanomaterials",publishedDate:"July 29th 2020",bookSignature:"Muharrem Ince, Olcay Kaplan Ince and Gabrijel Ondrasek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9407.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-697-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-696-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-921-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",middleName:null,surname:"Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"258431",title:"Prof.",name:"Muharrem",middleName:null,surname:"Ince",fullName:"Muharrem Ince",slug:"muharrem-ince",email:"muharremince@munzur.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258431/images/system/258431.jpg",institution:{name:"Munzur University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"266549",title:"Dr.",name:"Olcay",middleName:null,surname:"Kaplan Ince",fullName:"Olcay Kaplan Ince",slug:"olcay-kaplan-ince",email:"olcaykaplan@munzur.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/266549/images/system/266549.jpg",institution:{name:"Munzur University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The aim of wastewater treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Wastewater composition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Water pollutants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Wastewater treatment methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Primary treatment methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"5.1.1 Screening separation method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"5.1.2 Filtration method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"5.1.3 Centrifugal separation method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"5.1.4 Sedimentation and gravity separation method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"5.1.5 Coagulation method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"5.1.6 Flotation method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.2 Secondary treatment methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"5.2.1 Aerobic separation method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"5.2.2 Anaerobic separation method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.3 Tertiary treatment methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"5.3.1 Distillation method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"5.3.2 Crystallization method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"5.3.3 Evaporation method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"5.3.4 Solvent extraction method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"5.3.5 Oxidation and advanced oxidation method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"5.3.6 Precipitation method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"5.3.7 Ion exchange method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"5.3.8 Filtration method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"5.3.9 Reverse osmosis method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"5.3.10 Electrolysis method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"5.3.11 Electrodialysis method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"5.3.12 Adsorption method",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29",title:"6. Heavy metal removal from industrial wastewater using response surface methodological approach",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_34",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Gupta VK, Ali I, Saleh TA, Nayak A, Agarwal S. Chemical treatment technologies for waste-water recycling-an overview. RSC Advances. 2012;2:6380-6388'},{id:"B2",body:'El-Fadel M, Zeinati M, Jamali D. Water resources in Lebanon: Characterization, water balance, and constraints. International Journal of Water Resources Development. 2002;16(4):619-642'},{id:"B3",body:'Tahboub MA. Evaluation of Wastewater Treatment Alternatives for Hebron City. [Thesis]. Palestine: Birzeit University; 2000'},{id:"B4",body:'Chen G. Electrochemical technologies in wastewater treatment. Separation and Purification Technology. 2004;38:11-41'},{id:"B5",body:'Popovic T, Kraslawski A, Avramenko Y. Applicability of sustainability indicators to wastewater treatment processes. 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Optimization of process parameters for removal of heavy metals by biomass of Cu and Co-doped alginate-coated chitosan nanoparticles. Bioresource Technology. 2016;218:650-658'},{id:"B62",body:'Iqbal M, Iqbal N, Bhatti IA, Ahmad N, Zahid M. Response surface methodology application in optimization of cadmium adsorption by shoe waste: A good option of waste mitigation by waste. Ecological Engineering. 2016;88:265-275'},{id:"B63",body:'Ince M, Kaplan Ince O. Application of response surface methodological approach to optimize removal of Cr ions from industrial wastewater. Atomic Spectroscopy. 2019;40(3):91-97'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Muharrem Ince",address:"muharremince@munzur.edu.tr",affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Processes, Tunceli Vocation School, Munzur University, Turkey
Munzur University Rare Earth Elements Application and Research Center, Turkey
Munzur University Rare Earth Elements Application and Research Center, Turkey
Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Munzur University, Turkey
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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\\n\\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
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\\n\\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\\n\\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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The task-focused leadership style is explored under the headings of transactional and autocratic leadership, laissez-faire leadership, and instrumental leadership.",book:{id:"9047",slug:"nursing-new-perspectives",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing - New Perspectives"},signatures:"Serpil Çelik Durmuş and Kamile Kırca",authors:null},{id:"58916",title:"Factors Affecting the Attitudes of Women toward Family Planning",slug:"factors-affecting-the-attitudes-of-women-toward-family-planning",totalDownloads:8485,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Everyone has the right to decide on the number and timing of children without discrimination, violence and oppression, to have the necessary information and facilities for it, to access sexual and reproductive health services at the highest standard. Deficient or incorrect family planning methods, wrong attitudes and behaviors toward the methods and consequent unplanned pregnancies, increased maternal and infant mortality rates are the main health problems in most countries. Individuals’ learning modern family planning methods and having positive attitude for these methods may increase the usage of these methods and contributes the formation of healthy communities. It is considered important to examine the current attitudes and determinants in order to spread the choice of effective method.",book:{id:"6142",slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Nazli Sensoy, Yasemin Korkut, Selcuk Akturan, Mehmet Yilmaz,\nCanan Tuz and Bilge Tuncel",authors:[{id:"216377",title:"Prof.",name:"Nazli",middleName:null,surname:"Sensoy",slug:"nazli-sensoy",fullName:"Nazli Sensoy"},{id:"216589",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Korkut",slug:"yasemin-korkut",fullName:"Yasemin Korkut"},{id:"216595",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcuk",middleName:null,surname:"Akturan",slug:"selcuk-akturan",fullName:"Selcuk Akturan"},{id:"216596",title:"Dr.",name:"Canan",middleName:null,surname:"Tuz",slug:"canan-tuz",fullName:"Canan Tuz"},{id:"216598",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilge",middleName:null,surname:"Tuncel",slug:"bilge-tuncel",fullName:"Bilge Tuncel"},{id:"216599",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"mehmet-yilmaz",fullName:"Mehmet Yilmaz"}]},{id:"69631",title:"Cultural Practices and Health Consequences: Health or Habits, the Choice Is Ours",slug:"cultural-practices-and-health-consequences-health-or-habits-the-choice-is-ours",totalDownloads:845,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Human beings are social animals with an innate desire to conform to socially accepted norms and values. Over periods of time, some of these norms become standards that all members of the community are expected to adhere to. Deviance from these standards is seen as absurd, wrong, or frankly abnormal. However, many of these cultural mores have no scientific basis and, some of them actually promote behaviors with negative health consequences. This chapter examines the cultural practices of some communities in Africa and their health consequences and, explores ways to address the challenges.",book:{id:"9138",slug:"public-health-in-developing-countries-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Public Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Radiance Ogundipe",authors:[{id:"302308",title:"Dr.",name:"Radiance",middleName:null,surname:"Ogundipe",slug:"radiance-ogundipe",fullName:"Radiance Ogundipe"}]},{id:"55808",title:"The Role of Legumes in Human Nutrition",slug:"the-role-of-legumes-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5378,totalCrossrefCites:59,totalDimensionsCites:100,abstract:"Legumes are valued worldwide as a sustainable and inexpensive meat alternative and are considered the second most important food source after cereals. Legumes are nutritionally valuable, providing proteins (20–45%) with essential amino acids, complex carbohydrates (±60%) and dietary fibre (5–37%). Legumes also have no cholesterol and are generally low in fat, with ±5% energy from fat, with the exception of peanuts (±45%), chickpeas (±15%) and soybeans (±47%) and provide essential minerals and vitamins. In addition to their nutritional superiority, legumes have also been ascribed economical, cultural, physiological and medicinal roles owing to their possession of beneficial bioactive compounds. Research has shown that most of the bioactive compounds in legumes possess antioxidant properties, which play a role in the prevention of some cancers, heart diseases, osteoporosis and other degenerative diseases. Because of their composition, legumes are attractive to health conscious consumers, celiac and diabetic patients as well as consumers concerned with weight management. The incorporation of legumes in diets, especially in developing countries, could play a major role in eradicating protein-energy malnutrition especially in developing Afro-Asian countries. Legumes could be a base for the development of many functional foods to promote human health.",book:{id:"5963",slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food",title:"Functional Food",fullTitle:"Functional Food - Improve Health through Adequate Food"},signatures:"Yvonne Maphosa and Victoria A. Jideani",authors:[{id:"201151",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yvonne",middleName:null,surname:"Maphosa",slug:"yvonne-maphosa",fullName:"Yvonne Maphosa"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"200",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. 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