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\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
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\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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",isbn:"978-1-80356-936-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-935-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-937-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"db1dacc9284b2fc73f38fa985a586e15",bookSignature:"Dr. Volkan Gelen and Dr. Abdulsamed Kükürt",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11810.jpg",keywords:"Conditioning, Natural Behaviors, Domestication, Genetics, Environment, Physiology, Sleep Behavior in Animals, Hibernation, Circadian Rhythm, Migration, Parental Care, Reproductive",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 6th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 14th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 1st 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr.Gelen gained his veterinary degree from Kafkas University Veterinary Faculty. 2011, he was rewarded with undergraduate term first place and he received the best poster award at the 8th national veterinary biochemistry congress. 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Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. 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They are common derivatives of municipal, agricultural and industrial sources and pathways. A considerable rise has been observed in terms of emission of air pollutants in the atmosphere [1, 2]. Environmental quality may be at risk by developmental activities as imbalance in the composition of air. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are regarded as very harmful compounds because they are resistant to various factors of biochemical and photolytic degradation. POPs are persistent to soils, sediments, and air for several decades [3]. Having high toxicity and long persistency in the environment they accumulate in the fatty tissues of humans and animals resulting into many behavioral, reproductive and developmental changes [4, 5]. POPs have gained global attention due to their transportation over long distances from the source. Various researchers proved that persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are dangerous compounds due to their persistent, bio accumulative and toxic characteristics. POPs include pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and groups of brominated flame retardants [6]. In Stockholm convention on POPs it was decided to control the concentration of the dirty dozen in the environment. PCDDs and PCDFs are members of dirty dozen which are classified as toxic and carcinogenic, found in very small amounts in the environment. The major issue of PCDDs/PCDFs is due to their extreme persistency in the environment causing toxicity and cancer to living organisms and can potentially cause cancer. Dioxin and furans are family of chlorinated hydrocarbon compound which are categorized into three main classes as: polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyl (DL-PCBs). PCDDs and PCDFs are produced from different anthropogenic activities like forest fires, domestic and hospital waste incineration [7]. They are by products of the synthesis or combustion of chlorine based compounds that include some of the most toxic chemical substrates.
\nPolychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF) are produced accidentally due to inadequate combustion, as well as during the manufacturing and formulation of chlorinated pesticides and other substances. They are also emitted from the incineration of hospital, municipal and hazardous waste. There are seventy many dioxins, out of which seven are considered most toxic to humans, aquatic and terrestrial organisms, causing congenital mental retardation (endocrine disrupting) and physical disorders. Many industrial processes are likely to generate a huge amount of industrial waste, which is openly burned without any safety measure, producing huge quantity of Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF).
\nThe polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) are two groups of tricyclic, planar, aromatic, nonpolar, poorly water soluble, lipophilic and stable chemicals [8]. Out of 210 congener of these chemicals 17 are more toxic. These are toxic carcinogenic unintentional by-products which are found in lesser concentration in environment, reflecting drastic effect due to their extreme persistency. Their persistency is due to their long half-life of 10–20 years roughly [7].
\nEmission favors the formation, environmental release and distribution of these congeners of TCDDs and TCDFs signatures of the types of dioxin and furans associated with particular environmental sources of these compounds [9]. On the contrary, the PCDD/Fs in the ambient air samples, characterized by the abundance 76% in some parts of the world and it is dominated by 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDF (40%) followed by OCDD (10%), OCDF (6%), and 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDD (11%). Reported values not similar to any of the profiles reported by Cleverly; however, it reveals the simultaneous occurrence of two potential emission sources of TCDDs and TCDFs [9].
\nDioxins chemically consist of two benzene rings, connected by a pair of oxygen atoms. Each of the eight carbon atoms on the rings that are not bonded to oxygen can bind with hydrogen atoms or atoms of other elements. The more toxic dioxin is one having chlorine atoms at the 2, 3, 7, and 8 positions. This isomer 2,3,7,8-TCDD is chemically most stable and toxic compound. Being Water insoluble dioxin is not diluted with rain water and remain in the soil thus penetrate and accumulate in fatty tissues. The molecular structure of dioxins can be determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction crystallography. The structure of TCDD in crystal which is also observed in molecular crystal of poly aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) [10].
\nFurans are also toxic organic compounds which are colorless, highly flammable and very low boiling point almost equal to room temperature. Furans are heterocyclic compound containing one oxygen atom, four carbon atoms and a 5-membered ring (Figure 1). The global environmental impact of volatile compounds depends on many factors such as air pressure, temperature and also the weather and terrain features which affect the deposition. It is interesting to know what derivatives are formed from reactions with furan, and also how fastly these potential products are removed from the environment. One of the 5 largest sinks of furan derivatives will probably be reaction with the hydroxyl radical (OH), which mostly initiates reactions with VOCs through hydrogen abstraction from a C-H bond.
\nGeneral structures of dioxin and PCDDs (left) and furan and PCDFs (right).
The environmental distribution of dioxins and furans is a function of transport and source. The sources of dioxins and furans are combustion, soil deposition, volatilized and transported particulates which were sequestered and rereleased into the environment. It is evident that environmental dispersal and accumulation of these compounds is not necessarily depending upon a nearby source. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and their cousins, the polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), are notorious environmental contaminants. Depending on the position of chlorine atoms attached on ring, two hundred and ten chemically different toxic compounds of dioxins and furans are produced each of which is known as “congener” [11]. Collectively these congers or compounds are often known as “dioxins and furans”. These compounds have received considerable public and scientific attention because of their acute toxicity. Out of all these congeners, 2,3,7,8-TCDD has lowest known LD50 values. It takes only 0.6 μg/kg of body weight to kill male guinea pigs [12]. In 1957, a strange disease killed millions of young chickens in the eastern and mid-western U.S. and symptoms of this disease were excess of fluid in the heart sac and abdominal cavity, chased to the fatty acids that had been added to the chicken’s feed. Efforts of several years lead to the isolation of one of the identified toxic chemical [13] by X-ray crystallography; it was 1,2,3,7,8,9-hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. In the 1960s and early 1970s, the Northeastern Pharmaceutical and Chemical Company (NEPACCO) established a plant in Veron for manufacturing of hexachlorophene from 2,4,5-trichlorophenol and formaldehyde. Unfortunately, 2,3,7,8-TCDD was an impurity in the 2,4,5-trichlorophenol starting material used in this process; thus, the hexachlorophene product needed to be purified before sale. Because of its neurotoxicity, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration restricted the use of hexachlorophene in 1971. In 1977 Olie et al. investigated dioxins which existed in fly ash from an industrial heating facility [14]. In 2000, Bumb et al. in a famous paper “Trace chemistries of fire: A source of chlorinated dioxins”, exposed that dioxins were exist in particles from the combustion of organic material, involving the combustion of municipal and chemical waste. This was marvelous discovery, suggested that “dioxins have been with us since the advent of fire” [15, 16]. In mid of 1970, a Swiss company established a chemical plant for manufacturing of 2,4,5-trichlorophenol by the reaction of 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene with NaOH. Unfortunately, accident occurred and chemicals from vessels were released and transported by wind. This caused a lot of disaster to plants, animals and human. Later on it was confirmed that the reason of this disaster was a notorious chemical 2,3,7,8-TCDD [17]. During war in Vietnam, US military showered Agent Orange from 1965 to 1971 as defoliant to kill food crops. Agent Orange was a mixture of n-butyl esters of 24-D and 245-T, the latter of which was formed from 2,4,5-trichlorophenol. Agent Orange was contaminated with small amounts of 2,3,7,8-TCDD [18]. Dioxins and furans including dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls collectively as known as DLCs. These organic compounds are highly toxic and accumulate, through the food chain, into the lipid component of animal foods. In another study it has been observed that levels of these compounds in the environment are declining since 1970s [19]. Highly exposed groups of dioxins and furans are found in breastfeeding infants, fishers and workers of cement industries. Although Dioxins and furans have been extensively studied as a contaminant, but still a great deal of research is needed regarding their potential toxicity.
\nThe toxicity and exposure preferably depends on the composition and particle size of the mixtures containing toxic compounds. Biological activity of mixtures of dioxins and furans is desirable to express the common effect. Literature review reports the biological activities of the various dioxin and furans congeners comparing with of 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Information has been gathered for this dioxin and furan congener, and it is found that TCDD is the most biologically toxic among the mixtures of dioxins and furans and highly potent. The toxicity of TCDD/TCDFFs is therefore expressed in toxicity equivalents (TEQs) of highly potent component as TCCD (Table 1). As an example, exposure to a matter a potency of 2.0 ng TEQ/kg means that matter has the potency equal to 2.0 ng TCDD/kg. Toxicity equivalents values for various materials are calculated by multiplying the mass or concentration of each component by a TEF and adding all present components. The biological activities of TCDD/TCDFs vary depending on the human’s exposure. Even so, public concern persists regarding food supply and adverse outcomes to TCDD/Fs exposure, especially in highly exposed populations. Sensitive population includes fetuses and new born infants. These populations may be at increased risk due to exposure through foods. However, many foods which are sources of dioxins and furans are also sources of important nutrients, such as calcium (Ca) and vitamins (A E C), protein, iron and fish.
\nCAS number | \nHazardous substance | \nMammalian TEF | \nAvian TEF | \n
---|---|---|---|
1746-01-6 | \n2,3,7,8-Tetrachloro dibenzo-p-dioxin | \n1 | \n1 | \n
40321-76-4 | \n1,2,37,8-Pentachloro dibenzo-p-dioxin | \n1 | \n1 | \n
39227-28-6 | \n1,2,3,4,7,8-Hexachloro dibenzo-p-dioxin | \n0.1 | \n0.05 | \n
57653-85-7 | \n1,2,3,6,7,8-Hexachloro dibenzo-p-dioxin | \n0.1 | \n0.01 | \n
19408-74-3 | \n1,2,3,7,8,9-Hexachloro dibenzo-p-dioxin | \n0.1 | \n0.1 | \n
35822-46-9 | \n1,2,3,4,6,7,8-Heptachloro dibenzo-p-dioxin | \n0.01 | \n<0.001 | \n
3268-87-9 | \n1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9-Octachloro dibenzo-p-dioxin | \n0.0003 | \n0.0001 | \n
51207-31-9 | \n2,3,7,8-Tetra chloro dibenzofuran | \n0.1 | \n1 | \n
57117-41-6 | \n1,2,3,7,8-Pentachloro dibenzofuran | \n0.03 | \n0.1 | \n
57117-31-4 | \n2,3,4,7,8-Pentachloro dibenzofuran | \n0.3 | \n0.1 | \n
70648-26-9 | \n1,2,3,4,7,8-Hexachloro dibenzofuran | \n0.1 | \n0.1 | \n
57117-44-9 | \n1,2,3,7,8-Hexachloro dibenzofuran | \n0.1 | \n0.1 | \n
72918-21-9 | \n1,2,3,7,8,9-Hexachloro dibenzofuran | \n0.1 | \n0.1 | \n
60851-34-5 | \n1,2,3,4,6,7,8-Heptachloro dibenzofuran | \n0.01 | \n0.01 | \n
TEQ values for mammalians and Avians (EPA, 2000).
PCDDs and PCDFs are not produced intentionally but as by product of various processes like chlorinated phenols, PCBs, phenoxy herbicides, chlorinated benzene, chlorinated aliphatic compounds, chlorinated catalysts and halogenated biphenyl ethers Table 2 [20, 21]. There are two mechanisms for the formation of PCDD/PCDFs from solid waste incinerator: formation from precursors and formation by de novo synthesis. PCDD/PCDFs followed a mechanism which uses macromolecule carbon and chlorine in fly ash to form dioxins at low temperature by involving the oxidative breakdown and conversion of macromolecular carbon structure to aromatic compound [22]. PCDD/PCDFs formed by this process have solid phase at one end and other part will desorb to gas phase and be carried by off-gas flow. Dioxin can be formed by variety of precursors like chlorobenzene and chlorophenol. Such precursors are produced by partial combustion or heterogeneous catalytic reaction on surface of fly ash [23, 24]. The examination of human tissue of earlier time showed little concentration of dioxins than today [25]. Analysis of sediment near industrial area showed that dioxin concentration is minor till 1920 [8]. However its concentration continued to increase from 1920 to 1970 [26].
\nEquation no. | \nReaction steps | \nRate constants | \n
---|---|---|
R1 | \nP=P. +H | \n1015.5 exp[−86,500/(RT)] | \n
R2 | \nP + OH = P. + H2O | \n109 exp [−86,500/(RT)] | \n
R3 | \nP. = Pr | \n1013.6 exp[−57,654/(RT)] | \n
R4 | \nP + P. = PD + Cl | \n109 exp[−26,000/(RT)] | \n
R5 | \nPD = D + HCl | \n1014 exp[−45,000/(RT)] | \n
R6 | \nPD + OH = D + H2O | \n109 | \n
R7 | \nP. + R = P + R. | \n108 exp[−26,000/(RT)] | \n
R8 | \nP. + OH = Pr | \n109 | \n
R9 | \nD = Pr | \n1015.5 exp[−80,000/(RT)] | \n
R10 | \nD + OH = Pr | \n108 | \n
R11 | \nP. + O2 = Pr | \n108 | \n
R12 | \nR + OH = R. + H2O | \n109 | \n
R13 | \nR = Pr | \n1018 exp[−90,000/(RT)] | \n
Mechanism of PCDD/PCDFs formation according to Shaub and Tsang.
P = polychlorinated phenols, P. = polychlorinated phenoxy radicals, Pr = unspecified products, PD = polychlorinated 2-phenoxy phenols, D = PCDD, R = fuel molecules.
The most effective means of dealing with the problem is to reduce the amount of wastes generated by hospitals. Incineration is one of the key methods to reduce the amount of generated waste. But one serious drawbacks of this process is the emission of dioxins and furans in flue gas. Dioxins and furans are contaminants that are released into the environment from combustion processes. The combustion of plant material from forest, brush, and range fires contributed to preindustrial deposition of dioxins into soil, sediment, and clay. Postindustrial sources are varied and include industrial burning (e.g., steel, coke, ceramic, and foundry), landfill fires, structural fires, utility pole and transformer storage yards, crematories, and backyard barrel burning of trash and woody and other plant material. Municipal solid waste incinerator produced massive amount of dioxins by following the precursors and de novo synthesis mechanism [27]. Past few decades demonstrated that formation of dioxin and dioxin like compound from municipal solid waste incinerator is about 50 ng 1-TEQ/kg [28]. Hospital wastes are also treated by incineration without using high quality technologies. Thus incineration of chlorine containing product produced a lot of dioxins to atmosphere [28, 29]. Hazardous waste (explosive, oxidizing, highly inflammable, infectious, mutagenic) incinerations are responsible for the production of dioxin [30]. Solid residues produced from waste water treatment containing toxic organic pollutants are called sewage sludge. Limitation to Landfill disposal process it is also treated by incineration. Thus it also a big source of dioxins [31].
\nUse of harmful material as fuel leads to major contribution toward dioxin and furans in clinker goes to air [32]. A number of studies of emission confirmed that wood burning is a major source of TCCD/PCDFs emission in air [33]. One of review that give appealing information is that dioxin emission from wood burning is 945 g I-TEQ per year [34]. Different researchers from Norway and Sweden have studied dioxin emission from vehicles engines combustion of fuels [35]. Waste products released from paper and pulp mills have large no of chlorinated and phenolic compounds as in wood pulps leads to emission of dioxin in water, land and paper product [36]. One report from china suggested that paper industry producing 300 pg/11-TEQ [37]. Metallurgical industries involving a no. of process like smelting operation and scrap metal recovery are major sources of dioxin and similar congeners [38]. Sintering of iron ore is also a source of these toxic congeners [39]. Annual production of dioxin in world is estimated to be 500–400 g I-TEQ.
\nPCDDs and PCDFs are persistent and water insoluble compounds having high tendency to accumulate in soil and sediment; vegetation, waste and in organic matter. These compounds have the ability to be recycled and redistributed in environment. Biological processes are also a source of dioxin and furans. When microorganisms catalyze chlorinated phenolic compounds then there occurs the emission of toxic compounds of dioxins and furans [40]. There are no miscellaneous sources e.g. power generation, thermal oxygen cutting metal at demolition sites, Kraft Liquor boiler, laboratory waste tire combustion, carbon activation services [41].
\nComprehensive study has been carried out on toxicity of TCDD/PCDFs and its related compound [42]. Rodents when exposed to TCDD/Fs it lessened the reproductive capability of female and disrupt the sperm production in male progeny. Many diseases like hypospadias, ectopic testes, vaginal pouches, agenesis of the ventral prostate, and nipple retention were notice [43]. Exposure to TCDD leads to prevalence and complication endometriosis [44]. Dioxin and furans are well declared endocrine disrupters thus lessened the production of thyroid hormones [45, 46, 47]. Exposure of wildlife to dioxins cause many reproductive variations such as cryptorchidism in the Florida panther, small baculum in young male otters, small penises in alligators, sex reversal in fish, and altered social behavior in bird [45].
\nTCDD/PCDFs are recommended highly damaging to immune system and thus decreasing host resistance to infectious diseases and lowered immune responses. Dioxins also disturb production of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin and necrosis factor [48]. TCDD/PCDFs significantly affect the neuron populations of vertebrate brain; however their damage to brain function is still not clear and need more research to reveal the truth. It is noticed that TCDD/PCDFs affect the gonadal and thyroid hormones and slow down the neural transmission network [49].
\nChloracne is a skin damaging condition with both hyper keratotic and hyper proliferative responses of the epidermis is caused by the exposure of TCDD/Fs. Many animals such as cows, horses and rabbits also revealed this disease notice [50]. In addition to these, loss of sebaceous gland and atrophy of hair follicle also noticed due the severe exposure of TCCD/PCDFs [51]. With the exposure to TCDD/PCDFs excessive keratinization may also occur in dermal epithelium [52].
\nSome biochemical changes also seen with exposure to congeners of TCDD/Fs [53]. It was noticed that insulin level goes down after TCDD/PCDFs massive accumulation. It is also observed TCCD/PCDFs exposure effect the body growth, deplete the energy stores and thus organism has to lower insulin level to sustain blood glucose levels. On the other side tryptophan concentrations of brain increase, due to increase free fatty acids in blood circulation. These changes allow tryptophan to compete with binding site of albumin and help its transport to central nervous system [54]. Similarly, oxidative processes have been considered necessary for metabolic (e.g., porphyria) and morphological damage of the liver [55].
\nAnother study reports that TCCD/PCDFs have effects on female Rhesus monkeys when exposed to 0, 5, or 25 ng/L in their diet for 4 years and then protected for 10 additional years. It was noticed that these monkeys caught with severity of endometriosis [56]. On the other hand, endometriosis cyst growth in both rats and mice has also been enhanced by exposure to TCDD/PCDFs at very low doses where no ovarian toxicity occurred [57]. However, a dose of 10 mg TCDD/kg for a 16 week period resulted in ovarian atrophy in mice [58] .
\nVarious techniques are available for the controlled emission of dioxins and furans depending upon the type of feed stocks. Some popular and effective methods are: using sulfur compounds namely (NH4)2SO4, pyrite (FeS2), changing the operating conditions of incinerations. Present chapter discuss methods to minimize effect of dioxins and benzofurans and their formation in different types of incineration systems. Municipal solid waste incineration system, hazardous solid waste incineration system and bio medical waste incineration system. Formation mechanism and the various sources including the precursors of PCDD/Fs formation need to be controlled during the combustion. It is also evident through literature that risk management strategies to reduce polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzo-furans (PCDFs) exposure, consideration may be given to the potential impact of changes to food and nutrition policies, particularly those related to public health and food.
\nThere are number of technologies practiced around the globe to control combustion practice coupled with end of pipe treatment. Most preferably these are selective catalytic reduction, addition of suitable inhibitors for dioxins and furans eradication in the flue gas of waste incinerators. A brief background with pictorial images of the present technologies has been presented in this chapter (Figure 2) three different technologies used for the control of dioxins and furans have been discussed. Selective catalytic oxidation or reduction (SCR) using NH3-SCR catalysts (commercial V2O5-WO3/TiO2) could effectively promote the decomposition of PCDD/PCDFs without hampering the normal operating conditions of the incineration studied by [60]. Vermeulen et al. added urea for the purpose of decomposition of dioxins reducing it upto 90% under the same operating conditions as of ammonia [59]. In the process of adding compounds of sulfur to control the formation different congeners of PCDD/PCDFs (Figure 3) the feedstock is firstly prepared, homogenized with crushing and adding into the rotary kiln. The emission of dioxin compounds were controlled by a series of operations that includes quenching tower, acid neutralizing tower, wet scrubber, bag filter and activated carbon dosing [61]. One important criterion to optimize the minimization of PCDD/PCDFs is the proper selection of sulfur compounds. In third technology, compounds of nitrogen such as ethanolamine, mono-ethanolamine (MEA), urea, ammonia, tri-ethanolamine, di-methylamine were added to control the formation of dioxins and furans. It was studied that thiourea is a suitable dioxin inhibitor with high S and N-content Figure 4 [61].
\nInhibition of PCDD/PCDFs by the aid of V2O5-WO3/TiO2 catalysts [
Flow diagram of sulfur dioxide circulation system [
Flow diagram of the waste incinerator that uses thiourea (1: feeder; 2: furnace; 3: cyclone separator; 4: SNCR; 5: secondary combustion chamber; 6: boiler; 7: semi-dry spray neutralizer; 8: AC injector; 9: bag house filter; 10: stack; 11: dissolving tank) [
The concentration of PCDD/PCDFs in environment has been increased up to the range of toxicity so these compounds may affect the biological systems. There are various means of production of PCDD/PCDFs which has significant impact on rise of levels of these compounds in ambient air. The concentrations of PCDD/PCDFs in the environment are not well controlled due to many reasons like temperature variations and seasonal pattern. Although a large no of research studies have been conducted to investigate and control PCDD/PCDFs but even then information is limited to get about these compounds therefore it is difficult to get rid of them. Further investigations should be conducted to establish a comprehensive approach to investigate the recent profiles of PCDD/PCDFs found in various parts of the world especially in developing countries. This chapter will help the stake holders in decision making process to establish a sustainable waste management system in future. New and better innovative research plans are necessary for addressing the problems related to pollution.
\nDetermining the energy intensity of physical activity is a basic problem in evaluating the impact of this activity on the human body, either in terms of certain civilization diseases prevention, or in terms of increasing the functional (physical) fitness of people, or to assess the body’s response to a given type of load.
The goal of all non-pharmacological intervention programs – movement programs in primary and secondary prevention is to determine the minimum amount of exercise load that will cause the necessary persistent changes in the state of the organism [1, 2, 3].
In general, the amount of energy that an organism consumes in a given physical activity is directly proportional to the intensity of that activity [1, 4, 5]. Throughout the range of movement load intensities–movement speed v, the energy E required to provide locomotor activity is proportional to the power of the velocity of movement. This relationship is generally nonlinear over the entire range of load intensities v and can be described by the following Equation [2, 6, 7].
Where c is the energy cost of movement, n for human movement ranges from 1 to 3 and expresses the density of the environment in which the movement is realized. The higher the density of the environment, the higher the value of n. The coefficient c characterizes the economics of motion and it is true that the lower its value, the better the economics of movement and the better its technique [2, 8].
The energy demands for submaximal movement intensity (i.e. movement economy) can be quantified by calculating the steady-state V̇O2, expressed with respect to body mass and time, for a standardized, submaximal movement intensity [1, 9]. Because this variable represents an aerobic need for physical activity, ATP resynthesis from ADP must be paid exclusively from substrates stored in the body and oxygen obtained from pulmonary ventilation and not from substantial protein catabolism. In untrained individuals, research has shown that at low to moderate speeds, steady state oxygen consumption is reached in approximately 3 minutes. Trained individuals reach a steady state earlier than untrained individuals. Although the existence of steady state is limited by a number of methodological limitations, this steady state can also be demonstrated by a non-increasing accumulation of lactate in the blood and RER lower than 1.00. All this is significantly influenced by diet, where in the case of predominant protein intake, the RER is less than one [1].
With a constant speed or running, at submaximal exercise intensities, the relationship between E and speed of running v is linear Energy necessary to proceed at a given running speed can be regarded as the product of c coefficient times the speed itself
Where c is in J.kg−1.m−1 and running speed in m.s−1, thus yielding energy E in W.kg−1. the range of linearity depends not only on the actual training state, but also on the metabolic state, age, sex, and speed potential of the subjects studied [6, 10].
The linearity of this dependence depends on the subject’s training state. For running, it is in the range of 20–80% of the maximum intensity of movement in the untrained, and in the range of 10–90% of the maximum intensity in the trained [10].
Direct measurement of energy during real physical activity is relatively complicated. For practical reasons, we have often expressed E as oxygen uptake for the activity. In these cases, it has been convenient to express c in J.kg−1.m−1 and running speed in m.min−1, to obtain E in more customary units ml.kg−1.m−1. Thus the last equation may be rearranged as follows:
Under aerobic conditions, since the energy E can be identified with VO2max, and in the submaximal range of intensities v, the last equation becomes:
where f is the fraction of VO2max which may be utilized over a prolonged period of time [2, 11]. The duration of the competition and thus also the performance in training is obviously a decisive factor in determining the magnitude off. It is larger the longer the duration of the competitive performance [2, 6, 12].
The movement speed thus may be calculated as follows
It follows from the above relationship that the better the economy of movement - the lower c, the higher the speed the individual can move.
Coefficient of movement energy cost during running (expressed in J.kg−1.m−1), and indicates how much energy is needed to transfer the body mass of 1 kg to the distance of 1 m. It holds that the better the economy of movement, the lower the values of c we find. In our older study, we found the following values of the coefficient c for different sports, gender, and age. The value of this coefficient ranges from 3.5 for highly trained runners on middle distances to values of about 4.2 for untrained people. For example for men and women respectively in adult middle distance runners C = 3.57 +/− 0.15 and 3.65 +/− 0.20, in adult long-distance runners C = 3.63 +/− 0.18 and 3.70 +/− 0.21, in adult canoeists C = 3.82 +/− 0.34 and 3.80 +/− 0.24, in young middle-distance runners C = 3.84 +/− 0.18 and 3.78 +/− 0.26 and in young long-distance runners C = 3.85 +/− 0.12 and 3.80 +/− 0.24 [2]. This similarity may be explained by the similar training states of both sexes, resulting from the intense training which did not differ in its relative intensity and frequency between the groups of men and women. Bunc and Heller [2] found a negative relationship was found between the energy cost of running and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) expressed relative to body mass (for men r = −0.471, p < 0.001; for women r = −0.589, p < 0.001). Thus, the better the adaptation to a given movement load, the higher the values of the maximum consumption an individual can achieve and the lower the density of the coefficient c, and the better the technique of movement.
The energy demands of higher stride frequency at a given speed are frequently cited as the most plausible explanation for the higher energy cost of movement, for the higher coefficient c. This concept is based on the assumption that the energy required to move body mass should directly reflect the muscle tension created by each stride [13].
If we assume that differences in stored energy are not significant between different subjects [1, 2] then we may conclude that in the non-trained subjects with increasing body fat percentage, and generally with increasing body mass, the coefficient of the energy cost of movement increases, and the energy cost of movement decreases when training state decreases. The prerequisites for using stored chemical energy for moving are reduced and thus the moving capacity and movement economy decline. For improving of predispositions for moving (transfer of body mass), it is necessary to reduce body mass to the subject’s “optimal” body mass [4].
Movement economy c, which has traditionally been measured as the oxygen cost of running at a given velocity, has been accepted as the physiological criterion for ‘efficient’ performance and has been identified as a critical element of overall distance running performance [4, 6, 7, 11, 14]. It follows from the above that there is a relationship between the mechanics of running and its energy intensity, but previous research does not allow to determine a clear biomechanical profile of a runner with a high economy of movement - the high technique of movement. Through movement training, individuals seem to be able to adapt to achieve movement as economically as possible and minimize energy degradation [15]. Information in the literature suggests that biomechanical factors are likely to contribute to a better economy in any runners [16].
Atropometric parameters can significantly affect the biomechanics of movement, movement technique, and its energy intensity. These include height, ponderal index, and ectomorphic or ectomesomorphic figure; body fat percentage; foot morphology, pelvic size, foot size, and shape [13].
The economy of running can be influenced by movement patterns of running, their kinematics. These factors include the length of the step, which is freely chosen depending on the current fatigue; vertical oscillation of the center of gravity of the body; knee angle during the swing; range of motion, angular velocity of plantar flexion during toe-off; arm movement with smaller amplitude; peak ground reaction forces; rotation of the arms in the transverse plane; angular deflection of the hips and shoulders about the polar axis in the transverse plane; and efficient use of stored elastic energy [7, 17, 18]. Other factors that can significantly affect the running economy are: the shoes mainly their weight and the elasticity of the sole; higher share of higher and high training intensities of training history; and medium flexibility base. This information can be crucial in identifying talents for medium and long-distance running. At higher levels of training, it is likely that “natural selection” tends to eliminate athletes who have either failed to inherit or develop traits that support the economy of movement [19, 20].
It turns out that intra-individual variations in running economics range between 2% and 11% for a particular speed. Most of these variations are probably due to biological measurement error [21]. While the sources do not support gender differences in movement economics, data from some studies suggest that men may have better movement economics than women due to more muscle mass and less body fat. The economics of running change depending on age, depending on the amount of physical training completed. Pre-adolescent children have a worse economy than older children and adults, while older adults show the same trend compared to younger counterparts [9]. Air resistance at higher speeds fundamentally affects the economy of movement. Running on a treadmill at speeds higher than 13 km.h−1 due to air resistance significantly underestimates the cost of energy intensity compared to running speeds at the same speed in the field [9]. Oxygen consumption increases as a result of the “Q 10 effect” [22, 23]. There is also no consensus on the impact of different types and intensities of training on running economics, and significant differences in economics between long-distance runners who undergo the same load (eg track) suggest that non-training factors may also affect the running economy, such as the amount and type of muscle fibers [13, 20, 24].
From a study by Black et al. [19] show that anthropometric parameters and body composition are important predictors of running economics. Relative slenderness indices, especially segment perimeters, have been commonly associated with running economy, suggesting that a slimmer individual can be expected to expend less energy and thus be more economical at any given speed [25]. It should be noted that the amount of energy available for physical activity stored in the body per kg of free fat mass is practically the same for virtually all persons of the same sex. The importance of running economics in medium and long-distance running, we recommend to trainers, applied practitioners, and athletes to evaluate anthropometric parameters and body composition as part of the evaluation of training. This is especially important in identifying talented athletes and preparing top athletes to achieve maximum individual performance [26].
Studies comparing different groups of runners with different training and focus have shown that the maximum differences in energy intensity between runners are around 20%. Factors influencing the value of coefficient c include body dimensions: body height and weight, the architecture of the lower calves, mostly the length of the calcaneal tuberosity, which are responsible for 60–80% variability of this coefficient. Children have higher c values than adults. This can be explained by their higher resting metabolism, lower running technique, and lower leg/leg ratio [9, 27]. The storage of elastic energy and its reuse also contributes to the variability of c. The coefficient c increases with the increasing speed of movement due to the increase in mechanical work is blunted to speed of 6–7 m.s−1 by increasing the vertical stiffness and shortening the contact time with the ground. Fatigue caused by prolonged or intense running is associated with up to a 10% increase in c; the influence of metabolic and biomechanical factors on the energy intensity of running remains unclear. Women show c similar to men of similar body weight, despite differences in running technique. The higher performance of black African endurance athletes is probably related to their leg architecture and better elastic storage and reuse of elastic energy [20].
Speed and movement techniques are considered to be the main sources of changes in the energy intensity of running in individuals with different body masses. The linear dependence of energy on running speed is approximately up to a speed of 3.6 m.s−1. In the case of higher speeds, this dependence is nonlinear. At6speeds higher than 3.6 m.s−1, runners are less likely to achieve aerobic performance - steady state oxygen consumption [28].
Walking and running are the basic means of influencing an individual’s condition, his health and fitness. Possibilities of evaluation of energy intensity in laboratory and field conditions using the speed of movement, allows to streamline movement training. Energy intensity allows you to design individual exercise programs, for example, for the needs of primary and secondary prevention of obesity, cardiovascular disease, reducing the impact of current lifestyles, etc. [3, 4, 29].
Human locomotion is characterized by two principal gaits, walking and running. This makes it possible to move either at a slow speed for long periods of time or at over 10 m.s−1 during a sprint [30]. The basic features of both locomotion modes are the same: each step represents one posture phase and one swing phase, but then they differ because the foot controls have two separate operating modes for walking and running. The timing of each phase of the movement is different. The frequency of steps is usually lower when walking than when running, so the contact time with the surface of each foot is longer when walking and shorter when running, while the swing shows the opposite trend. When walking, there is always at least one foot on the ground, while running there is a flight phase where both feet are above the ground and the amplitudes of the contractions of the flexor and extensor muscles during the two phases of the step are different [31, 32].
Studies examining the interaction between stride length, energy absorption, and impact attenuation have only been performed on level ground. Stepped running places unique demands on the musculoskeletal system compared to running on a plane, resulting in differences in physiological requirements and the kinematics and kinetics of the run [5]. Downhill running is associated with greater impact magnitudes and increased energy absorption when compared to level running [5]. The increased eccentric muscular work required to absorb more energy during downhill running may also be associated with muscle damage and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), which negatively affects running performance. In contrast, uphill running is more energetically costly than level or downhill running [32] but is associated with lower impact magnitudes and reduced lower extremity energy absorption, especially when compared to downhill running [32]. Step length and frequency are also known to change during graded running [5], and step length manipulation may aid in understanding the injury and performance implications of these natural changes to preferred step length [18].
The evaluation of the energy intensity of running is a suitable criterion for examining the efficiency of mechanical work, evaluation of movement technique, and analysis of endurance performance during endurance running [24, 33].
Once energy cost values (V̇O2 and caloric expenditure) are standardized using bodyweight, the primary determinant of energy cost was the speed of movement [1, 33]. The derived generalized models make it possible to determine both V̇O2 (ml.kg−1.min−1) and the energy intensity (kcal.kg−1.min−1) of walking and running. The relationship between walking speed or number of steps and the energy intensity of walking is parabolic, while the relationship between running speed and energy intensity of running is in the range of about 20–80% for untrained and 20–90% for trained line runners is linear [34]. Neither age nor body height significantly improved the prediction of the energy cost of movement from its speed.
In practice, results of spiroergometric surveys often need to be checked using the relationship between oxygen consumption and movement speed. The relationship between energy and speed of running may be used as a linear form as follows
Where a and b are constants that depend generally on the training status, sex, age and speed, and strength predisposition.
Many equations can be found in the literature for predicting energy expenditure during walking or running. Not only can the amount of energy that was “burned” during a training unit be determined, but often these relationships are implemented in miniaturized electronic devices that provide the user with relevant data on the energy intensity of the physical activity performed. At the same time, it should be noted that the energy estimation error from walking or running speed is around 10% and these relationships can be used for so-called biological testing of spiroergometric analyzers. We include in the text those prediction equations which are currently the most frequently used and which provide relevant information for a given population. We have chosen the following tables and equations because they have often been cited in the literature. The ACSM Equation [35] was used because most exercise physiologists know the ACSM guidelines. McArdle’s [33] walking and running tables have been used because they are found in commonly used exercise physiology textbooks and are often used by researchers in the field to estimate energy expenditure. Other equations were chosen because they were cited in the literature and provided additional estimates of walking and running. The prediction formulas that were used are listed below:
McArdle’s tables are available in the referenced text.
M = body mass (kg), L = load carried, v = velocity (m·s−1), G = grade, and n is the terrain factor. For unloaded, level walking on a track or treadmill, the following formula is used:
Mr. = metabolic cost of running, Mw = metabolic cost of walking, L = clothing weight
With the maximal error of estimation in the range of running speeds 8–16 km.h.−1 about 10%.
For walking in the range of intensities the oxygen consumption inaccuracy at the speeds from 4 to 10 km.h−1 is around 12% [12, 34].
Running has a greater energy cost than walking on both the track and treadmill. For running, the Léger equation, ACSM [35], and Bunc [12] prediction model appear to be the most suitable for the prediction of running energy expenditure. The ACSM [35], Pandolf, Givoni & Goldman [37], and Bunc [12] linear prediction equation also closely predict walking energy expenditure, whereas McArdle’s [32] table or the equations by Epstein and van der Walt were not as strong predictors of energy expenditure.
For movement speeds lower than 7 km.h−1, the energy cost of running is higher than walking For movement speeds higher than 7 km.h−1, the energy cost of walking is higher and increases exponentially with increasing movement intensity [34] that ACSM [35], Bunc [12] and Léger [38] predictive energy performance models for running straight are more accurate in a young healthy population. For horizontal walking, the ACSM [34, 35], and Pandolfova [37] reduction models also appear to be more accurate than other prediction equations.
The energy intensity of both running and walking represents the total energy consumption using many different mechanisms in the body, including muscle dynamics, blood circulation, and aerobic processes of energy release. In both running and walking energy-intensive experiments in humans, this is usually determined from oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production values minus the basal metabolic rate at rest to achieve net metabolic performance. The energy intensity of exercise is commonly expressed in two different ways: energy consumed per unit time (metabolic rate or power) or energy consumed per unit distance [40].
The negative relationship between maximal oxygen consumption expressed relative to body mass and coefficient energy cost of running c means that athletes with higher aerobic capacity, higher VO2max have lower values of c, i.e. better running economy [2, 41]. These findings may bet the results of the prolonged duration of the competitions and, thus, of the training performance of these athletes when they are forced to turn out a highly economical performance over a prolonged period of time, and it may also bet the result of a high degree of adaptation to running [25].
An energetic economy has been shown to have a large influence on human walking behavior. For example, at a given speed, humans tend to walk with a preferred step length that coincides with minimum metabolic cost [40]. Despite the complexity of the relationship between walking biomechanics and its energy expenditure, relevant studies have shown significant contributors to overall walking energy intensity, such as step-by-step work to redirect the center of gravity and energy in generating muscle strength to support weight transfer and swing. Feet.
The biomechanics of complex movements, such as those that occur when walking and running, which involve a large number of cooperating body segments, can be better understood by considering the energy counterpart, ie the energy expended on muscle contraction, which must work continuously to drive the body forward. Running and especially walking are basic physical activities to which a person is maximally adapted. This adaptation has evolved over many generations in order to minimize the energy requirements of a given physical activity. Walking is an energetically beneficial physical activity, its energy intensity is only about 50% higher than the basal metabolic rate (at speed of 0.6 ms−1 it is about 2.44 W.kg−1) [16], and this has in the past allowed populations to expand their ecological niches. Conversely, running can be very challenging and can be continued without slowing down for untrained individuals for less than an hour and sprinting for a much shorter time; but while the energy intensity of walking varies with the speed of movement, when running the same distance, the energy expended, although higher overall, is independent of movement speed [32].
Our older study [34] tries to answer the question of the energy cost of walking (VO2) could be accurately predicted with the simple models which analyze the relationship oxygen uptake-speed of walking. Employing the new modification of this model from 1986 [42] to analyze VO2 - speed of walking relationship leads to the elaboration of a simple linear model, two-compartment linear model, a polynomial model of second-order and monoexponential model of the metabolic cost of treadmill walking. To verify and compare these models 87 males, age ranged from 19 to 62 years, were evaluated on a motor-driven treadmill. They walked at 0% slope on a treadmill at various velocities ranged from 3 to 12 km.h−1.
The linear model has in range of intensities 3–12 km.h−1 a form of VO2.kg−1 (ml.kg−1.min−1) = 5.228*v (km.h−1)-11.158, r = 0.812, SEE = 4.16 ml.kg−1.min−1. The two-compartment linear model has in range of intensities of 3–7 km.h−1 a form of VO2.kg−1 = 3.207*v(km.h−1)-1.777, r = 0.932, and SEE = 1.5 ml.kg−1.min−1. In the range of 7.1–12 km. VO2.kg−1 = 7.120*v-29.168, r = 0.901, SEE = 3.78 ml.kg−1.min−1. In the range of intensities from 3 to 12 km.h−1 a polynomial model was found in the form VO2.kg−1 = 4.501–0.108*v + 0.379*v2, r = 0.891, SEE = 4.43 ml.kg−1.min−1, and the exponential model had a form VO2.kg−1 = 4.360*exp.(0.223*v), r = 0.861, SEE = 6.84 ml.kg−1.min−1. All these correlation coefficients were highly significant (p < 0.001 in all cases) [34].
It was concluded that when applied to adult population, the models provide a reasonable estimate of the actual requirement for treadmill walking provided the subjects in an oxygen uptake steady-state [43]. From the above, an important conclusion for practice follows: with adequate accuracy of about 10%, a linear model of the dependence of oxygen consumption and walking speed can be used in the range of walking speeds of 4–12 km.h−1.
As with other researches for VO2.step−1 or speed of movement, we have found U-shaped curves of the coefficient energy cost of walking (see Figure 1). The minimum was at a speed of about 4 km.h−1. This finding supports the speculation that does exists the “optimal” speed of moving which reflects the minimal energy expenditure during walking [34].
Dependence of energy cost coefficient on speed of movement in walking and running.
The energy coefficient of walking varies depending on the increasing speed of walking. In contrast, the coefficient c for running is practically constant in the range of running speeds 6–15 km.h−1(see Figure 1) [7, 44].
In general, the dependence on walking speed or number of steps has a nonlinear parabolic course with a clearly defined minimum of around 4 km.h−1 see Figure [34, 42, 45, 46] over the entire range of walking load intensity intensities. From a speed of about 4.5 km.h−1, the value of the coefficient c when walking increases exponentially. For practical use, on the basis of the above, a linear description of the dependence between the energy or oxygen consumption and the speed of movement can be used in practice to determine the energy intensity of the movement.
For movement speeds lower than approx. 7 km.h−1, the coefficient of energy intensity of walking is lower than for running [34]. For practice, this means that in the case of mainly patients, walking at speeds lower than 7 km.s−1 is more energetically advantageous than running at the same speed.
During treadmill running most well-trained runners run at step frequencies that minimize their energy expenditure. However, outdoor running, with air resistance and wind, is different from treadmill running [23, 47].
The resistance of the environment, in our case walking and running air, is characterized by forces that act against the movement of an object that moves in space. These resistive forces act in the opposite direction to the speed of the approaching flow, thus slowing down the object. Unlike other resistance forces, resistance depends directly on speed, because it is a component of the net aerodynamic force acting against the direction of movement, on the front profile of the moving individual, and on the air density. Therefore, world records on sprinters have often been broken at higher altitudes, where the air density is lower [48, 49].
Air resistance, or drag, can be put into one of three categories; lift induced, parasitic, and wave. Each of these types of air resistance affects an object’s ability to stay up and the power it will need to keep it there [49].
Lift-induced air resistance happens as the result of the creation of lift on a three-dimensional lifting body (wing or fuselage).
Parasitic drag happens when a solid object moves through a fluid. This type of air resistance is made up of lots of components like “form drag” and “skin friction drag”.
Wave drag is made when an object moves at a high speed through a compressible fluid.
Air resistance is usually calculated using the “drag equation”, which determines the force experienced by an object moving through a fluid or gas at a relatively large velocity. This can be expressed mathematically as [49, 50]:
In this equation, FD represents the resistance force, ρ is the air density, v is the velocity of the object relative to the speed of sound, A is the cross-sectional area, and CD is the coefficient of resistance. The result is what is called “quadratic resistance.” For movement in an air environment, these constants can be determined as follows.
The energy required to overcome air resistance was estimated at 2% for running outdoors at 5 m.s on a calm windless day [48]. Jones and Doust showed that HR was about 3–4 beats higher when running outdoors (quiet day) compared to running on a treadmill [52]. Pugh found an increase in VO2 of about 14% as the rate of the ventilator in the laboratory increased from 0 to 10 m.s−1 for a subject running on a treadmill at 3.75 m.s−1 [23]. This would correspond to the difference between a treadmill running at 3.5 m.s−1 and running at the same speed at a headwind of 6.5 m.s-1. Based on our study of trained runners, there is a significant difference in running energy intensity and at running speeds higher than 13 km.h−1 [10, 12]. In another study, 6 runners ran in the headwind at a speed of about 6.5 ms−1. The HR value was 4–8 bpm.min−1 higher in the headwind compared to the windless, which illustrates the significant effects that wind can have on the energy intensity of the run [53].
The technique of movement changes depending on the increasing resistance of the air at higher speeds. Therefore, in order to maintain the correct movement technique even at speeds above 13 km.h−1 running behind the car is often used in the training of runners, which reduces the direct impact of air resistance on the runners.
Walking and running are very often used in intervention programs for cultivating fitness or for body mass reduction [3, 29, 54, 55]. Exercise intervention with a mean weekly energy intensity of 20.40 ± 4.51 kcal.kg−1.week−1 or with a mean energy cost per day of 5.4 kcal.kg−1.day−1 which are applied for at least 7 weeks, will cause significant changes in functional and morphological parameters. These changes are independent of age and gender. In the case of weight, the total energy intensity of physical activities increases with increasing body mass [3, 27].
Physical intervention based on walking or running with an intensity corresponding to 80–90% SFmax, at least 80% of the total load must consist of running or walking for at least 8 weeks will cause changes in aerobic capacity expressed by changes in VO2peak are on average around 16% of the initial value. We find the same relative change in the speed of movement at which the load on the treadmill is terminated due to subjective exhaustion. The weight reduction is around 14% of the initial weight and the average improvement of the kinetic load assumptions as measured by the ECM / BCM coefficient is around 15% [3, 54].
Recent cross-sectional studies have demonstrated the ability to economize movement, either alone or in combination with V02max, a crucial factor that may explain a substantial portion of performance variations between trained long-distance runners and untrained subjects of comparable levels of exercise and fitness. Limited data from short-term and long-term longitudinal research also suggest that the success of endurance running is related to training and improving the economics of movement leading to a reduction in the energy intensity of movement [53].
In practice, this leads to the clear conclusion that the first step in any endurance training is to improve the economics of running - running techniques leading to reduced energy consumption and delayed fatigue due to depletion of energy resources stored in the body.
Walking and running are the basic locomotor activities of a person. They are not demanding on the environment and are implemented in practically any weather and in almost all environments - on flat and changing surfaces, movement on the plane, and downhill or uphill. We adopt very well to these forms of physical activity, which results from their long-term use for livelihood and the implementation of work and leisure activities. The energy intensity coefficient of walking depends on the speed of movement and reaches a minimum at a speed of about 4 km.h-1 [34]. On the contrary, the coefficient of energy intensity of the run is practically independent of the running speed. The minimum dependence of the coefficient of walking energy intensity on its speed is probably due to the optimal use of the recovery of elastic forces at this speed of movement.
This minimum of energy intensity is often used in the rehabilitation of cardiac patients because the changes caused by the speed corresponding to this minimum are the smallest [56, 57].
Evaluation of the degree of adaptation to running, with the help of c coefficient as an additional characteristic during laboratory tests, enables us to ascertain, along with other parameters, not only the effectiveness of training procedures, but also helps in the evaluation of the technique of the movement performed. This is essential in sports events where training is started at an early age and enables us to determine the energy cost of the training stimulus used [1, 2, 24].
Movement economization in the case of long-term exercise loads is associated with the maximum use of automated movements, which are less energy-intensive than non-automated movements. In practice, this makes key recommendations. At the beginning of each movement intervention, it is always necessary to focus on economizing movement, improving technique \\ movement, and only then concentrating on managing the required volume of exercise loads [41].
To master the necessary movement techniques in the case of deepening fatigue, ie in the case of deepening acidosis and reducing the amount of energy substrates is possible only as a result of long-term intensive training [4, 32]. Running economics - the energy intensity of running is primarily dependent on completed training, but the genetic disposition of the runner also plays a role here, i.e. its current level is given by the intersection of genetic preconditions and completed running training [58].
Based on the energy cost of walking or running for a particular individual, it is possible to design a movement intervention that allows you to optimize the effect of this intervention and mainly minimize the time required for this intervention [59].
Evidence suggests that several internal (sex, running biomechanics, anatomy) and external factors (experience, mileage, training routines) may contribute to the risk of injury in recreational runners [60]. Good exercise technique, its good economy, a good value of the energy intensity coefficient of running c, can significantly delay the onset of fatigue during long-term running training load and can act preventively against muscle injuries [61]. Therefore, special attention should be paid to cultivating running techniques in preparation for long-distance races, such as marathons and ultra-endurance races, in order to ensure the necessary condition without increasing the risk of injury from overload.
Evaluation of energy cost of majority of physical movement activities and subsequent cultivation, used to influence fitness or in primary and secondary prevention, allows to increase the effectiveness of the applied physical intervention. At the same time, it can delay the onset of fatigue and thus reduce the incidence of muscle injuries. Assessing the energy intensity of running or walking in laboratory or field functional tests can significantly expand the information content of these surveys and should therefore be an integral part of these surveys. Models relating energy and intensity to exercise are useful for quantifying the training load of both recreational and trained runners and allow you to minimize the time devoted to endurance training.
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\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The chapter describes the design, implementation and integration of a ground penetrating radar (GPR) using a software defined radio (SDR) platform into the aerial drone. The chapter?s goal is first to tackle in detail the development of a custom-designed lightweight GPR by approaching interplay between hardware and software radio on an SDR platform. The SDR-based GPR system results on a much lighter sensing device compared against the conventional GPR systems found in the literature and with the capability of re-configuration in real-time for different landmines and terrains, with the capability of detecting landmines under terrains with different dielectric characteristics. Secondly, the chapter introduce the integration of the SDR-based GPR into an autonomous drone by describing the mechanical integration, communication system, the graphical user interface (GUI) together with the landmine detection and geo-mapping. This chapter approach completely the hardware and software implementation topics of the on-board GPR system given first a comprehensive background of the software-defined radar technology and second presenting the main features of the Tx and Rx modules. Additional details are presented related with the mechanical and functional integration of the GPR into the UAV system.",book:{id:"5905",slug:"robots-operating-in-hazardous-environments",title:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments",fullTitle:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments"},signatures:"Manuel Ricardo Pérez Cerquera, Julian David Colorado Montaño\nand Iván Mondragón",authors:[{id:"177422",title:"Dr.",name:"Julian",middleName:null,surname:"Colorado",slug:"julian-colorado",fullName:"Julian Colorado"},{id:"197884",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Mondragon",slug:"ivan-mondragon",fullName:"Ivan Mondragon"},{id:"199958",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perez",slug:"manuel-perez",fullName:"Manuel Perez"}]},{id:"15855",title:"Kinematics of AdeptThree Robot Arm",slug:"kinematics-of-adeptthree-robot-arm",totalDownloads:14674,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"152",slug:"robot-arms",title:"Robot Arms",fullTitle:"Robot Arms"},signatures:"Adelhard Beni Rehiara",authors:[{id:"29287",title:"Dr.",name:"Adelhard",middleName:"Beni",surname:"Rehiara",slug:"adelhard-rehiara",fullName:"Adelhard Rehiara"}]},{id:"62978",title:"Intelligent Robotic Perception Systems",slug:"intelligent-robotic-perception-systems",totalDownloads:2445,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Robotic perception is related to many applications in robotics where sensory data and artificial intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML) techniques are involved. Examples of such applications are object detection, environment representation, scene understanding, human/pedestrian detection, activity recognition, semantic place classification, object modeling, among others. Robotic perception, in the scope of this chapter, encompasses the ML algorithms and techniques that empower robots to learn from sensory data and, based on learned models, to react and take decisions accordingly. The recent developments in machine learning, namely deep-learning approaches, are evident and, consequently, robotic perception systems are evolving in a way that new applications and tasks are becoming a reality. Recent advances in human-robot interaction, complex robotic tasks, intelligent reasoning, and decision-making are, at some extent, the results of the notorious evolution and success of ML algorithms. This chapter will cover recent and emerging topics and use-cases related to intelligent perception systems in robotics.",book:{id:"7227",slug:"applications-of-mobile-robots",title:"Applications of Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Applications of Mobile Robots"},signatures:"Cristiano Premebida, Rares Ambrus and Zoltan-Csaba Marton",authors:[{id:"203409",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cristiano",middleName:null,surname:"Premebida",slug:"cristiano-premebida",fullName:"Cristiano Premebida"},{id:"254880",title:"Dr.",name:"Rares",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrus",slug:"rares-ambrus",fullName:"Rares Ambrus"},{id:"254881",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan-Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Marton",slug:"zoltan-csaba-marton",fullName:"Zoltan-Csaba Marton"}]},{id:"67705",title:"Advanced UAVs Nonlinear Control Systems and Applications",slug:"advanced-uavs-nonlinear-control-systems-and-applications",totalDownloads:1976,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Recent development of different control systems for UAVs has caught the attention of academic and industry, due to the wide range of their applications such as in surveillance, delivery, work assistant, and photography. In addition, arms, grippers, or tethers could be installed to UAVs so that they can assist in constructing, transporting, and carrying payloads. In this book chapter, the control laws of the attitude and position of a quadcopter UAV have been derived basically utilizing three methods including backstepping, sliding mode control, and feedback linearization incorporated with LQI optimal controller. The main contribution of this book chapter would be concluded in the strategy of deriving the control laws of the translational positions of a quadcopter UAV. The control laws for trajectory tracking using the proposed strategies have been validated by simulation using MATLAB®/Simulink and experimental results obtained from a quadcopter test bench. Simulation results show a comparison between the performances of each of the proposed techniques depending on the nonlinear model of the quadcopter system under investigation; the trajectory tracking has been achieved properly for different types of trajectories, i.e., spiral trajectory, in the presence of unknown disturbances. Moreover, the practical results coincided with the results of the simulation results.",book:{id:"7792",slug:"unmanned-robotic-systems-and-applications",title:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications",fullTitle:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications"},signatures:"Abdulkader Joukhadar, Mohammad Alchehabi and Adnan Jejeh",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"22",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82223",title:"Biomechanical Design Principles Underpinning Anthropomorphic Manipulators",slug:"biomechanical-design-principles-underpinning-anthropomorphic-manipulators",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105434",abstract:"The biomechanical design of an artificial anthropomorphic manipulator is the focus of many researchers in diverse fields. Current electromechanical artificial hands are either in the research stage, expensive, have patents, lack severely in function, and/or are driven by robotic/mechanical principles, which tend to ignore the biological requirements of such designs. In response to the challenges addressed above this chapter discusses the potential of current technology and methods used in design to bridge the chasm that exists between robot manipulators and the human hand. This chapter elucidates artificial anthropomorphic manipulator design by outlining biomechanical concepts that contribute to the function, esthetics and performance of artificial manipulators. This chapter addresses joint stabilization, tendon structures and tendon excursion in artificial anthropomorphic manipulators.",book:{id:"11455",title:"Recent Advances in Robot Manipulators",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11455.jpg"},signatures:"Mahonri William Owen and Chikit Au"},{id:"82056",title:"Learning Robotic Ultrasound Skills from Human Demonstrations",slug:"learning-robotic-ultrasound-skills-from-human-demonstrations",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105069",abstract:"Robotic ultrasound system plays a vital role in assisting or even replacing sonographers in some cases. However, modeling and learning ultrasound skills from professional sonographers are still challenging tasks that hinder the development of ultrasound systems’ autonomy. To solve these problems, we propose a learning-based framework to acquire ultrasound scanning skills from human demonstrations1. First, ultrasound scanning skills are encapsulated into a high-dimensional multi-modal model, which takes ultrasound images, probe pose, and contact force into account. The model’s parameters can be learned from clinical ultrasound data demonstrated by professional sonographers. Second, the target function of autonomous ultrasound examinations is proposed, which can be solved roughly by the sampling-based strategy. The sonographers’ ultrasound skills can be represented by approximating the limit of the target function. Finally, the robustness of the proposed framework is validated with the experiments on ground-true data from sonographers.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Miao Li and Xutian Deng"},{id:"82057",title:"An Episodic-Procedural Semantic Memory Model for Continuous Topological Sensorimotor Map Building",slug:"an-episodic-procedural-semantic-memory-model-for-continuous-topological-sensorimotor-map-building",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104818",abstract:"For humans to understand the world around them, learning and memory are two cognitive processes of the human brain that are deeply connected. Memory allows information to retain and forms an experiences reservoir. Computational models replicating those memory attributes can lead to the practical use of robots in everyday human living environments. However, constantly acquiring environmental information in real-world, dynamic environments has remained a challenge for many years. This article proposes an episodic-procedure semantic memory model to continuously generate topological sensorimotor maps for robot navigation. The proposed model consists of two memory networks: i) episodic-procedural memory network (EPMN) and ii) semantic memory network (SMN). The EPMN comprises an Incremental Recurrent Kernel Machines (I-RKM) that clusters incoming input vectors as nodes and learns the activation patterns of the nodes for spatiotemporal encoding. The SMN then takes neuronal activity trajectories from the EPMN and task-relevant signals to update the SMN and produce more compact representations of episodic experience. Thus, both memory networks prevent catastrophic forgetting by constantly generating nodes when the network meets new inputs or updating node weights when the incoming input is similar to previously learned knowledge. In addition, idle or outlier nodes will be removed to preserve memory space.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Wei Hong Chin, Naoyuki Kubota and Chu Kiong Loo"},{id:"81922",title:"Skill Acquisition for Resource-Constrained Mobile Robots through Continuous Exploration",slug:"skill-acquisition-for-resource-constrained-mobile-robots-through-continuous-exploration",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104996",abstract:"We present a cognitive mobile robot that acquires knowledge, and autonomously learns higher-level abstract capabilities based on play instincts, inspired by human behavior. To this end, we (i) model skills, (ii) model the robot’s sensor and actuator space based on elementary physical properties, and (iii) propose algorithms inspired by humans’ play instincts that allow the robot to autonomously learn the skills based on its sensor and actuator capabilities. We model general knowledge in the form of competencies (skills) of the mobile robot based on kinematic properties using physical quantities. Thus, by design, our approach has the potential to cover very generic application domains. To connect desired skills to the primitive capabilities of the robot’s sensors and actuators, it playfully explores the effects of its actions on its sensory input, thus autonomously learning relations and dependencies and eventually the desired skill. KnowRob is used for knowledge representation and reasoning, and the robot’s operation is based on ROS. In the experiments, we use a millirobot, sized 2 cm2, equipped with two wheels, motion, and distance sensors. We show that our cognitive mobile robot can successfully and autonomously learn elementary motion skills based on a playful exploration of its wheels and sensors.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Markus D. Kobelrausch and Axel Jantsch"},{id:"81693",title:"The Neo-Mechanistic Model of Human Cognitive Computation and Its Major Challenges",slug:"the-neo-mechanistic-model-of-human-cognitive-computation-and-its-major-challenges",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104995",abstract:"The neo-mechanistic theory of human cognition is currently one of the most accepted major theories in fields, such as cognitive science and cognitive neuroscience. This proposal offers an account of human cognitive computation, and it has been considered by its proponents as revolutionary and capable of integrating research concerning human cognition with new evidence provided by fields of biology and neuroscience. However, some complex cognitive capacities still present a challenge for explanations constructed by using this theoretical structure. In this chapter, I make a presentation of some of the central tenets of this framework and show in what dimensions it helps our understanding of human cognition concerning aspects of capacities, such as visual perception and memory consolidation. My central goal, however, is to show that to understand and explain some particular human cognitive capacities, such as self-consciousness and some conscious informal reasoning and decision making, the framework shows substantial limitations. I conclude the chapter by suggesting that to fully understand human cognition we will need much more than what the neo-mechanistic framework is actually able to provide.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Diego Azevedo Leite"},{id:"81719",title:"Service Robots in Healthcare Settings",slug:"service-robots-in-healthcare-settings",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104640",abstract:"Robots will play a part in all aspects of healthcare. The presence of service robots in healthcare demands special attention, whether it is in the automation of menial labour, prescription distribution, or offering comfort. In this chapter, we examine the several applications of healthcare-oriented robots in the acute, ambulatory and at-home settings. We discuss the role of robotics in reducing environmental dangers, as well as at the patient’s bedside and in the operating room, in the acute setting. We examine how robotics can protect and scale up healthcare services in the ambulatory setting. Finally, in the at-home scenario, we look at how robots can be employed for both rural/remote healthcare delivery and home-based care. In addition to assessing the current state of robotics at the interface of healthcare delivery, we describe critical problems for the future where such technology will be ubiquitous. Patients, health care workers, institutions, insurance companies, and governments will realize that service robots will deliver significant benefits in the future in terms of leverage and cost savings, while maintaining or improving access, equity, and high-quality health care.",book:{id:"10657",title:"Advances in Service Robots",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg"},signatures:"Rohit Singla and Christopher Nguan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"
\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology"},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions"},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",scope:"Plant Physiology explores fundamental processes in plants, and it includes subtopics such as plant nutrition, plant hormone, photosynthesis, respiration, and plant stress. In recent years, emerging technologies such as multi-omics, high-throughput technologies, and genome editing tools could assist plant physiologists in unraveling molecular mechanisms in specific critical pathways. The global picture of physiological processes in plants needs to be investigated continually to increase our knowledge, and the resulting technologies will benefit sustainable agriculture.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",keywords:"Plant Nutrition, Plant Hormone, Photosynthesis, Respiration, Plant Stress, Multi-omics, High-throughput Technology, Genome Editing"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 16th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},subseries:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"