Classification of ferrites according to variation in molar ratio of Fe2O3 to modifier oxide.
\r\n\tThis book aims to cover recent developments and novel components in gasification technologies that suit the requirements related to CO2 reduction, syngas conversion, hydrogen production, renewable usage, and reliability as an economic process. The conventional gasification process is inherently expensive due to the toxicity and explosiveness of syngas in addition to the difficulty of the impurities removal process. Many novel ideas and processes have tried to overcome these inherent limitations. This book hopes to provide more insights on the future of the utility of gasification technologies at this climate-conscious time.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-096-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-095-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-097-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"7049892692b417ba336db79f00549989",bookSignature:"Dr. Yongseung Yun",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11536.jpg",keywords:"Syngas, Gasification, Blue Hydrogen, CO2, Biomass, Gasification, Pyrolysis, Hydrogen, Wastes, Conversion, Purification, Fuel",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 26th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 23rd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 24th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Yongseung Yun is a dedicated researcher and engineer in the gasification process which he has been covering for the past 27 years. Dr. Yun is the vice-president of IAE and is the holder of more than 30 gasification-related patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"144925",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongseung",middleName:null,surname:"Yun",slug:"yongseung-yun",fullName:"Yongseung Yun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144925/images/system/144925.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yongseung Yun majored in Chemical Engineering and received his Ph.D. degree at the University of Utah, USA, in 1990. He obtained his M.A. from KAIST, Korea, in 1981 and his B.A. from the Yonsei University, Korea, in 1979. He currently works as vice president at the Institute for Advanced Engineering in Korea.\nHe has been working on gasification technology development since 1994, starting from coal gasification to municipal solid wastes gasification, and petroleum coke gasification. He currently heads the 25 ton/day gasification project in Korea to produce blue hydrogen. He has worked as the president of KAWET from 2013 to 2019 and has been the vice president of the Korea DME Association since 2008. Dr. Yun has also served as the editor for the Korean Industrial Chemistry News of KSIEC from 2009 to 2016.",institutionString:"Institute for Advanced Engineering",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Institute for Advanced Engineering",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Korea, South"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"184402",firstName:"Romina",lastName:"Rovan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184402/images/4747_n.jpg",email:"romina.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2763",title:"Gasification for Practical Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e576b2a136c1c20c784302344c65448e",slug:"gasification-for-practical-applications",bookSignature:"Yongseung Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2763.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144925",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongseung",surname:"Yun",slug:"yongseung-yun",fullName:"Yongseung Yun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5448",title:"Recent Advances in Carbon Capture and Storage",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"128901fc967a8eb538f277c98fd917e3",slug:"recent-advances-in-carbon-capture-and-storage",bookSignature:"Yongseung Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5448.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144925",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongseung",surname:"Yun",slug:"yongseung-yun",fullName:"Yongseung Yun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6349",title:"Gasification for Low-grade Feedstock",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"480f5fb4bb3c9b3af32c926e04d78233",slug:"gasification-for-low-grade-feedstock",bookSignature:"Yongseung Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6349.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144925",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongseung",surname:"Yun",slug:"yongseung-yun",fullName:"Yongseung Yun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7828",title:"Alcohol Fuels",subtitle:"Current Technologies and Future Prospect",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c951982f9176ae38f87c0a978c8f7541",slug:"alcohol-fuels-current-technologies-and-future-prospect",bookSignature:"Yongseung Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144925",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongseung",surname:"Yun",slug:"yongseung-yun",fullName:"Yongseung Yun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"62050",title:"Sintering Processing of Complex Magnetic Ceramic Oxides: A Comparison Between Sintering of Bottom-Up Approach Synthesis and Mechanochemical Process of Top-Down Approach Synthesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78654",slug:"sintering-processing-of-complex-magnetic-ceramic-oxides-a-comparison-between-sintering-of-bottom-up-",body:'\nSintering is one of the oldest material synthesis methods has existed for thousands of years. Since the introduction of controlled sintering process of ceramic, the methodology has gained rapid growth and well established as one of the most trustable synthesis method for the production of complex ceramic oxides with desired properties [1]. Sintering is categorized as bottom-up approach synthesis as it involves the construction of nanostructures in materials atom-by-atom, layer-by-layer, from small to large sizes [2]. Since twentieth century, energy efficiency and productivity are two important factors in choosing a particular methodology [3]; therefore, top-down approach synthesis method like mechanochemistry has emerged as one of the most promising candidates to replace known current methodologies like sintering, questioning the necessity for thermal treatment at high temperatures. However, there are advantages of sintering that are irreplaceable by other methodologies. Sintering offers matter transport through diffusion while maintaining the stoichiometry of the ceramic material. Commonly, a single phase ceramic oxide with low porosity can be achieved by sintering of the material to a range of 50–80% of its melting point [1]. With an appropriate sintering temperature, the material does not melt, while atomic diffusion can be activated to achieve a dense, compact, and high crystallinity material, which is essential for the fabrication process. Although the optimization of sintering parameters to achieve complete phases of complex ceramic oxides is crucial; however, the fundamental knowledge behind sintering: the correlation between microstructural properties induced by the thermal activation of sintering, with important behaviors like magnetic and optical properties, is important for the understanding of sintering mechanism.
\nMicrostructure of complex magnetic ceramic oxides consists of grains, grain boundaries, porosity, and defects structures. As complex as it is microstructural properties influence the behaviors of these complex ceramic oxides. For instance, microstructural properties like surface morphology, atomic arrangement, size and shape affect major macroscopic properties such as magnetic, optical, mechanical, electrical, and many other properties of complex ceramic oxides. These are known as the microstructural dependent behaviors of complex ceramic oxides. Nanomaterials exhibit unique behaviors compared to their bulk counterparts [4].
\nThere are some important behaviors related to magnetic ceramic oxides, which are size dependent. For instance, magnetic properties and particle, grain, or crystallite size are relevant to each other. When the particles are in nano-size, the percentage of amorphous grain boundary volumes in material is high compared to particles in micron size. The presence of large volume fraction of amorphous phase in the material hinders the exchange interaction between magnetic moments. Therefore, small particles are likely to exhibit weak ferromagnetic, superparamagnetic, and paramagnetic behaviors. Small size polycrystalline nickel zinc ferrite dissipates minimum energy [5]. The magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy,
where
Another important magnetic behavior is the measure or ability of a material to sustain a magnetic field within the material when external field applied. This is known as the magnetic permeability. Magnetic permeability is strongly influenced by the presence of grain boundaries or amorphous surfaces, as they will act as impediments to domain wall movement. Bulk materials have fewer grain boundaries, therefore, higher the permeability. This phenomenon especially noticeable in ferrites as their grain boundaries are thicker [4]. The effect of sintering soaking time on the microstructural properties of nickel zinc ferrite was investigated [8, 9]. Grain size increases with increasing soaking time. The increase of grain size is the main factor that causes the increase of initial permeability. Bulk materials have a low-volume fraction of grain boundary as shown in Figure 1. Volume fraction can be represented by:
\nSchematic representation of bulk and nanoparticles, and the definition of R, radius of a particle, and r, radius of the core of a particle.
where \n
Porosity is another microstructural feature that has the pinning effect on the movement of the domain walls. Porosity is abundant in complex magnetic ceramic oxide because it cannot be eliminated by heat treatment. Heat treatment offers grain growth, densification, and boundaries expansion. However, many pores are swept over by grain boundaries and remain within large grain [4]. Porosity and grain size effects sometimes seem inseparable because grain growth and densification happen simultaneously. In case of magnetic properties, saturation magnetization is associated with the following equation [10]:
\nwhere p is the porosity, Mo is the magnetization extrapolated to zero porosity. Therefore, we can conclude that saturation magnetization is porosity dependent while coercivity is size dependent. Previous study proved that the independence of coercivity from porosity, while saturation magnetization and remanence are independent from grain size effect [10]. In addition to porosity, other defects such as cracks, inclusions, foreign phases, strains, as well as dislocations would alter the magnetic behaviors of ferrites. Defects act as energy wells have a strong pinning effect on the domain wall motion and thus require higher activation energy to detach [4].
\nIt is believed that boundary region possesses higher energy compared to volume defects. Therefore, boundary region is a highly reactive region, which allows nucleation of new phases. As nanostructured materials have higher surface-to-volume ratio, they are reactive compared to their corresponding bulk materials. In ceramic materials, boundary region between phases and grains governs many properties and processes, for example, as fracture strength, plastic deformation, conductivity, dielectric loss, and phase transformation. All materials have interfacial energy and tension that can be calculated by same thermodynamic formulation [11]. Boundaries act as sinks and sources for the formation of lattice imperfections, diffusion, and phase transformations when deformation occurs. Some behaviors of ceramic oxides such as coercivity and permeability are strongly related to their boundaries [12]. The direction of magnetic moments within the material could be changed easily when the pinning effects of the boundary regions is diminished. Apparent permeability can be expressed as following [13]:
\nwhere
Attention has been paid to investigate synthesis techniques and their impacts on new materials, particularly nanostructured and nanocrystalline materials. Synthesis technique is strongly related to behaviors of the investigated nanomaterial because the chosen synthesis technique is responsible for tailoring the atomic and microstructure of the nanostructured material. Numerous published studies have improved our understanding of the effects of synthesis technique on the behaviors of complex magnetic ceramic oxide, especially technologically important hard and soft ferrites [5, 14, 15, 16]. Most of the significant findings show that the results are of limited significance unless the microstructures, chemical composition, defects, and atomic arrangement of the investigated ferrite are well-characterized. Generally speaking, the techniques of preparing ferrite are categorized into two: bottom-up and top-down approaches, as shown in Figure 2. Bottom-up approach synthesis is a ceramic powder processing approach that engages atoms, ions, molecules or particles as starting building blocks. By combining or assembling these building blocks, nanoscale clusters, or corresponding bulk materials are formed. Top-down approach synthesis is a ceramic powder processing approach that begins with micro-structured materials. The approach utilizes mechanical, chemical, or other form of energy to perform structural decomposition to obtain nanoscale materials. Both approaches have its advantages and drawback. For instance, bottom-up approach synthesis such as chemical processes and solid-state routes are capable of producing fine nanocrystalline materials with high purity and homogeneity. However, they have disadvantages like not environmental friendly, high cost of chemical precursors, solvent evaporation, and necessity for thermal treatment at high temperature. On the other hand, top-down approach synthesis like mechanochemical process is considered as green process because it minimizes damage to the environment, fast, economical, and can effectively take nanostructure forms [2]. However, contaminations, defects, and damages that were induced into the material system need to carefully take into account for good material production [15].
\nSchematic representations of (a) bottom-up and (b) top-down approaches.
Ferrites belong to a class of complex magnetic ceramic oxide. The crystal structure of ferrites can be observed as an interlocking network of cations and negatively charged divalent oxygen ions [4]. When a layer of oxygen ions is closely packed lines that connect the centers of these oxygen ions will form a network of equilateral triangles. The second layer of closely packed oxygen ions is arranged in such a way that the centers of these oxygen ions are superimposed with the centers of the equilateral triangles of the first layer. If a similar third layer repeats the same arrangement with the first layer, this arrangement is known as hexagonal close-packed structure in the type of “ababab” stacking sequence. On the other hand, if the third layer arranges in such a way that the centers of the oxygen lie directly over the centers of equilateral triangles adjacent to the ones used for hexagonal close-packed, this will produce a cubic close-packed with a stacking sequence of “abcabc.” Then, ferrites are further categorized according to their molar ratio of Fe2O3 to other oxide components (modifier oxide) present in the ceramic as presented in Table 1.
\nType | \nStructure | \nMolar ratio of Fe2O3 to modifier oxide | \nModifier oxide | \nExample | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Magnetoplumbite | \nHexagonal | \n6:1 | \nGroup IIA divalent metal oxide. Example: BaO, SrO | \nBaFe12O19 | \n
Spinel | \nCubic | \n1:1 | \nTransition metal oxide. Example: NiO, ZnO | \nNi0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 | \n
Garnet | \nCubic | \n3:5 | \nRare earth oxide | \nY3Fe3(FeO4)3 | \n
Classification of ferrites according to variation in molar ratio of Fe2O3 to modifier oxide.
Top-down and bottom-up approaches have their own advantages and drawback as mentioned in the previous section. Conventional solid-state process is a bottom-up approach ceramic processing method that involves neither wet chemical reactions nor vapor phase interactions. There are two important processing steps that will affect the quality of the end product: starting powder preparation and heat treatment. The solid-state process is considered as the simplest synthesis route for various ferrites. In the starting powder preparation stage, high-purity raw materials would mix together according to the stoichiometric balance of the final product. This mixing process is being carried out by either dry or wet milling media for a certain period to produce a homogenous distributed starting powder. Then, the starting powder will undergo a heat treatment, typically with the use of a furnace to obtain the final product.
\nThe conventional solid-state process is capable of producing advanced material with unique compositions such as refractory ceramics, glasses, and crystals. Previous research showed that conventional solid-state process was capable of producing particles between 100 nm and 1 micron [16]. However, conventional solid-state process may result in high synthesis temperature because diffusion reaction is limited under low temperature. Besides, this process may produce an incomplete reaction, which results in inhomogeneous products. Other issues of using this process are lack of control of the kinetics and the difficulties of producing desired end products [17]. In order to overcome the drawback of conventional solid-state process, the implementation of mechanical alloying in the starting powder preparation is recommended by many researchers. Apart from the practicality, mechanically activated starting powders exhibit nanostructures and high reactivity. Therefore, it provides an easy, fast, and economical option to produce the desired material. Previous studies showed that starting powder synthesized via mechanical alloying, had a relatively low sintering temperature for the formation of pure, single phase material [5, 7, 18, 19].
\nX-ray Diffraction (XRD) spectra of Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 after sintering from 600 to 1200°C are presented in Figure 3. In view of the results obtained, the occurrence of [121] peak in 600°C spectrum indicated incomplete reaction between raw materials to form a single phase powder. α-Fe2O3 existed as secondary phase at 600°C. The [121] peak shows the existence of secondary phase α-Fe2O3 in the Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 phase. The α-Fe2O3 phase disappeared when the sintering temperature was increased to 700°C. A complete Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 was formed as Zn2+ ions diffused into the tetrahedral sites while Ni2+ ions occupied the octahedral sites. As the starting powders were mechanically activated by high-energy ball milling by SPEX is the modal name of the dual mixer machine. Which was specially modified to achieve high speeds (approximately 1725 rpm) for the effective production of nanostructured particles; this enables the formation of single phase at a lower sintering temperature. It is worth mentioning that the synthesis temperature for single phase Ni-Zn ferrite for refluxing method is between 950 and 1150°C [20]; sol–gel technique requires more than 1000°C [21]; co-precipitation method requires 550–1000°C [22]. The intensity of the Bragg peaks increased, and the peak widths decreased with increasing sintering temperature indicating the increase of crystallinity and particle size.
\nX-ray diffraction patterns of Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 sintered from 600 to 1200°C.
Structural information was obtained from Rietveld refinement. The increase of lattice parameters and unit cell volume was observed. As shown in Figure 4, as the sintering temperature increased, the unit cell volume expanded, and Zn2+ ions diffused into the interstitial sites; this was crucial for the reaction as interstitial diffusion is the most important lattice diffusion mechanism [1]. Further increasing of sintering temperature (>900°C), a decrease in lattice parameters and unit cell volume was observed. This could be due to the small amount of Zn2+ ions evaporated from the lattice [8]. This is because zinc has a low-boiling point of 907°C. Mechanically activated starting material has high lattice strain as defects and inhomogeneity could be introduced into the system. This is known as the second order stress, which it modifies the materials by one grain to another or from one part of the grain to another on a microscopic scale. There was also first order stress induced by milling. This type of stress modifies the material uniformly across the entire material [23], causing a macroscopic variation on the material. By increasing the sintering temperature, relaxation can be attained for macro and micro stresses induced during milling.
\nUnit cell volume and lattice strain as a function of sintering temperature.
Figure 5 shows the evolution of particle size, crystallite size, and morphological properties of Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 with elevating sintering temperature. As a whole, bottom-up synthesis of soft ferrite, Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 acquires three stages of sintering. Initial stage of sintering can be observed for samples sintered at 600-, 700-, and 800°C. Phenomena such as rearrangement of particles and necking structure can be observed at this stage. At the intermediate stage (900-, 1000-, and 1100°C), further increase of sintering provides sufficient thermal energy for nanoparticles to move closer. Grain boundaries are formed. However, the most significant observation for intermediate stage is the formation of interconnected pores. Finally, the sample sintered at 1200°C exhibited the final stage of sintering. Isolated pores are observed, and rigid crystal structure is visible. The coarsening and densification of particles are observed with increasing sintering temperature.
\nAverage particle size and crystallite size as a function of sintering temperature; the evolution of morphology is shown in the inserted field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) micrographs.
The activation energy of particle growth of sintering is strongly related to the size evolution of the particles [24]. Size-dependent activation energy can be represented by the plot of log particle size (
Plot of log D versus the reciprocal of absolute temperature (1/T) of Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 showing three stages of sintering.
High resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) is utilized to identify some unique features of each stage in terms of atomic arrangement, structural information, and defects like grain boundaries. In Figure 7a, a lattice spacing of 2.53 Å was measured for Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4, corresponding to (113) lattice plane. A few particles rearrange themselves in such a way that they are in tangential contact. The contact points between particles are the material transport paths that allow diffusions to occur at early stage of sintering. In Figure 7b, it can be seen that the spheres begin to coalesce. The radius of the necking structure has reached a value of >0.50 of the particle radius. This indicated that at sintering temperature of 800°C, the particles are near the end of an initial stage of sintering [1].
\nHigh resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images for Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 nanoparticles sintered at (a) 600°C, and (b) 800°C (initial stage of sintering).
In Figure 8a, it can be observed that two particles were brought together, and they are undergoing deformation in response to surface energy reduction. Massive lattice diffusion and material transport occur between these particles. In Figure 8b, grains adopt the shape of polyhedron with multiple faces, and the edge of the particle appears to have a clean crystalline surface, where amorphous phase diminishes at 1100°C. In the final stage of sintering (Figure 8c), a homogeneous atomic arrangement, with (113) lattice plane is formed.
\nHigh resolution TEM images for Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 nanoparticles sintered at (a) 900°C, (b) 1100°C (intermediate stage of sintering), and (c) 1200°C (final stage of sintering).
Figure 9a shows the M-H hysteresis loops of Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 sintered at various temperatures. The magnetic parameters are extracted from hysteresis loops. All the samples sintered from 600 to 1200°C exhibited less slanting, narrow sigmoid hysteresis loop. This indicates that the preparation of raw powder with modified high-speed mechanical alloying increases the reactivity of nanoparticles. Ferromagnetic phase exists in the sample even at low sintering temperatures such as 600 and 700°C. Figure 9b shows the plot of maximum magnetization at 10 kOe,
Magnetic parameters of bottom-up synthesis Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4: (a) hysteresis loops at different sintering temperature, (b) plot of M10kOe versus sintering temperature, (c) plot of coercivity versus sintering temperature.
In Figure 10, a red shift of optical property is observed with increasing sintering temperature. It can be seen that the increase of crystallite is accompanied with the decrease of optical bandgap values (red-shift). This is thought to be due to size-dependent quantum confinement effect. Quantum confinement effect can be observed when the crystallite size is in the same order as the wavelength of the electron. The energy level at the microscopic level can be described by the expression [28]:
\nOptical properties of Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 nanoparticles sintered at different sintering temperature.
where
where
Sample with similar particle size, synthesized via mechanochemical process with optimized parameters [29] is chosen as a candidate for this comparative study with two parameters were chosen, which were milling at 8 hours (top-down approach) and sintering synthesis at 900°C (bottom-up approach). Figure 11 shows the XRD diffraction patterns milled at 8 hours and sintered at 900°C Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 nanoparticles. Nanoparticles that milled 8 hours exhibit a superimposition of broad diffraction reflections on the broad diffraction maximum or “hump,” indicating the presence of a highly disordered phase. Nanoparticles that sintered at 900°C exhibit a single phase pattern with sharp Braggs peaks.
\nX-ray diffraction patterns of Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized by different synthesis approaches.
Figure 12. shows the field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) micrographs and particle size distribution for nanoparticles synthesized by different synthesis approaches. As can be seen, nanoparticles that sintered at 900°C have a narrower size distribution compared to nanoparticles that milled at 8 hours. Commercial nanoparticles are uniform in size. Densification mechanism of sintering can be seen in Figure 12b. Small and large particles coexisted for both bottom-up and top-down approaches synthesized nanoparticles. However, particles with rigid and clear grain boundaries can be observed in sintered particles while top-down approach synthesized particles are agglomerated particles with randomly shaped boundaries.
\nFESEM micrographs and particle size distribution for (a) milled at 8 hours and (b) sintered at 900°C.
Figure 13 shows the M-H hysteresis loops of Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized via different synthesis approaches. Nanoparticles that milled at 8 hours exhibited complex disordering in structure. Therefore, it possesses canted spin arrangement that has significant implications on its magnetism. The maximum magnetization at 10 kOe is lower compared to nanoparticles that sintered at 900°C. On the other hand, nanoparticles that sintered at 900°C exhibited low coercivity with high saturation magnetization (the magnetization at 10 kOe had saturated). This indicated that the formation of single phase nickel zinc ferrite that exhibits soft ferrite magnetic properties. The optical bandgap values were 1.39–1.30 eV for sintered at 900°C and milled at 8 hours nanoparticles, respectively. Both bottom-up and top-down approaches synthesized nanoparticles exhibit same order optical bandgap value. It is evident that optical bandgap is a size-dependent behavior. However, defects that induced during mechanochemical process reduced the optical bandgap value of nanoparticles that milled at 8 hours. This is attributed to structural disorder bandgap narrowing effect.
\nM-H hysteresis loops of Ni0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized by different synthesis approaches.
As most common approach for the fabrication of ceramic material, sintering shows some irreplaceable advantages. Sintering provides control on processing variables like sintering temperature, to achieve required microstructure for a particular set of properties. The synthesis temperature for single homogeneous phase can be lowered by mechanically activates the starting materials. Three stages of sintering mechanism can be observed in the experimental data of Ni-Zn ferrite. The observed evolutional relationship between microstructural, magnetic, and optical properties can be used to develop a useful framework for designing a sintering condition for final microstructure with desired properties. From the comparative study of top-down and bottom-up approaches carried out, we concluded that different synthesis methods produced ceramic materials with different behaviors. Top-down approach synthesis method has the ability to produce nanocrystalline particles, which then must be compacted without losing the refined microstructural properties, with high uniformity in terms of size, and morphological properties. This remains a challenge to this approach otherwise it is a versatile method. Bottom-up approach synthesis method is capable of producing particles with refined microstructures, which then high-purity single phase particles must be produced with particle size below 100 nm. This is relatively more difficult as single phase can only be achieved when sufficient heat energy is provided, and typically single phase particles are produced at high sintering temperature where particle growth is unavoidable.
\nWe would like to dedicate this chapter and show our gratitude to the late Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mansor Hashim from Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia for sharing his pearls of wisdom with us during the course of this research.
\nMicroemulsions are thermodynamically stable, optically isotropic and spontaneously formed colloidal dispersed system of two immiscible liquids (such as oil and water), which are stabilized by the interfacial film of a surfactant (and co-surfactant) [1]. The formation of microemulsion was first described by Hoar and Shulman in 1943, after observing a spontaneous and well-defined transformation of an opaque emulsion to a transparent solution upon addition of medium chain alcohol (co-surfactant) [2]. However, it was the year 1959, when Shulman et al. [3] coined the term called “microemulsion.” A microemulsion is a macroscopically homogeneous system and possesses spherical droplets of the size <50 nm that do not require the higher input of energy and shear reaction conditions, in contrast to conventional emulsions, which are cloudy, kinetically stable and thermodynamically unstable systems [4]. Microemulsions can be considered akin to micellar solutions that solubilize the oil domain into the nonpolar surfactant tail region to give stable microstructure.
\nBasically, a microemulsion comprises of three components, namely a polar phase (water), a nonpolar phase (oil) and an emulsifier. On a microscopic level, the emulsifier molecules form an interfacial film, which separates the polar and the nonpolar domains. The formed interfacial layer leads to different microstructures ranging from oil-swollen direct micelles dispersed in water (O/W microemulsion) over a bicontinuous “sponge” to water-swollen inverse micelles dispersed in oil (W/O microemulsion) phase. Depending on the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) value of the surfactant and the oil/water ratio, the formed microstructure can exist in oil-in-water (O/W), water-in-oil (W/O), hexagonal, reverse hexagonal, or a mixture of (O/W and W/O) called bicontinuous/lamellar phase. In general, the surfactants having HLB of 3–6 promote the formation of W/O microemulsions whereas with HLB of 8–18 facilitate the formation of O/W microemulsions [5]. The W/O microemulsion is generally termed as “reverse micelles” in which water swollen micelles are dispersed into the oil phase, and polar head groups of the surfactant are attracted by the aqueous phase, whereas the hydrocarbon chain is attracted by the oil phase. The reverse micelles obtained are of spherical shape, monodispersed that can easily control the size of the aqueous core up to 5–10 nm. On the other hand, in O/W microemulsion, the size of droplets can be tailored up to 1–100 nm by varying the concentration of the dispersed phase and the surfactants.
\nFigure 1 shows the ternary phase diagram, the three edges of which represents the components of a microemulsion, namely, oil, water, surfactant (and a co-surfactant, referred as a pseudocomponent is added).
\nTernary phase diagram representing three components of the microemulsion.
In literature, different theories are documented illustrating the spontaneous formation of microemulsion such as interfacial, solubilization and thermodynamic theories, etc., out of which few main theories are described below. In 1955, the first theory, i.e., mixed film theory was proposed, which considered the interfacial film as a duplex film, i.e., interface is the third phase and have two-dimensional region bounded by oil on one side and water on the other [6]. It was postulated that the spontaneous formation of the microemulsion is attributed to the interactions at the interphase, where the interfacial tension between oil and water phase is brought down to zero. However, only on the basis of molecular interactions across the duplex film, the formation of microemulsion could be ensured rather than other liquid crystalline phases, in which one bulk phase gets enclosed in the other (in the form of spheres). Based on the mixed film theory, Robbins [7] devised a theory of phase behavior of microemulsions, which stated that interactions in a mixed film direct the direction and extent of curvature, by which the type and size of droplets of the microemulsions can be estimated. Later, the solubilization theory was proposed, which regarded microemulsions as the swollen micellar systems. In 1969, Adamson [8] gave a model in which the W/O emulsion was said to be formed due to the balancing of Laplace and osmotic pressure. The thermodynamic theory showcased that the free energy of formation of microemulsions consists of interfacial energy and energy of the clustering droplets. It is the reduction in the interfacial free energy that facilitates the spontaneous formation of the thermodynamically stable microemulsion. Also, with the thermodynamic approach, the information related to the stability and size of droplets in microemulsion can be deduced. Another important theory was given by Schulman and his co-workers [3], who reported that the negative interfacial tension is a transient phenomenon for the spontaneous uptake of water or oil in microemulsion and it is the interfacial charge, which controls the phase continuity.
\nBased on the positive attributes of microemulsions such as spontaneity, thermodynamic stability, and solubilization potential (illustrated by the theories), the developed assembly acts as a potential template for the fabrication of diverse nanoparticles.
\nMicroemulsion, a soft and versatile approach, has the distinct ability to modulate the particle properties such as the morphology, geometry, surface properties (activity and selectivity), surface area, stability, and homogeneity of the formed nanoparticles (NPs). It is a unique method to regulate the kinetics of the NPs formation and growth (controlled by thermodynamic stabilization with surfactant molecule) by altering the physiochemical properties of the microemulsion. Microemulsions are dynamic systems, in which formed droplets frequently collide, coalesce with each other due to the continuous Brownian motion. They tend to merge among themselves to form transient dimers, which break apart the surfactant layer, and thereby induce the micellar exchange within the interior of the droplets. The droplet content exchange phenomena occur in the order of millisecond to microsecond time scale. From this, it can be inferred that the microemulsion can act as an efficient “nanoreactors” or excellent reaction site, which can facilitate the synthesis of diverse NPs (owing to its dynamicity). These surfactant-covered water pools/oil pools offer a unique microenvironment for the formation of NPs (where the surfactant layer prevents the NPs from aggregation by its steric stabilization property) [9].
\nMicroemulsions can act as efficient templates to synthesize NPs via. Two routes: (A) one microemulsion method and (B) two microemulsion method [10]. Figure 2 shows the mechanism involved behind the formation of NPs from the microemulsion methods. In one microemulsion method, a triggering agent is a prerequisite to initiate the nucleation reaction, which can be either present within the single microemulsion (containing the precursor) or added externally into the microemulsion (as a second reactant) (Figure 2A). For the synthesis of NPs, the triggering reactant has to diffuse through the interfacial wall of the microemulsion, i.e., why one microemulsion method is a diffusion-controlled process.
\nMechanism involved behind nanoparticles preparation from microemulsion method: (A) mixing of two microemulsions and (B) direct addition of reducing agent to the microemulsion.
However, in the two microemulsion methods, the two microemulsions (consisting of separate reactants) are mixed together in suitable ratios, in which the Brownian motion of the micelles brings them in contact with each other. Because of which intermicellar collisions and sufficiently energetic collisions happen, thereby, leading to the mixing of the micellar components (Figure 2B). The chemical reaction happens, when both the reactants come in the same vicinity. And when the critical number of molecules is attained inside the micellar units, the nucleation process progresses followed by growth and coagulation of primary particles, resulting in the NP formation.
\nMicroemulsions are potent chemical nanoreactors with distinct interfacial properties providing which provides an intimate contact of hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains at the nanoscale level. By utilizing microemulsions, various nanomaterials have been synthesized such as metallic NPs, quantum dots, polymeric NPs, mesoporous silica NPs, solid lipid NPs, nanostructured lipid carriers, etc. (Figure 3).
\nStructure of nanoparticles (NPs) prepared using microemulsion method.
Metallic NPs such as silver (Ag), gold (Au), platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), molybdenum (Mo), ruthenium (Ru), selenium (Se), iron (Fe), cerium (Ce) and their oxides, sulfides, fluorides, chromates, phosphates, etc. have drawn significant attention because of their emerging applications in the field of catalysis, clinical diagnostics, and therapy. For the synthesis of metallic NPs using microemulsion, two schemes have been identified [11]: (a) O/W microemulsion in which ionic salt (metallic precursor) as the precursor is dissolved in the continuous aqueous phase and (b) W/O approach in which organometallic salt (metallic precursor) is dissolved in the oil phase of microemulsion.
\nIn 1982, for the first time, Boutonnet et al. [12] recognized microemulsions as the convenient template for the synthesis of metal NPs using W/O microemulsion. They synthesized the monodispersed Pt, Pd, Rh, and Ir NPs within the size range of 2–5 nm by reducing the corresponding salt of these metals in water pool of O/W emulsion (by hydrogen gas). They showed that in order to achieve the stability and minimize the water content of the microemulsion, a high concentration of reducing agent is needed. Following the pioneering work of Boutonnet, the exploitation of microemulsion for the synthesis of NPs gained considerable momentum in the scientific arena [11, 13, 14]. Pileni and Lisiecki [14] prepared Cu NPs using sodium dioctyl sulfosuccinate (AOT)-based W/O microemulsion, where they changed the shape of NPs by varying the ratio of water/surfactant in the microemulsion system. Tianimoghadam and Salabat [15] fabricated monodispersed thiol-functionalized Au NPs (having diameter 3–4 nm) by using W/O microemulsion (toluene/tetraoctylammonium bromide/water) where HAuCl4 was employed as a precursor and NaBH4 as a reducing agent. Perez-Coronado and co-workers [16] synthesized Pd NPs using W/O microemulsion (AOT/iso-octane system/water) and used them as a catalyst for reduction of bromate with H2 in water. An inverse microemulsion method was utilized to fabricate Ni, Mo, Fe NPs (of size 2.0–2.5 nm and agglomerates <50 nm having spherical morphology) at room temperature and exploited to heavy crude oil
Later, in 2005, Ge et al. [20] described the potential of O/W microemulsion for the preparation of different inorganic NPs such as metal NPs (Cu, Ag), fluorides (CaF2, YF3, PrF3, NdF3), semiconductors (ZnS, Ag2S, CdS, PbS, CdSe, PbSe), chromates (BaCrO4 and PbCrO4), and phosphates (CePO4 and HoPO4) in the size range of 2–13 nm. They proposed that the metal cation gets adsorbed at the oil-water interface of the preformed O/W microemulsion because of the Coulombic attraction between the metal ion and the linoleate anion from the surfactant. Due to the strong solvation of ions in the polar solvents, they favor being positioned at the interface of O/W microemulsion; however, this balance gets destroyed upon addition of the precipitating agent, and thereby, leads to the formation of smaller sized particles. Furthermore, Sanchez-Dominguez and co-workers [21] synthesized Pt, Pd, or Rh NPs using O/W microemulsion and from the color change (from gray to brown) determined the formation of metallic NPs. Li et al. [22] reported the synthesis of Co-B NPs using O/W microemulsion (cyclohexane/polyethylene glycol/water) with controllable size (6–20 nm) and used it as a catalyst for the hydrogenation process. Ce oxide and mixed Cu/Ce oxide NPs (size 2–3 nm) with low polydispersity were synthesized by Pemartin-Biernath and co-workers [23]. Furthermore, a novel method to synthesize Fe NPs
Among these two approaches, O/W is found more convenient and an environment-friendly approach (having water as the major (continuous) phase) as compared to W/O, which includes the use of oil in a larger amount resulting in a small yield of NPs per microemulsion volume and hindering the applications at industrial scale.
\nIn the last few decades, scientists have shown enormous interest in the field of nanostructured materials called “quantum dots.” Quantum dots (QDs) are inorganic nanocrystals that act as fluorophores and finds plenty of applications in electronics, biosensing,
Among the various methods, the reverse microemulsion technique (the bottom-up approach) is considered as the most convenient and popular method approach, as one can easily tune the size of QDs (by altering the surfactant/water molar ratio) and NPs with narrow size distribution can be prepared. To synthesize the QDs, the nanometric-sized water droplets are dispersed in n-alkane solutions using surfactants like AOT, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), or triton-X. Shakur [30] fabricated ZnS QDs by reverse microemulsion method (using pyrrolidone as the surfactant) having the cubic structure of size 2.1 nm, the lattice parameter of 5.4 Å, and specific surface area of 1.81 cm2/g. Yang and coworkers [31] synthesized ZnSe and Fe-doped ZnSe QDs using W/O microemulsion hydrothermal technique of spherical shape having zinc blende structure and monodispersed nature. CdS QDs of 3.8 nm size and cubic phase nanocrystals were developed by using reverse microemulsion (cetylpyridinium chloride/1-pentanol/water/heptane, and CdCl2 and Na2S) at 303 K [32]. The microemulsion-mediated hydrothermal method was utilized by Chen and co-workers [33] in which CdS QDs with controllable size and crystallinity were fabricated by a chemical reaction of cadmium acetate dehydrate and thioacetamide CdS. Tarkas et al. [34] synthesized monomorphic SnS QDs using the surfactant-free microemulsion (chlorobenzene/methanol/ethylene glycol). They showed that the microemulsion concentration (primary factor) and microemulsion temperature (secondary factor) are the important parameters that can influence the diameter of QDs.
\nPolymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) have attracted substantial attention due to their distinct optical, electrical, optoelectrical attributes and interesting applications in biomedical sciences, catalysis, sensing, etc. [35]. PNPs are defined as solid NPs or particulate dispersions, which are prepared from biocompatible and biodegradable polymers in the size range of 10–1000 nm [36]. Generally, the preparation of PNPs include two main steps: (1) preparation of emulsified system (emulsions or microemulsions or nanoemulsions) and (2) secondly, the formation of NPs either by the precipitation or polymerization of the monomers or the gelation of polymer. For the synthesis of PNPs, the most commonly exploited natural polymers are chitosan, gelatin, sodium alginate, and albumin and synthetic polymers are polyactides, polyaniline (PAni), polyglycolides, poly(lactic co-glycolides), polyorthoesters, polycaprolactone, polyglutamic acid, polymalic acid, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), and many more [37].
\nMicroemulsion polymerization is regarded as one of the convenient and effective approach for the preparation of PNPs (producing colloidal polymer particles of high molar mass) in order to modulate the structural properties and obtain the smaller and narrow size distribution of PNPs. Briefly, an initiator (water soluble) is added to the aqueous phase (of the thermodynamically stable microemulsion) comprising swollen micelles, which initiates the polymerization process. Due to the utilization of a high amount of surfactant, the formed PNPs get completely covered with the surfactant, which enhances the stability. Initially, in some droplets, the polymer chains are formed (as simultaneous initiation in all the microdroplets is not possible). Furthermore, it is the osmotic and elastic influence of the polymeric chains that destabilizes the susceptible microemulsions resulting in the increased particle size, empty micelles formation, and secondary nucleation. The kinetics of microemulsion polymerization and properties of PNPs are entirely dependent on the type of initiator and its concentration, monomer, surfactant, and reaction temperature [36].
\nIn the early 1980s, Stoffer and Bone [38] reported the first microemulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate using W/O microemulsion yielding stable polymer latexes of the size 10–100 nm. Furthermore, Ming and co-workers [39] used low surfactant/monomer ratio of 0.09 (w/w%) and developed 6–24 (w/w%) PMMA latex of the size 33–46 nm. Thereafter, Gan et al. [40] and Selvan et al. [41], for the first time reported the preparation of PAni NPs by employing (sodium bis(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate (AOT)-water-cyclohexane) microemulsion. However, the polymerization rate was slow and the morphology of PNPs was not uniform. So, as to overcome this problem long-term stable polymer/nanosilica composite latex was prepared under ultrasonic irradiation [42, 43]. A new method: ultrasonic assisted inverse microemulsion (CTAB/n-hexanol/concentered HCl) polymerization method was developed to prepare conducting PAni NPs with uniform shape and size ranging between 10 and 100 nm [35]. Polyacrylamide NPs (with size <100 nm) were prepared using the reverse micelle (Aerosol/n-hexane/acrylamide/N,N′ methylene bisacrylamide) by Munshi and co-workers [44]. Chitosan magnetic NPs were prepared
Advancement in the field of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) has increased dramatically owing to its various advantages such as large surface area and pore volume (which makes its potential candidate for drug adsorption and loading within the pore channels), excellent mesoporous structure and adjustable pore size, and easily modifiable surface structure. Initially, MSN were synthesized and reported by the research groups of Cia, Mann, and Ostafn; however, after the work of Victor Lin, the term MSN became more familiar [48]. There are various methods reported for the synthesis of MSN such as sol-gel process, reverse microemulsion, flame synthesis, and many more. But among those methods, reverse microemulsion method is the most widely exploited method. Briefly, the surfactant molecules are dissolved in the organic solvents to form the spherical micelles, and in the presence of water, the polar head group of the surfactant organizes itself to form microcavities containing water called “reverse micelles.” In microemulsion, the nucleation and growth of particles are restricted within the water core of the inverse micelles that leads to the synthesis of MSN with specific size and morphology. Furthermore, there are two prerequisite conditions that need to be taken into account during the synthesis of MSN, i.e., firstly, the well-controlled nucleation growth rate of MSN and secondly, the nonsticky nature of MSN [49].
\nThe common type of mesoporous silica includes 2D hexagonal mobile crystalline material (MCM)-41 and a 3D cubic Santa Barbara amorphous (SBA)-15 having a pore size between 2 and 10 nm. Tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) is exploited as the common source of silicon alkoxide (by adding into the reverse microemulsion) for the synthesis of spherical silica NPs in the desired size range. Finnie and co-workers [50] synthesized the MSN by the reaction of TEOS inside the water droplets of W/O microemulsion (nonylphenylether/cyclohexane/water) under both acidic and basic conditions, and controlled the NPs formation, optimized the yield and the release rate of the encapsulated drug. Furthermore, Kao and Mou [51] reported the synthesis of MSN using O/W microemulsion (CTAB/decane/ethanol) having a tunable pore size and showed high adsorption capacity of MSN for the lysozyme. Shang et al. [52] fabricated the MSN of reverse bumpy ball structure (RBBS) by using O/W microemulsion (CTAB/bromide/polydecane/cyclohexane) and TEOS. And furthermore, they established that the RBBS containing Pt-γ-Fe2O3 dimers shows an excellent catalytic performance for the reduction of
Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are termed as first generation of lipid NPs, which are developed to overcome the disadvantages associated with the emulsions (such as drug degradation, high drug payload, etc.) by replacing the liquid state of the lipid with the solid state (both at room temperature and body temperature) of the lipid. In the year 1990, the research group of Gasco (Turin, Italy), Müller (Berlin, Germany) and Westesen (Braunschweig, Germany) actively engaged in developing the SLNs corresponding to the size range of 10–1000 nm. In literature, different methods are documented for the fabrication of SLNs; however, the microemulsification method is regarded as the most promising route for the synthesis of SLNs because of its simplicity, cost effectiveness, enhanced drug stability, high drug payload, and controlled drug release. The most commonly exploited solid lipids are triacylglycerols, triglycerides, acylglycerols, fatty acids, waxes, and others. Basically, the microemulsion method involves two steps: (i) the melted lipid matrix is dispersed into an aqueous surfactant solution under constant stirring and a hot microemulsion is developed and (ii) then it is quenched into cold water (2–3°C) to solidify the lipid droplets [53].
\nThere exists an extensive literature for SLNs prepared using microemulsion method. For the first time, Morel and co-workers [54, 55] employed SLNs to encapsulate peptide drugs ([D-Trp-6] LHRH and thymopentin) using W/O/W microemulsion-based technique. Then, Ugazio and co-workers [56] incorporated the hydrophobic peptide using W/O microemulsion technique (with a matrix comprising of stearic acid, phosphatidylcholine, taurocholate; encapsulating up to 13% of cyclosporine A) and prepared cyclosporine A loaded SLNs. Furthermore, SLNs consisting of excipients: stearic acid, emulsifying wax, octadecyl alcohol, and cetyl palmitate were fabricated and employed for delivery of anticancer drugs [57]. Kuo and Chung [58] formulated SLNs having spheroidal morphology with shallow surface pits using the complex core of Compritol 888 ATO, tripalmitin, and cacao butter, and finally, targeted for antiretroviral drugs like stavudine, delavirdine, and saquinavir. Mehrad and co-workers [59] prepared SLNs having size <220 nm with spherical morphology using microemulsification method. They employed palmitic acid as the solid lipid and stabilized it with whey protein isolate (surfactant) for enhancing the physicochemical stability of β-carotene by encapsulating into SLNs. However, recently, Kanwar et al. [60] exploited the potential of SLNs as an efficient template for synthesizing the CuO-embedded meso-macroporous silica framework. They employed the ascribed catalyst for the reduction of
Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are considered as the second generation of lipid NPs, which are developed to overcome the problems associated with SLNs (such as increasing the loading capacity and preventing the drug expulsion). In the year 1999, Müller et al. introduced NLCs comprising a mixture of solid lipid and liquid lipid in order to create more imperfection in the matrix of NLCs. Following the similar procedure of SLNs, NLCs were developed mainly by the microemulsion method. Doktorovova et al. [61] fabricated NLCs using microemulsion method (with excipients: precirol ATO 5, labrasol, Tween 80, and soybean lecithin), which exhibited excellent stability and entrapment efficiency for fluticasone propionate. Kuo and Chung [62] synthesized NLCs of 160 nm size, with uniform size distribution using excipients: stearic acid, Compritol 888, oleic acid, and Tween 80 and reported the efficient delivery of nevirapine for viral therapy. Khurana et al. [63] fabricated the meloxicam-loaded NLCs using microemulsion template strategy and showed the sustained release of meloxicam from SLNs. Shao and coworkers [64] synthesized the transferrin-decorated NLCs for the delivery of the paclitaxel by microemulsion technique (glyceryl monostearate/oleic acid/soy lecithin). Kanwar et al. [65] for the first time employed the cationic lipid (didodecylammonium bromide) as the core lipid and formulated its cationic NLCs (of the size 160 nm and >30 mV zeta potential) using microemulsification method. Chanburee and Tiyaboonchai [66] fabricated curcumin-loaded NLCs (consisting of AOT, Tween 80, ethanol as the water phase; and Emulmetik 900, glyceryl monostearate, stearic acid, lexol as the oil phase) and simultaneously prepared polymer-coated NLCs (using polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, and chitosan as the polymers). They showed that the polymer-coated NLCs exhibit greater mucoadhesion properties and physical stability than the uncoated NLCs.
\nMicroemulsions as nanotemplates have engraved a prominent place despite the presence of innumerable methods for fabrication of NPs. Exploiting the microemulsion technique, distinct NPs,
S. no. | \nType of nanoparticles | \nMicroemulsion system (surfactant/cosurfactant/oil/water) | \nApplication of nanoparticles | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \nAg | \n(n-Hexane/ethanol/water), silver nitrate as precursor and sodium borohydride as reducing agent | \nCatalysis | \n[67] | \n
2. | \nNi, Mo, Fe (transition nanoparticles) | \n(Sodium dodecyl-benzenesulfonate/citric acid/toulene/1-hexanol), nickel (II) nitrate hexahydrate, iron(III) nitrate nonahydrate, ammonium molybdate tetrahydrate as precursor and sodium borohydride as reducing agent | \n[17] | \n|
3. | \nPMMA | \nTween 80/ammonium persulfate/methyl methacrylate/quercetin hydrate | \nDrug delivery | \n[68] | \n
4. | \nPAni and Ag/PAni | \nAniline/ammonium peroxydisulfate in W/O microemulsion(triton X 100/cyclohexane/1-butanol), silver nitrate, sodium borohydride as reducing agent | \nAntibacterial activity | \n[69] | \n
5. | \nSilica-coated CdSe/ZnS QDs | \nTriton X-100/1-hexyl alcohol/cyclohexane/hydrophobic CdSe/ZnS QDs | \nSensing | \n[70, 71] | \n
6. | \nMSN | \nCTAB/polydecene/cyclohexane and TEOS | \nCatalysis | \n[52] | \n
7. | \nSLNs | \nGlyceryl monostearate/poloxamer 123 | \nCatalysis | \n[60] | \n
8. | \nSLNs | \nα-Tocopheryl linoleate/Tween 20/1-butanol/biliary salt/α-linolenic acid/water | \nDrug Delivery | \n[72] | \n
9. | \nNLCs | \nStearic acid/castor oil/Imwitor 900/Tween 80/sodium deoxy cholate | \nDrug delivery | \n[73] | \n
10. | \nNLCs | \nGlyceryl monostearate/oleic acid/soy lecithin | \nDrug delivery | \n[74] | \n
Recent overview of nanoparticles derived from the microemulsion method.
Microemulsions as nanotemplates have emerged as a soft and versatile approach for the fabrication of distinct nanoassemblies owing to their special ability to tune the particle properties such as the morphology, particle size, geometry, surface properties (activity and selectivity), etc. In this present chapter, a brief description of microemulsions as nanoreactors has been highlighted, stating the type of microemulsions (W/O or bicontinuous or O/W microemulsions) employed for generating different nanoparticles, including the mechanism involved behind the formation of nanoparticles using the microemulsion method. A detailed account of numerous nanoparticles such as metallic nanoparticles, quantum dots, polymeric nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanostructured lipid carriers prepared from microemulsion method have been discussed, comprising their history, evolution, preparation, and applications. Although innumerable applications of the fabricated nanoassemblies have been reported, however, still the inbuilt potential of these exuberant nanocarriers has not been exploited completely.
\nRohini Kanwar gratefully acknowledges CSIR and DAAD for fellowship. Jyoti is thankful to UGC for stipend. Madhuri Tanaji Patil is thankful to DST WOSA. Surinder Kumar Mehta acknowledges DST-PURSE II.
\nNo conflict of interests is there to be declared.
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\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain. She is a Full Professor at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery at the same University. She developed her research activity in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry and Immunology of horses. She is a scientific reviewer of several international journals : American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Comparative Clinical Pathology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology. Since 2014, she has been the Head of the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the Hospital Clínico Veterinario from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University.",institutionString:"CEU-Cardenal Herrera University",institution:{name:"CEU Cardinal Herrera University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"345713",title:"Dr.",name:"Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Szabó",slug:"csaba-szabo",fullName:"Csaba Szabó",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"345719",title:"Mrs.",name:"Márta",middleName:null,surname:"Horváth",slug:"marta-horvath",fullName:"Márta Horváth",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"420151",title:"Prof.",name:"Novirman",middleName:null,surname:"Jamarun",slug:"novirman-jamarun",fullName:"Novirman Jamarun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Andalas University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"420149",title:"Dr.",name:"Rusmana",middleName:"Wijaya Setia",surname:"Wijaya Setia Ningrat",slug:"rusmana-wijaya-setia-ningrat",fullName:"Rusmana Wijaya Setia Ningrat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Andalas University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"339759",title:"Mr.",name:"Abu",middleName:null,surname:"Macavoray",slug:"abu-macavoray",fullName:"Abu Macavoray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Njala University",country:{name:"Sierra Leone"}}},{id:"339758",title:"Prof.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Emikpe",slug:"benjamin-emikpe",fullName:"Benjamin Emikpe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ibadan",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"339760",title:"Mr.",name:"Moinina Nelphson",middleName:null,surname:"Kallon",slug:"moinina-nelphson-kallon",fullName:"Moinina Nelphson Kallon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Njala University",country:{name:"Sierra Leone"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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