Manufacturer characteristics of the resins used in this chapter.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3516",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Topics in Osteoporosis",title:"Topics in Osteoporosis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Osteoporosis affects the osteo-articular system. However, there are hormonal, kidney related, gastrointestinal and neuromuscular factors among other, that can be involved in the etiopathogenesis of the disease. In the other hand, for osteoporosis prevention there are many lifestyle conditions that are very important, as dietary habits, physical activity, drugs and caffeine intake, smoking, associated diseases, etc. Based on the above, treatment and prevention of osteoporosis have to be addressed in a multidisciplinary and integral approach. \nThe knowledge about bone metabolism and the related disorders represents an extensive field that is currently increasing through many investigations conducted in the world. The purpose of this book is to show several reviews and original investigations related with osteoporosis.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1066-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7145-4",doi:"10.5772/50259",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"topics-in-osteoporosis",numberOfPages:290,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1f49a9a4e5116c7ddf3398cab80470a4",bookSignature:"Margarita Valdes Flores",publishedDate:"May 15th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3516.jpg",numberOfDownloads:27011,numberOfWosCitations:52,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:62,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:135,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 29th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 19th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 23rd 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 22nd 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 21st 2013",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"76697",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",middleName:null,surname:"Valdés-Flores",slug:"margarita-valdes-flores",fullName:"Margarita Valdés-Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76697/images/3776_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Margarita Valdés graduated as M.D. at Autonomous University of Coahuila in 1989; as a Genetic specialist at National Autonomous University of Mexico in 1995, as a M.S. in 1999 and as a Ph.D. in 2002 at the same University. From 1998, she has been working at National Rehabilitation Institute as Genetics specialist and Researcher. She is professor in the Program of Masters and PhD in Medical Sciences and in the Genetics Specialty of Medicine Faculty at National Autonomous University of Mexico. Actually she is member of the National System of Researchers, of the Mexican Academy of Sciences and of the Mexican Academy of Surgery.\r\nBetween her lines of research highlights the investigation of the genetic component of Mexican population in relation to osteoporosis. 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\r\n\tThe book will aim to examine the Kalman Filter (KF), also known as the Kalman Bucy Filter (KBF), from the standpoint of its engineering implementation. The intended purpose of the book will be to extend the circle of users of the Kalman filter by considering it not as a means of theoretical analysis, but rather as a powerful tool for the design of a technical system. The editor accumulated experience of using suboptimal KF in various aerospace applications and would wish to share it with the pool of potential users and like-minded specialists. Instead of the formal programming of the recursive KF equations some simple and robust sub-optimal forms are proposed. For example, developed by the editor, suboptimal (KBF), with bounded grows of memory (FBGM) and its steady-state form- the time-invariant filter with constant coefficients is aimed to be considered. This allows the developer to use the KBF not only for system state estimation but for control as well. Proceeding in this way developer can be guaranteed the filter stability and robustness in many practically uncertain situations when the statistic characteristics of system disturbances and measured errors are not entirely known. A guaranteed approach with using an equivalent white noise is also aimed to be considered. Some representative examples from typical aerospace systems (the editor’s main professional field) are intended to be presented. Summarizing the above, it can be emphasized that when implementing the KF it is always useful to replace the art of programming with the experience of designing conventional robust systems having an idealistic estimate of maximum (best) of achievable performance. This would prevent the system's real-time computer from many possible situations with “empty “computations and even to the divergence of the computational process. It can also show that the filter is not a magic mill and cannot achieve the desired performance if it cannot be achieved in principle, better that it can be “promised” by the KF quadratic criterion minimum, or if some state vector components are not observable and controllable.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-576-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-575-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-577-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c3e68adcaeaa44f9fbfe9bb19bdd55b",bookSignature:"Dr. Yuri Kim",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11504.jpg",keywords:"Separation Theorem, Extended Kalman Filter, Covariance Matrix, Riccati Equation, FBGM, Analytical Implementation Forms, Physical Implementation Forms, Steady State Filter, Inertial Navigation System, Global Positioning System, Controllability, Multisensory Navigation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Y.V. Kim is a Doctor of Technical Science, having a broad and wealthy international scientific, engineering, and teaching experience, obtained in the former USSR, Israel, and Canada. He has many scientific publications and implemented inventions dedicated to Aerospace GN&C.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/316140/images/system/316140.jpg",biography:"Yuri Kim\n24 Buttenut, Gatineau, QC, Canada\nTel : 1-(514)- 466-1033, e-mail: yurikim@hotmail.ca\n\nHIGHLIGHTS OF QUALIFICATIONS:\n\nExperienced scientist, engineer and manager with internationally recognized achievements in area of Aerospace Avionics, (GN&C); Analysis, design (HW&SW), integration, testing and operation for various aerospace platforms and missions. \n\nGained a broad experience in preparation of technical documents for Joint (Industry-Customer) State Commissions for the acceptance (commissioning) of Aerospace Avionics, Navigation and Special application experimental equipment for further serial production, and operational support. Last works have been dedicated to R&D projects developing new Satellite Navigation Control Technology and customer support of Canadian satellites Control system design.\n\n\nACADEMIC DEGREES:\n\n 1991 *Doctor of Technical Science Diploma in Aerospace Vehicles Guidance \n Navigation and Control \n Scientific Council of State Institute of Automatic Systems, Ministry of Aviation\n Industry of USSR, Moscow\n (Recognized by Canadian Professional Counsel of Engineers) \n1982 * Senior Scientific Fellow Diploma in Gyroscopes and Navigation systems \n Capital Certification Commission of Scientists, Ministry of High Education of\n USSR, Moscow.\n (Recognized by Canadian Professional Counsel of Engineers)\n1974 * Candidate of Technical Science Diploma in Aerospace Navigation\n and Control Systems (Accredited as Ph.D by York University, Toronto.)\n Scientific Council of Moscow Aviation Institute, Moscow.\n1970 * Engineer Electromechanic Diploma in Gyro and Navigation systems,\n Faculty of Flight Apparatuses Control Systems, Moscow Aviation Institute, \n Moscow (Accredited as between Masters Degree and Bachelor Degree by\n York University, Toronto).\n1965 * Radio and TV Systems Technician Certificate, Dnepropetrovsk Technical School \n of preparation of technical specialists for Soviet Army, Military Aviation and \n Navy.\n\nMILITARY EDUCATION:\n\n1970 * Engineer in ballistic rocket control system, Military Faculty of MAI, last rank senior engineer-lieutenant (in reserve)\n\n\n\nEMPLOYMENT HISTORY:\nA. GOVERNMENT\n\nAt present - Canadian Space Agency, Space Science and Technology Division, David Florida Laboratory\n\n Senior Aerospace System engineer \n\n° Performing, developing and supporting phases of design, testing, commissioning and \n operation for space vehicle orbit and attitude control systems, in particular: Tecsas, Scope, \n J2Sat, Small satellite, M3Msat, Cassiopea, Neossat, RCM, PCW\n\n° Reviewing and commenting on Attitude Control systems design documentations, related to \n all phases of system development commissioning and operation\n \n° Supporting Aerospace Industry R&D projects funding by CSA (STDP) as Scientific\n Authority, in particular: Microwheel (Dynacon), LOCOOS (NGC), PCW (Bristol)\n\n° Providing expertise on new initiatives for Space Exploration and Utilization regarding \n Attitude and Orbital Control and possible development of Canadian space launcher\n\n° Developing basic mathematical (Simulink/Matlab) simulator for developing the \n requirements and expected performance of AODCS for new space vehicles\n\n° Developing new basic technology (based on Kalman Filter) for satellite attitude\n determination and sensor calibration, developing of FF test-bed equipment and GPS \n navigation in environment of CSA laboratory, developing of methods of ACS sensors\n calibration, measuring and compensation of satellite residual magnetic moment, experimental determination of satellite inertia matrix during ACS integration tests\n\n° Interacting with Space Industry and Universities in the problems, related to development of \n new methods and systems for space vehicle attitude and orbit determination and control\n \n° Sharing with International Aerospace community CSA achievements and experience in\n development of new technologies and methods for space vehicle attitude and orbit \n determination and control through publications, presentations and participation in scientific\n conferences, meetings and symposiums as well as maintaining an awareness about new \n technological advancements\n \n° Providing professional training for students and post. Graduates in the area of Orbital and\n Attitude Dynamic and Control\n\nB. INDUSTRIAL\n\nSept. 1998 – Feb. 1999 – Olympia Engineering Ltd. (Toronto)\n\nResearch and Development Engineer\n\n•\tDevelopment of measuring instrument for measuring remote measuring of micro- deformations of machinery (milling machine) equipment\n•\tResearch and testing of differential GPS survey equipment and antennas in environment of industrial facility for developing a new remote method for the measuring of machinery micro-deformations\n\n\n\n\nFeb.1999 – Jun.2002 – Saskatoon Engineering Division of Calian Company, \n Radarsat-1 Operation Team (CSA, Montreal)\n\nAttitude Control System Analyst\n\n•\tWorking as RADARSAT-1 Attitude Control System Analyst performing day-to-day operation TLM data analysis; reporting, monitoring and solving ACS flight anomaly problems, maintaining ACS software and performance \n•\tAuthor of many reports (see attached list of publications), devoted to solving of Radarsat-1 non-benign Safe Hold Mode problem, Momentum Wheel failure problems and improvement of the performance of attitude determination method with Magnetometer and Sun Sensor (back up, ADM3 mode for the case of potential failure of Horizon Scanner).\n•\tPreparation and implementation of the solution for RADARSAT-1 operation without failed Momentum Wheels, that saved the satellite mission after the wheel failures\n(This work was prolonged after in CSA and awarded by the Canadian Government Award for the invention used by the Government)\n•\tDesign and implementation of new dynamic simulators (based on Simulink\ntoolbox) for Radarsat-1 ACS for operation support\n•\tPreparation for operation of new Canadian satellites Scisat and RADARSAT-2 \n\n\n\nJan. 1994 – Sep. 1997 – Israel Aviation Industry (IAI factories: TASHAN, LAHAV)\n\nAvionics system engineer\n\n•\tResearch and preliminary design of the Special Data Fusion System for a fighter-interceptor\n•\tIntegration of Inertial Navigation System with Global Position System into Upgraded Avionics Suit and installation in aircraft cockpit for A/C – trainer T-38\n\nNov. 1977 – Apr. 1993 – Moscow Research and Design Institute of Electromechanic and Automatic (formerly P/B: M5537, presently “Aviapribor” Corporation)\n\n \nHead of Division (R&D in Pilot-Navigation Systems)\n\n•\tLeadership of the Division, performing planning, financial and methodological duties, related to this position, reporting to the R&D deputy director of the Institute\n•\tResponsibility for Pilot-Navigation System integration, interaction, tests and transferring for serial production and operational support\n•\tInitiation and methodical leadership of innovative research and development projects\n•\tReviewing, commenting and implementation of Technical standards and Navigation norms\nas well as sharing progressive methods and results within Aerospace organizations within former USSR\n \n Head of Department (INS and Flight Management System SW Development)\n\n•\tLeadership and performing of duties of Head of Department \n•\tResponsibility for the prospective research and preliminary design of the Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) and Flight Management Systems (FMS)\n•\tDesign of the INS and FMS algorithms and simulation of expected performance\n•\tDevelopment of INS/FMS flight code\n•\tDevelopment of test procedures and simulators for FMS, and pilot nav.complexis for aircrafts \n•\tResponsibility for system performance analysis in the ground and flight tests\n\n Head of Sector (System Flight Test data analysis) \n\n•\tLeadership of the Sector\n•\tDevelopment of ground and flight test simulation procedures and requirements for test equipment and simulators, for flight test aircraft measuring equipment, installation and recorded data processing\n•\tDesign of Estimation and Identification algorithms for ground and flight data processing\n•\tTest data analysis, preparation of test results analysis reports and conclusions\n\n Senior Scientific Fellow\n\n•\tResearch, development and principal design of the special Suboptimal Kalman Filter for the fusion of data of various navigation sensors for aviation and space platforms\n•\tDevelopment of new Guidance and Navigation methods for aviation and space platforms\n•\tAnalysis of INS and FMS performance in ground and flight tests\n\nC. ACADEMIC \n\n1977–1993 – Moscow Aviation Institute, Moscow Institute of Instrument -\n Making, Aviation Industry Ministry Upgrade Qualification Institute\n(Part Time) Professor, Associate professor, Chairmen of State Diploma Commission,\n Member of Scientific Council\n•\tLecturer of the disciplines: Applied Oscillation, Theory (MIIM), Design of Instruments (MIIM), Integrated Navigation Systems (MUQI)\n•\tChairman of the State Diploma Commission -Gyro Instruments and Systems (MAI)\n•\tLeadership of postgraduates, participation in sessions of Scientific Council (MAI)\n•\tMethodical management of cathedra of Orientation and Navigation in MAI \n\n2009 McGill University, Montreal\n\nPart time lecturer for course (in English): Aircraft Performance, Stability and Control\n\n1970–1977 – Moscow Aviation Institute \n(Full Time) Associate Professor, Senior Researcher, Assistant Lecturer \n•\tLecturer of the courses: Spacecraft orbital mechanics and attitude determination and control, Inertial Navigation Systems, Gyro Instruments and Systems\n•\tResearch and development of suboptimal robust estimation methods for navigation data processing\n•\tResponsibility for the navigation systems laboratory\n•\tDeputy head of cathedra of Orientation and Navigation\n\nFIELDS OF THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGIC EXPERTISE:\n \n•\tSpace vehicle Orbit and Attitude determination and control\n•\tGyro instruments and systems\n•\tRadio navigation systems\n•\tInertial Navigation systems\n•\tAirplane Navigation and Control\n•\tAnalytical mechanics \n•\tApplied oscillation theory\n•\tAutomatic control theory\n•\tStochastic estimation theory\n\nENGINEERING EXPERIENCE:\n\n•\tFlight and laboratory tests of Aerospace Avionics Equipment\n•\tDistribution of mission requirements between Aerospace vehicle subsystems, definition of functions and ICD \n•\tSpacecraft operation and performance maintenance\n•\tAvionics system (hardware and software) development and testing (autonomously and integration)\n•\tInertial navigation systems\n•\t Development of Avionics for Soviet Military aircrafts: Tu-142, Tu-95MC, An-124, An-70, A-40, Soviet Space shuttle “Buran” (responsibility for preliminary design of radio-navigation automatic landing system), \n•\tIsrael (IAI) upgrade of Avionics system for T-38 (USA Air force trainer) \n•\tOperation and modification in space Canadian Satellite RADARSAT-1 Attitude Control system\n•\tParticipation in commissioning of ACS of Canadian Satellite Scisat\n•\tDevelopment of a generic mathematical simulator for satellite AODCS analysis and simulation of expected performance for a family of Canadian new generation small satellites\n\nSCIENTIFIC EXPERIENCE:\n\n•\tTheoretical and experimental investigation in the fields of S/C Orbital and Attitude Control\n•\tKalman Filter suboptimization and robust guarantee estimation theory development: authorship of new Suboptimal Kalman Filter modification, methods of INS correction and calibration, Geomagnetic Inertial Navigation System\n•\tResearch in areas of ACS and INS sensors development, their performance improvement\n•\tVarious Avionics Systems Mathematical models development and mathematical and semi-natural simulation\n•\tCoordination of research and development projects related to Aerospace equipment performed by Universities and Industries\n•\tScientific reports and articles reviewing and editorship \n•\tMembership in Scientific Counsels and Commissions\n•\tTutorship of under-graduate, graduated and post -graduate students \n\n•\tScientific reports and inventions in the field of GN&C for aircraft and spacecraft methods development \n•\tSeveral articles dedicated to the development of new methods in estimation theory: new suboptimal Kalman Filter with limited growth of the memory, observability and factor of state vector components estimation, guaranteed ellipsoidal estimation and stochastic estimation comparison \n\nLANGUAGES:\n \n•\tEnglish, Russian, Ukrainian, Hebrew, French (beginning level)\n•\tProgramming languages: Matlab/Simulinc/С",institutionString:"Canadian Space Agency",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and 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No two head injuries are alike and multiple complications are common in TBI. The most serious aspect of TBI is that of cognitive impairment as evidenced by animal and clinical studies focusing on synaptic plasticity and memory [2-5]. However, post trauma effects also include communication problems, sensory deficits, emotional and behavioral problems, physical complications and pain, increased suicide risk, and an increased risk for chronic CNS diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease [6, 7].
In this chapter we provide an introduction to the study of TBI and how it affects memory functioning. In addition, we survey some of the existing evidence that describes how TBI leads to memory impairment as measured in animal models and also the evidence for how TBI results in memory impairment as seen in human studies. Given that specialized proteins called transcription factors are required for the formation of long term memories, we also explore the major transcription factors that are involved in long term synaptic plasticity and long term memory. Finally, we discuss the experimental studies that investigate the effect of TBI on transcription factor regulation and the associated consequences on memory.
TBI is a type of acquired brain injury. Acquired brain injuries can be subcategorized into either non TBI or TBI types. Examples of non TBI include anoxia, strokes, and brain infections, to name a few. TBI can be further divided into open brain injury or closed brain injury. In general, open and closed types of TBI can occur as a result of assaults, falls, motor vehicle accidents, blast injuries, and sports injuries etc. However, open brain injury is specifically caused by penetrating injuries, whereas closed brain injury is a result of internal pressure and shearing associated with blunt trauma to the head. Young men in their twenties and the elderly are most at risk for TBI.
The process of TBI is further characterized by the physical and neurochemical changes that are subjected upon the brain, which occur in a time dependent manner. In other words, we call the primary injury the causative event that occurs at the moment of injury, such as a baseball hitting the skull or a bullet penetrating the brain. These sorts of events are on the order of seconds; whereas so-called secondary injury is characterized by biochemical and neurological changes that drive pathophysiological processes in the weeks to months following the primary injury. These changes include vascular alterations, astrocyte swelling and astrogliosis, glutamate excitotoxicity, calcium overload, mitochondrial dysfunction, protease activation, cytoskeletal breakdown, cytokine release and inflammatory responses, the initiation of cell death programs, and cognitive impairment, to name a few.
Numerous studies report that TBI frequently results in impaired functioning in a wide range of cognitive tests [8, 9]; most commonly affecting processes such as attention [10-12], memory [10, 13] and information processing [14-16]. Despite the widespread cognitive sequelae following TBI [17], there exists a prominent body of work devoted to detailing its consequences for memory functioning [18-20]. However, given the heterogeneous nature of characterizing TBI, such as separating diagnoses by injury severity or duration of loss of consciousness [21-23], variability in memory impairments following TBI are quite common in the literature [9, 19, 24]. Thus, it is important to consider the manner in which TBI is classified and the paradigms used to gauge cognitive impairments [9, 19]. Furthermore, the extent to which memory functioning becomes impaired independent of attention processes or executive functioning becomes problematic to determine, and thus the integrative nature of memory must be taken into account during interpretation [19]. Given these considerations in interpreting the impairments that accompany TBI, it is nonetheless necessary to conceptualize the deficits within a simplistic framework for non-injured memory functioning.
Memory has long been known to represent much more than a single, localized functional system [25, 26], but rather a diffuse system of cognitive processes that collectively amount to the internal processing, storage and retrieval of information for ongoing and/or future use [27]. Categorizing the constituents of this diffuse system involves identifying two dimensions: the time frame at which storage of information moves to retrieval, i.e., short-term or long-term memory; and the nature of this information, e.g., explicit or implicit memory [27]. Short-term memory systems regard information that is maintained transiently, and thus only retain information in an accessible state for a short period of time [28]. A related system known as working memory, that may be distinguished from short-term memory only functionally, represents the active system of information that is operated upon and processed during behavior [28, 29]. The working memory system involves three primary components: an active verbal (or speech-based) information subsystem, referred to as the phonological loop; an active visuospatial information subsystem, referred to as the visuospatial sketch pad; and a processing center that coordinates, controls and schedules mental operations as well as cognitive resource allocation for these operations, referred to as the central executive [30]. Beyond the timeframe of seconds on which short-term memory systems operate, memory becomes selectively transferred into a system known as long-term memory, which not only operates on the order of hours to days to months, but also with a capacity far beyond that of short-term memory [27, 28].
Long-term memory may be categorized with regard to the nature of the information stored; explicit memory (or declarative memory), which regards information that is consciously learned and accessible; and implicit (or nondeclarative memory), which regards information that does not require conscious awareness to learn or access [27]. Explicit memory may be further divided into episodic and semantic memory; episodic memory represents knowledge regarding personal events or information in one’s life, such as what one had to eat for dinner last Friday; while semantic memory represents learned facts, meanings, understandings or general knowledge about the world, such as what the definition of an island is [31]. In addition to specialized categorization, the processing of explicit memory has been identified to involve four different operations: encoding, consolidation, storage, and retrieval [27]. Encoding involves incorporation of incoming information with existing information in memory, and thus more efficient encoding processes result in more effective memory functioning, referred to as deep encoding [32]. Consolidation refers to the stabilization of transiently encoded information to facilitate transition to permanent storage; this process is incurred by the activity of transcription factors and protein synthesis that mediate long-term potentiation (LTP), a molecular correlate of memory, and synaptic connectivity [33]. Storage of explicit memory refers to the mechanisms by which information has been processed and stabilized, and thus has been allocated to long-term memory [27]. Finally, the process of retrieval involves accessing stored memories from long-term memory and making the information usable in working memory at the time of retrieval [27]. Implicit memory may also be further subcategorized into priming and procedural skills [27, 34, 35]; priming represents the facilitation of memory processing for an item following previous exposure to either that item or another item similar on some dimension; while procedural skills involve the learning of a skill or sequence of action. It’s important to note that although long-term memory may be divided into explicit and implicit systems, these systems don’t always necessarily operate independent of each other [20]. This is apparent when considering a system that may be evaluated through either explicit or implicit memory tests, such as source memory or context [19], which refers to knowledge regarding any background information that accompanied the presentation of an item or event [19].
Though memory involves a much more intricate and integrative cognitive network than discussed above, memory impairments following TBI often fall within the scope of the proposed framework, and any supplementary knowledge may follow from the results and/or experimental designs to be discussed. Major avenues of investigation for these impairments typically separate into experimental designs involving induced or simulated TBI in animal models [36] and experimental or clinical evaluation of human brain injury at various time points post-injury [19, 20].
To accommodate the variability often seen in human brain injury, numerous animal models have been developed to elucidate the typical patterns of cognitive and neurobehavioural dysfunction, as well as both the biochemical aspects of primary and secondary injury and more recently, the neurobiological consequences of head trauma [36-38]. Commonly used models for simulating human brain injury in animals include the controlled cortical impact model (CCI) [39, 40], the central or lateral fluid percussion injury model (CFP or FPI) [41], the weight-drop model [42] and the blast injury model [43, 44]. Commonly used to supplement these models as a paradigm for approximating memory impairments are memory tests that measure either: spatial memory, as measured by the Morris water maze (MWM) [45], the Barnes maze [46] or the Olton radial arm maze [47]; or associative learning, as measured by passive-avoidance [48] or operant conditioning paradigms [49].
The CCI model of TBI involves the use of an impact device to deliver a controlled strike to an exposed area of the dural surface [38]. The physical parameters of the strike, such as velocity and depth of impact, are easily controlled in the CCI model [38] and is thus a useful model for detecting the biomechanical consequences of TBI [36, 37]. In the FPI model of TBI, injury is incurred by a pendulum striking a fluid reservoir resulting in a calculated increase of intracranial pressure, which varies as the height and force of strike are altered, leading to deformation of neural tissue [50]. The weight-drop model involves dropping a weight onto an immobilized animal [42], with injury severity adjusting proportionately with alterations in the mass of the weight [38]. In blast models of TBI, the effects of blast waves from an explosion are emanated at varying locations and carried through shock tubes (or open exposure, as in [44]) to an immobilized animal [51, 52]. The blast model provides an accurate representation of TBI incurred by explosives devices such as improvised explosive devices (IEDs) [44].
The Morris water maze (MWM) task is a paradigm that is commonly used to assess spatial memory functioning [53-55]. The MWM task involves placing an animal into a large water tank that contains a platform submerged in an opaque liquid, so as to conceal the location of the platform. The animal is free to swim in the liquid until it either discovers the platform, or reaches a pre-determined maximum time allotment for a single trial, at which point the animal is placed on the platform for a short amount of time. During the acquisition phase, the animal progresses to learn the location of the platform relative to environmental cues (e.g., visual cues) and will show a decrease in path length and time spent locating the platform using these cues in retained spatial memory systems [45, 56]. The Barnes maze similarly examines spatial memory [46], but rather than implementing a water tank filled with opaque liquid, the Barnes maze utilizes a large
Cognitive impairment in the CCI model shows a high degree of variability and inconsistency, since not only do the methodological and analytical protocols for many studies disagree, but the number of studies that report simulated injury severity amongst CCI studies is variable [38]. Upon taking this variability into consideration, however, many studies were shown to have demonstrated that TBI in rodents show a deficit in spatial memory following TBI induction using the CCI model [53-55, 57]. Interestingly, mild injury produced by the CCI model show no physical damage to the cortex or hippocampus, but still show deficits in both acquisition and retention in the MWM task [55]. Using a variation of the Morris water maze designed to measure working memory, Kobori and Dash [58] showed that significant and long-lasting working memory impairment followed CCI-induced TBI. Soblosky et al. [59] showed no significant working memory impairments following CCI-induced TBI, although deficits in reference memory were significant.
The FPI model of TBI provides a consistent measure of memory impairment following variations of injury severity and experimental paradigm alteration [38]. MRI studies of TBI in rats have shown a temporal evolution of brain injury incorporating both cytotoxic and vasogenic forms of edema where injury extends to the hippocampal formation, a region associated with new memory formation [60]. Bramlett et al. [61] demonstrated not only that impairment in retention occurs on a standard MWM paradigm occurring before TBI induction, but also impairment in acquisition when being retrained on the MWM task following TBI induction. Furthermore, by altering the MWM paradigm to include a cue on the platform throughout the acquisition stage, deficits remained, indicating effects outside of hippocampal functioning occurred [61]. Whiting and Hamm [62] utilized the FPI model to induce TBI and measure memory impairment using the MWM task. Whiting and Hamm found that there was no significant change in spatial memory impairment for 4, 8 and 24 hour post-training conditions, but when conducting the MWM prior to introducing FPI-induced TBI either 1 or 14 days post-training, cognitive impairment was significantly increased in the injured animals, only recovering when being trained on the MWM once again. The work of Whiting and Hamm indicates that the primary deficit following FPI-induced TBI may be centralized in task acquisition, but not long-term memory retention. In using the Barnes maze as a measure of spatial memory impairment, Lima et al. [63] showed that cognitive testing 1 month and 3 months prior to Barnes maze training resulted in escape latencies that were significantly increased for FPI-induced TBI animals in contrast to healthy controls. In adopting a similar testing paradigm as Whiting and Hamm, Lyeth et al. [64] trained animals in the Olton radial arm maze and subsequently introduced mild and moderate FPI-induced TBI. Contrary to evidence from CCI model data [59], FPI-induced TBI resulted in no significant impairment for reference memory, but resulted in working memory deficits in both mild and moderate TBI groups, though the severity correlated with recovery time with regard to working memory. To reconcile this discrepancy, Chown et al. [38] discuss the cortical damage present in only the CCI-induced TBI, which may account for the reported errors in reference memory that were found in only CCI-induced TBI in addition to several studies using FPI-induced TBI where cortical damage was found, reconsolidating the results of Soblosky et al. [65, 66]. Gorman et al. [13] measured associative learning functionality in FPI-induced TBI rats by training the subjects to depress an operant lever by location, and to neglect another bar that was not previously rewarding. Gorman et al. found that FPI-induced TBI performed significantly worse than controls, showing more prominent dysfunction when inter-trial times increased. Interestingly, Gorman et al. also reported that shortly after the FPI procedure, long-term memory deficit was significant in a visual discrimination task, only to return to baseline after repeated test sessions. In avoidance conditioning, Hamm et al. (1993) were unable to show acquisition deficits in animals given avoidance condition 9 days after FPI-induced TBI, even though Yamaguchi et al. (1996) were able to produce a significant deficit. What may reconcile this difference is that the timing at which animals were trained relative to post-injury timeframes, aren’t as necessarily representative of the relative condition of TBI between groups they are designed to characterize [67]. Similar to the cognitive consequences found in FPI-induced TBI studies, blast models show a range of general impairments and frequently demonstrate a deficit in spatial memory functioning [44]. Interestingly, however, Rubovitch et al. [44] additionally reported recovery following TBI-induction was common for low pressure blast waves, but memory impairment was persistent at higher pressure blast waves.
Weight-drop models of TBI have been shown to induce severe retrograde amnesia impairments, showing a reduced deficit for increasing time delays between avoidance conditioning and subsequent TBI induction [68]. Zhou and Riccio also demonstrated that this induced amnesia was alleviated when rats were presented with a pre-test reminder cue, which was argued to signify that memory impairment following TBI induction reflected a deficit for memory retrieval, rather than a deficit in encoding or consolidation.
Although animal models have provided evidence for a general framework for the cognitive sequelae following TBI, particularly regarding spatial learning, and acquisition and retention deficits in memory, rarely have animal models investigated memory functioning beyond spatial memory assessments [38]. Thus a supplemental discussion beyond that of spatial memory deficits evident from animal models of TBI may be readily apparent in clinical and experimental models for TBI in the human populace.
Memory impairments are not only one of the most consistently reported cognitive deficits following TBI [67], but also one of the most persistent deficits, showing slower recovery than other cognitive functions [69] and in some cases continuing several years later [70]. In considering the pervasiveness of these memory impairments, however, it is necessary to consider the injury severity with which these deficits may be correlated, since variations of severity often correlate well with degree of recovery [20] and variations of clarity with regard to defining the nature of memory impairments [19]. Thus, discussing memory impairments that occur in mild TBI separately from those found in moderate or severe TBI may help to not only identify the overarching memory impairments found in general TBI, but to also detail the persistence of memory impairments.
TBI severity is characterized by one of, or more commonly, a combination of three measures [19]: the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), which measures a collection of motor, verbal and attentive responses to assess conscious activity [71]; the period over which consciousness has been lost (LOC); and Post Traumatic Amnesia (PTA), which represents the timeframe over which current events are not properly processed and stored [72]. Mild TBI (mTBI) typically falls within the range of a GCS score of 12 – 15, length of coma shorter than 20 minutes, and PTA length shorter than 1 day; while moderate TBI corresponds to a GCS score of 9 – 12, length of coma between 20 minutes and 36 hours, and PTA length between 1 – 7 days; and finally severe TBI corresponds to a GCS of 3 – 8, length of coma longer than 36 hours, and a PTA length of longer than 7 days [19].
Though memory deficits appear to be one of the most prevalent concerns for patients recovering from mTBI, up to 90% of these patients show recovery within 3 months post-injury and typically only show chronic memory dysfunction alongside cognitive function impairment [20]. Upon recovery to ostensibly normal cognitive functioning, re-emergence of general impairment may become apparent under appropriate variations to test conditions, such as stress induction [73] or modality of presentation [14]. Imaging studies have shown that this recovery may only be a symptomatic alleviation, however, as specific areas of frontal cortex activity rise in mTBI despite exhibiting recovered cognitive functioning [74], thus showing that although cognitive performance appears normal, the compensatory mechanisms responsible for this recovery commonly results in fatigue and similar neurobehavioural concerns [20]. For mTBI patients that have shown no such recovery, many studies have agreed in addressing the resulting memory deficits are rarely direct disruptions of explicit memory storage processing (i.e., consolidation and storage), but are frequently a result of dysfunction in executive processing; such as strategies for effective memory retrieval; information grouping strategies, known as semantic clustering; selective attention; and processing efficiency [20].
Nolin [75] showed that patients with mTBI were impaired on not only a standard free recall memory test, but also showed a high incidence of incorrect word reports and false-positives on a subsequent recognition test, and were much more susceptible to interference by a distractor word list. This test performance coincides with that of patients with amnesia since both groups show difficulty with memory retrieval, but while patients with amnesia show no improvement when given appropriate cues during the recognition test, patients with mTBI do, indicating that retrieval may be recovered in mTBI patients when central executive process reliance is reduced by avoiding retrieval strategy selection [20]. To further test the consequences for working memory following mTBI, McDowell et al. [76] assessed performance on a visual reaction time test when singly presented, and while concurrently being presented with a digit span test, which examines short-term memory span ability for a sequence of digits recalled both forward (digits forward) and backward (digits backward). Patients with mTBI showed much slower reaction times on the visual reaction time test, and a larger decrement for reaction time performance when presented with both tasks simultaneously, further illustrating the role for mTBI in central executive processing. Following evidence indicating a greater importance for working memory functioning for the visuospatial sketch pad than the phonological loop, patients with mild executive dysfunction exhibited more pronounced and persistent impairment for visual memory than that for verbal memory [20, 77].
It appears that changes in the modulation of working memory or executive cognitive processes due to mTBI may be largely responsible for the memory deficits seen [78], as argued above. And with this, there becomes a wide-reaching set of memory processes that may be affected by the observed impairment of the central executive. This may be readily apparent in memory functions that: are reliant on attention processes [76, 79], involve planning and selection of cognitive strategies for memory functioning, involve creating and maintaining scheduled plans, regard goal-directed behavior such as multitasking or involve primarily visuospatial memory [20, 77, 78].
As in the case of mTBI, much research has been devoted to addressing a basis for memory dysfunction following moderate to severe TBI [19]. Similar consequences for working memory as a result of mTBI are prevalent in moderate to severe TBI as well. Using digit span tests, Brooks [80] identified a deficient central executive but intact phonological loop following TBI, a result corroborated by Levin et al. [81] specifically in visual short-term memory. Haut et al. [82] found a deficiency in the processing speed for short-term memory by employing Sternberg’s paradigm, which involves presenting the participant with a set of digits of length two, four or six. Participants are subsequently presented with a digit that is either consistent or inconsistent with the set shown, and reaction times are recorded and corrected to signify a measure of short-term memory scanning time. TBI patients exhibited longer reaction times than for healthy controls, indicating a requirement for longer short-term memory scanning to complete the task. Research regarding verbal and visual modalities in working memory following moderate to severe TBI show a similar result as in mTBI, but have yet to be directly contrasted. Zec et al. [70] employed a battery of verbal memory tests, and found consistent impairment across all tests in severe TBI patients in contrast to performance of a spinal cord injury group. Logical memory and association processing were found to be significantly impaired in TBI patients [80, 83]. Haut et al. [84] found no difference in the sensitivity of meaning of information units in TBI patients and controls in a logical memory test derived from the WMS-R (see [85]). Kersel et al. [86] employed an auditory verbal learning test in severe TBI patients six months and one-year post injury, which showed a significant impairment on all test trials for both post-injury time points. Similar to the result from the mTBI section, noticeable improvement was observed for verbal memory in both time points. Turning to visual memory, Brooks [80] utilized a variety of visual memory tests that all indicated impairment following TBI. Under only alterations of the testing paradigm used, many studies reliably corroborated this deficit in visual memory [70, 87, 88]. Shum et al. [89] used a visual learning test composed of Chinese characters, a standard Rey AVLT verbal memory test (see [90] for a review) and a spatial memory test; the results showed a significant impairment on learning rate and visual pattern recognition score, but did not show a difference in susceptibility to interference (dissimilar to the results found in mTBI; see [75]) or a substantial difference in spatial memory performance (dissimilar to the results from animal studies; see [55]. Skelton et al. [91], however, found a significant spatial memory deficit on a computer generated arena maze. This discrepancy may reside in methodology employed in each maze setup, which would inherently be different and thus may contribute to any alterations in performance. And with this is mind, it appears that both visual and verbal memory systems are impaired in TBI, although there remains more work in directly contrasting the modalities under similar conditions.
The rate at which learning occurs (i.e., the learning rate) following TBI has been posited to be affected in a similar manner as memory, and thus a slower learning rate post-injury is expected. Many studies have found slower rates in TBI patients contrasted with controls [70, 92, 93], TBI patients contrasted with controls on verbal, visual or both verbal and visual presentation modalities [94]. To explain the source of this slowed learning effect often observed in TBI patients, Paniak et al. [95] and Blackstein et al. [96] interpreted the rate deficiency as inefficient organization and learning strategies (consistent with mTBI; see [75]). Interestingly, Vakil and Oded [97] compared learning rates in TBI patients on both free recall and cued recall, which indicated that the deficit in learning was apparent only in free recall. This can be accounted for by recalling that memory retrieval organization appears to be impaired in both mTBI and TBI, and thus facilitating memory retrieval through cuing relieves the executive processes of carrying out any retrieval plan operations. On the opposite end of the spectrum, studies show that the rate at which information is lost (i.e., forgotten) is faster in TBI patients [82, 84, 98], and this effect is more pronounced in free recall paradigms [99]. To explain this effect, DeLuca [100] argued that this rapid forgetting rate found in TBI patients may be an issue of encoding, but not consolidation nor retention. Organization of meaning in memory, otherwise known as semantic organization, has so far produced largely inconsistent results in TBI patients. Attempts to reconcile these discrepancies have resulted in detailing these varied results by noting that TBI patients will have difficulty in tasks that require applying and/or learning a strategy, but will not have such difficulty when no active strategy or an automatic/passive strategy is necessary [98, 101, 102].
Implicit memory consists of priming and procedural skill learning, which have sub-categorization. Priming studies have shown that impairment typically follows only deep encoding, while explicit memory tasks showed impairment regardless of level of encoding [103]. In many subsequent studies, priming effects have shown to occur similarly in TBI patients and controls [104-106], but a deficit would then become apparent under a variation of divided attention [106, 107]. Priming alterations between conceptual priming (i.e., priming on conceptual relations) and perceptual (i.e., priming on superficial characteristic relations) showed that conceptual priming consistently produced deficits in TBI patients [105]. Procedural skill learning has been previously accepted to have no alteration for well-practiced skills acquired prior to the injury [104, 108], but evidence demonstrating deficits post-injury remain inconsistent. Vakil [19] argues that inconsistencies in the literature regarding whether skill learning remains intact [109] or is impaired [110] following TBI is dependent on whether the testing methodology involves frontal lobe activity (as the frontal lobes are particularly vulnerable to TBI) or tasks that do not involve the frontal lobes.
To further elucidate effects on explicit and implicit memory following TBI, source memory can be surveyed explicitly, as through direct inquiry to recall background information for a specific event or situation, or indirectly, as through priming effects due to context [19]. Measuring different aspects of context and source memory, however, yields some varying results. When measured directly, source memory for spatial location was significantly impaired [111], as was frequency of occurrence for words from a study list [112]. Thus explicit measures of source memory were consistently impaired relative to controls [19]. Temporal order judgments for study lists did not yield consistent results, either showing no effect [113] or a significant impairment [111]. Further investigation into the effects of TBI on integrative memory concepts such as source memory and context may help provide a more definitive connection between explicit and implicit memory systems consequences.
Literally, hundreds of molecules have been shown to play a role in various forms of memory. In addition, specialized proteins known as transcription factors have also been implicated in memory. However, there are only a few families of transcription factors that are actively studied and that appear to be critically involved in long term synaptic plasticity and long term memory [114]. These include activating protein 1 (AP-1), CCAAT enhancer binding (C/EBP) protein, early growth response (Egr) factor protein, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) protein, and cAMP response element-binding (CREB) protein.
The factor AP-1 is composed of proteins coded by several genes such as
Transcription factors are important for biological processes where they regulate the basal process of transcription, the selective activation of genes, and/or the repression of genes. More specifically, transcription factors control transcriptional regulation where information encoded in the DNA of each cell is copied into a molecule of RNA. Ultimately, transcription factors regulate multiple functions on different time scales and in different spatial regions. In some cases, transcription factors even initiate the expression of additional transcription factors, which hints at the multiphasic layering and the overall complexity of transcriptional regulation.
The use of DNA gene microarrays has greatly increased our understanding of how genes are differentially regulated following TBI. In particular, these techniques enable the simultaneous evaluation of thousands of genes, which assist in protein expression profiling and the identification of molecular mechanisms that are involved in the pathophysiology of secondary injury in TBI. For example, alterations in the transcription of genes following TBI lend insight into a neuron’s response to trauma. These responses involve both the initiation of programmed cell death and the restoration of compromised cell function. Understanding these complex responses no doubt is central to the discovery and development of therapeutic strategies for treating TBI.
Early studies using these methods [115] demonstrated alterations in several classes of genes following TBI, including neurotrophic factor genes, heat shock protein genes, cytokine genes, and immediate early genes (IEGs). IEGs (e.g.s.,
Other transcription factors have also been investigated following TBI. In a mouse study by Beni et al. [119], a closed head injury (CHI) model was utilized and the transcription factors NF-κB and AP-1 were evaluated in the presence of the pineal hormone melatonin. Besides being involved in pineal function, melatonin also acts as an antioxidant, which was being evaluated for its potential to attenuate the effects of TBI. Here it was found that CHI-induced TBI activated NF-κB and AP-1 at 24 hours following CHI. In particular, the study showed a transient activation of AP-1 and a longer activation of NF-κB after CHI. Interestingly, melatonin inhibited the late-phase activation of NF-κB and decreased AP-1 to below basal levels when measured at 8 days following CHI. These results suggested inhibition of NF-κB by melatonin was associated with improved outcome, whereas the prolonged activation of NF-κB after CHI was harmful. NF-κB activity has also been studied in other TBI models. In a study by Chen et al. [120], NF-κB and also TLR4, IL-β, TNF-α, IL-6 and ICAM-1 were upregulated in a weight drop model of TBI. However, when the cholesterol-lowering agent simvastatin was used, the induction of TLR4/NF-κB pathway was suppressed after TBI.
CREB activity has also been looked at following TBI. In an earlier study by Dash et al. [121] using rats, the phosphorylation of CREB was found increased just 5 minutes after lateral cortical impact, but decreased to control levels after 30 minutes. In addition, c-Fos and the AP-1 complex expression was found increased following CREB phosphorylation. Hu et al. [122] also looked at changes in CREB pathway signaling following TBI in a context of hippocampal mossy fiber reorganization, which occurs after various CNS pathological events or insults. In this study the FPI model was used in rats and it was found that signaling pathways of TrkB–ERK1/2–CREB/Elk-1 were robustly activated in association with mossy fiber organization. These results suggest that activation of the CREB signaling pathway may contribute to mossy fiber reorganization after the onset of TBI. However, some studies also demonstrate that CREB is downregulated following TBI. For example, Atkins et al. [123] used a parasagittal FPI model in rats to study CREB signaling. Here it was found that the activation of ERK and CREB after 30 seconds of glutamate stimulation or KCl depolarization was decreased in hippocampal slices from animals at 2, 8, or 12 weeks after TBI as compared to control rats. One reason for the apparent inconsistency among these CREB studies may have to do with the time course of the measurements. For example, deficits in CREB activation in the study by Atkins et al. may be due to synaptic loss
Some studies evaluating the C/EBP family of transcription factors in TBI have also been conducted. For example, in a study by Sandhir and Berman [125], C/EBP isoforms were evaluated since they are known to regulate the expression of proinflammatory genes. In this study, CCI was subjected on either younger adult (5-6 mos old) or older (21-24 mos old) C57BL/6 control mice and C/EBP mRNA and protein expression levels were evaluated during the first week following CCI. In this study it was found that protein and mRNA expression levels of C/EBP isoforms overall were similar in younger brains and in older brains before CCI. Following CCI, C/EBPα mRNA expression appeared to go down on day 1 in young adult and in older brains, but these results were not statistically significant. However, a significant increase in C/EBPα mRNA expression was seen on days 3 and 7 in the young adult brains and on day 7 in the older brain as compared to levels before CCI. Also, C/EBPα protein levels were significantly elevated on days 3 and 7 in young and older brains as compared to pre CCI levels. It was also found that a significant upregulation of C/EBPβ mRNA expression occurred on days 1 and 3 in both young and older adults, which was associated with significant increases in C/EBPβ protein levels on the same days in the same groups as compared to pre CCI levels. With regard to C/EBPδ mRNA levels, only on day 1 in older brains was there a significant increase in expression, whereas protein levels of C/EBPδ were significantly increased in both young and old brains on days 1, 3, and 7. Collectively, these results show clear differences in the temporal expression among the C/EBP isoforms. These results overall suggest that C/EBP transcription factors contribute to inflammatory responses following TBI in aged brains, where, the expression of C/EBPβ and δ appear to play roles in the early phase of the inflammatory response.
TBI is a serious condition resulting in disability or death. Currently, there is no standardized treatment. However, research has been attempted in animal models and human trials have been conducted showing the effects of TBI on various outcomes. In addition, a large amount of evidence has been collected that demonstrates that TBI is associated with cognitive impairment and memory dysfunction. A considerable amount of data also show that long term memory is associated with the activation of transcription factors, which regulate and initiate new gene expression. The protein products from this expression contribute to biological functions associated with the formation, retention, and reconsolidation of long term memories. However, following TBI numerous mechanisms associated with transcriptional regulation become affected. In fact, we now know that transcription factor regulation following TBI is complex where some transcription factors contribute not only to processes of memory formation, but also contribute to neurodegenerative processes. In other words, multiple signaling pathways exist and play various roles in inflammatory signaling, programmed cell death, mossy fiber reorganization, endogenous neuroprotection, and the initiation of neurodegenerative processes. It is hoped that by understanding the complexity of transcriptional regulation after TBI, that new targets can be identified which could be exploited for pharmacological intervention. In this regard, our understanding is still quite infantile and further research is necessary.
Dr. Benedict C. Albensi, Principal Investigator, is also the Everett Endowment Fund Chair and is supported in part by the Everett Endowment, which funds his Alzheimer’s research at the St. Boniface Hospital Research Centre - Division of Neurodegenerative Disorders. Other funding supporting basic memory research in his lab is from NSERC. Dr. Albensi is also an Associate Professor in the Dept. of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and an Adjunct Professor in the Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering in the Faculty of Engineering both at the University of Manitoba. He is also a Research Affiliate at the Centre on Aging and a Scientist at the Manitoba Inst. of Child Health (MICH) at the Univ. of Manitoba.
The 3-dimensional (3D) printing has recently become one of the most promising and ground-breaking manufacturing techniques [1, 2, 3], allowing to produce highly detailed structures, following simple and systematic steps without the need of the very expensive equipment of traditional technologies that normally require the use of cleaning rooms in large facilities. The 3D printing has facilitated the access to complex processes of manufacturing to a lot of researchers and many and varied industries [4]. Among others, the microfluidics field is a clear beneficiary from the role that 3D printing plays in the microfabrication processes [5], where techniques such as reactive ion etching (RIE) [6] and photolithography [7, 8] that produce a significant polluting chemical waste are predominant.
In addition to its multiple applications in chemistry, engineering or sensing, microfluidics is of great interest in medicine and pharmacology, where one of the challenges is to manufacture complex devices capable of mimicking physiological structures [9, 10, 11], such as vessels, veins and arteries, where novel drugs can be tested under static and flow conditions (dynamic regime). These studies, much closer to reality than the studies carried out by traditional methods, involving testing in wells (static regime), could decrease the animal experimentation needed for testing drugs before the patient dispensation. All these devices are made up of different kinds of microchannels, capable of guiding small amounts of liquid samples. To be able to fabricate these devices, new technologies are required to manufacture them in a repeatable and accurate way. The 3D technology emerges as a promising one, since, it allows to achieve in an easy and fast way, microchannels with very high resolutions with simple procedures; to select different geometries for the microchannel profile (circular, rectangular, triangular…) and to create channels on complex surfaces in 3D or even internally.
Currently, two 3D printing technologies outstand above the rest [12, 13]: fused deposition modelling (FDM) [14, 15] and stereolithography (SLA) [16, 17]. FDM printers are based on the extrusion of a heated polymeric filament fused, that forms consecutive layers of a piece (Figure 1a). SLA printers use photopolymerisation to selectively cure a liquid resin contained in a tank (Figure 1b), manufacturing the model in a precise layer by layer process.
Popular 3D printing technologies: (a) fused deposition modelling (FDM) and (b) stereolithography (SLA).
Both technologies are widely used given their versatility and efficiency, but SLA offers the highest accuracies [18]. Given the high quality of the surfaces fabricated by SLA printers, a variety of biocompatible materials suitable for its use with this equipment have emerged, increasing the potential biological applications to be used for [19, 20, 21, 22]. There are many examples that show the perspective of SLA printers for complex microfluidic devices fabrication regarding biological applications, thus, making them an option to be used by researchers focused on 3D printing of reliable accurate and biologically solvent microfluidic devices. However, some technical aspects must be considered to optimise the printing results.
The polymerisation of photosensitive resins is mainly governed by two parameters [23]: penetration depth of the curing light and the minimum energy required for polymerisation. The penetration of light follows the well-known Beer-Lambert law of exponential light absorption given by:
being
where
In the resin, the photopolymerised volume increases with the ultraviolet (UV) irradiation until the resin reaches to the gel point, where it transforms from liquid to solid-state.
In most SLA printers, the light source used to perform photopolymerisation is a laser, so the XY resolution is given by the size of the laser spot on the surface. Knowing the aforementioned parameters, the user or printer manufacturer can choose the proper parameters of light exposure (scan speed, power) to optimise the curing conditions and achieve the best resolution for the final device. Another determining factor is the minimum Z-step allowed by the printing arm, which gradually raises the piece from the bottom of the tank, that determines the corresponding layer thickness for each resin (see Table 1).
Printing resin | Clear | Model | Tough | Amber | Flexible | Elastic | Dental |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Z-step (μm) | 25 | 25 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 100 | 100 |
Washing time (min.) | 15 + 5 | 10 | 10 + 10 | 20 | 10 + 10 | 10 + 10 | 20 |
Biocompatibility | ✓ | ✕ | ✕ | ✓ | ✕ | ✕ | ✓ |
Curing temperatures (°C) | |||||||
Curing time (min.) | 30 | 60 | 60 | 30 | 60 | 20 | 20 |
Transparency | ✓ | ✕ | ✕ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Manufacturer characteristics of the resins used in this chapter.
Finally, one of the most important aspects to be analysed for obtaining suitable internal channels is the orientation of the designed device, thus, a deep study of the influence of the inclination of the device to be fabricated in the process of photopolymerisation is necessary in order to determine the configurations that provide better results. We have to realise that the printer will slice the piece in a series of layers parallel to the base so that if the original configuration is rotated, these layers will change together with the areas that will be cured. Hence, objects with high surface detail should be printed with an orientation that helps the accurate curing of the layers. It also happens in the case of internal channels, where a proper angle could favour the full evacuation of the wastes of liquid resin from its interior, avoiding clogging.
In this work, a study of the performance of an SLA 3D printer in microfluidic devices is presented. For this purpose, an annular piece with a series of internal channels of different diameters and angles will be designed and manufactured. The dependence on the printing orientation of the device in the results will be evaluated. The study will be made for seven different commercial printing resins.
A Form 3B printer (Formlabs, Somerville, Massachusetts) is used to print the devices to be studied. This printer features a new technology called Low Force Stereolithography, a step further in SLA printers designed to reduce the manufacturing stress that pieces undergo during printing. In brief, this technology combines a galvanometric system with a series of mirrors to grant an incidence of the laser beam (
It is well known that the printing orientation will determine the features of the printed devices. Typically, suppliers recommend using 45° as printing orientation in order to optimise the process. Although this recommendation is useful for superficial structures, we realise that for internal channels, the evacuation of uncured resin can produce obstructed lumens [19]. To test the influence of the printing angle on the ability to create internal channels with good quality, a quarter annulus piece was designed (Figure 2a) containing seven internal channels oriented at 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75° and 90° and printed (Figure 2b). This study was performed four times for each resin selected, varying the diameter of the internal channels each time. These pieces can be identified in Figure 2a as A, B, C and D, corresponding to microchannels with diameter of 250, 500, 1000 and 1500 μm, respectively.
Picture of some 3D pieces: (a) image of the design used to study the formation of internal channel when varying printing angles and internal diameters, (b) picture of selected annulus printed for different resins, with theoretical internal diameters of 500 μm. From the fore to the ground: Model, Clear, Amber, Dental and Flexible resin. Scaffolding supporting the structures is shown.
The measurement of the diameter was performed using a Nikon MM 400 metallurgic microscope (Nikon Instruments Europe B.V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands), that performs measurements in real time (Figure 3a), and an analysis NIS-Elements Nikon software (Nikon Instruments, Melville, USA), by adjusting a measurement circumference (Figure 3b) that the software allows to move and modify over the image. The channels were illuminated in transmission light configuration that allowed us to measure the lumen of each one. Images were acquired using a LU Plan Fluor objective (Nikon Instruments, Melville, USA) with 5X magnification and a CCD camera Nikon DS-FI2 (Nikon Instruments, Melville, USA). Five measures were performed for each channel, obtaining a geometric mean and a standard deviation that will be presented in Section 3. Images of longitudinal sections of the microchannel internal surfaces were obtained with a 3D optical profilometer S neox (Sensofar Metrology, Terrassa, Spain) working in confocal mode.
(a) Experimental configuration used to measure the internal channels of the quarter annulus using a microscope. White arrows point channels not fully formed, printed at 0° and 15°. (b) Microscope image of the end of a channel printed using Model resin, at an angle of 75° and a theoretical diameter of 1000 μm. The picture was taken with a 5X microscope objective.
Seven printing resins made by Formlabs for the Form 3B printer were studied: Dental LT V1, BioMed Amber V1, Elastic 50A V1, Clear V4, Model V2, Tough 2000 V1 and Flexible 80A V1. As introduced in Section 1.1, one of the critical factors to obtain high accuracy results with SLA printers is the Z-step of the printing arm allowed by every resin. Thus, the minimum Z-step was selected for each of them, as indicated in Table 1. Some of the used resins are even biocompatible (Table 1), which increases their potential applications.
After printing, it is necessary to post cure the resin pieces in a two-step process, to improve their mechanical aspects and superficial finishing. This process starts with a wash of the part in isopropanol >90% in the Form Wash tank (Formlabs, Somerville, Massachusetts), in one (Model, Amber and Dental) or two cycles (Clear, Tough, Flexible and Elastic), during times indicated in Table 1. The pieces are then left to dry and placed in the UV Form Cure chamber (Formlabs, Somerville, Massachusetts), which allows to control the temperature and is also provided with LEDs emitting at 405 nm. Curing temperatures and curing times can be consulted in Table 1.
The manufacturing of internal channels with a continuous and unobstructed lumen is one of the main challenges for actual SLA printers, because of their many applications in microfluidics [16, 17]. The fabrication of cavities in a bulk with a proper lumen is a very difficult process, since the photopolymerisation of each layer is sustained by the previous one, so the evacuation of the non-polymerised resin can be tedious.
In many cases, the goal of obtaining unobstructed channels goes against the need for the printer to introduce scaffolds in the largest cavities, causing that internal channel collapse if some supports are not used during the printing. In addition, the own resolution of the printer can act as a limiter for very small channels, which do not have a structural challenge. In order to properly establish the dimensional limit between small channels and large cavities and to study the dependence of the internal channel performance on the diameter and angle of the printer, quarter annulus crossed by internal channels (Figure 2) were printed for each resin and the experimental diameters were measured as indicated in Section 2.2.
From the obtained results, three printing regimes can be defined. In the case of channels with small diameters (250 μm), no channel was fabricated for any resin at any angle, so no data can be presented. It can be concluded that, for these sizes, the formation of internal cavities in this range is not possible due to its small size, which prevents the correct evacuation of the resin. This implies that, the resolution for structures inside the printed piece is lower than the resolution for external ones, as structures of this size could be formed if they were made on the surface [19].
Next, for 500–1000 μm in diameter (medium diameters), channels begin to be formed (see Figure 4a and b) as will be detailed below. The bottom of these channels has been measured using the experimental configuration presented in Figure 3. We defined the accuracy as the ratio between the printed and theoretical designed diameter, in percentage. The tendency observed is an increase of experimental diameters as the printing angle increases, for a theoretical fixed value. For channels of 500 μm in diameter (Figure 4a), Amber and Dental resins provide the best results, almost reaching a 100% accuracy for an angle of 90°. In addition, for angles greater than 60°, they are all above 80% accuracy, together with Model resin. For lower values of the angles, the channels are narrower than those designed and are more incomplete (longitudinally) as the angle decreases, so for 15°, only Amber Clear and Model resins form channels and for 0°, none. Longitudinally, Clear and Dental only form complete channels for 90° while Amber resin enables the formation of complete channels for 60°, 75° and 90°. For other values, the channels are not completely formed, although the unobstructed length of the channel increases as the angle increases (see Figure 3a).
Accuracy of the printing for the internal channels with diameters of (a) 500 μm, (b) 1000 μm and (c) 1500 μm in diameter, respectively. The error bars represent the standard deviation of the accuracies, and the area between the errors has been filled to facilitate the interpretation of the graphs.
When channels of 1000 μm in diameter (Figure 4b) are fabricated, the printing accuracy suffers a global increase, being always above 70% for every studied angle. As the angle increase, an improvement in the precision is observed, and from 45°, all resins show an accuracy of more than 80% (except for Model, which shows a more irregular trend). The best results are obtained for 90°, where all the resins are above 90%, being the Model resin the exception, reaching an 88%.
In the case of channels with 1500 μm in diameter (wide channels), an 85% on accuracy is achieved for all channels at every studied angle (Figure 4c). The length of the channels increases until they form completely (unobstructed) at 45° for Clear resin and at 15° for Amber and Dental resin. For greater angles, complete channels are formed for these resins. For these diameters, results are particularly suitable for angles greater than 60° degrees, where all resins show a printing accuracy greater than 95%, being the exception again the accuracy of Model resin, which is much closer to 90%. Therefore, internal channel with wide diameters allows to fabricate internal cavities for any angle and do not need scaffolding inside. Note that, in the case of the Tough and Model resin, the length of the channels cannot be evaluated by naked eye due to their opacity.
Channels fabricated at 45° and 500 μm in diameter were chosen for inspecting the internal surface of unobstructed channels. In particular, Tough, Clear and Model resins were selected to be analysed because of their different properties (Z-step, biocompatibility, transparency…). Figure 5 shows confocal images of longitudinal sections of the channels, where it can be observed that semi-circular designed profile is properly translated to the printed pieces.
Confocal images of sections of channels designed with 500 μm in diameter and printed at 45° using: (a) Tough, (b) Clear and (c) Model resin.
By comparing the confocal images of the Tough (Figure 5a) vs. Clear and Model resins (Figure 5b and c), a decrease of the surface waviness with the Z-step is observed. The smoothest profile was achieved using the Model resin (Figure 5c).
From the previous analysis, we realise that the angle of impression is critical and has a major influence in preventing (Figure 6a) or favouring (Figure 6b) the formation of internal channels, so a larger angle (closer to 90°) is observed as the most suitable for channels to form properly and to have dimensions closer to those designed. The other key parameter found in this study is the diameter. As we have seen, a larger diameter allows results to be obtained with a higher resolution.
Microscope images of (a) obstructed and (b) unobstructed channels, with 500 μm of theoretical diameter, printed with amber resin at 0° and 75°, respectively. The images were taken with a 5X microscope objective.
The fact that orientation and diameter are so critical in the manufacture of channels is rooted in the way SLA printers operate and is intimately related to the evacuation of uncured resin, which will be more likely to occur the larger the channel and the more perpendicular the channel to the base (so gravity can enhance evacuation).
Microfluidics is a multidisciplinary field that needs versatile technologies capable for manufacturing structures with high accuracy in a precise and reliable way. 3D printing seems to be a promising technology to researchers and industries through easy procedures and a low pollution process. In particular, stereolithographic 3D printers become very attractive due to the developments achieved in lasers, making them one of the most promising choices with greater accuracy and finishing within the existing manufacturing technologies.
The performance in internal channel manufacturing of an SLA 3D printer is tested, since this is one very important piece in several microfluidic devices. Several resins (Clear, Dental, Tough, Amber, Flexible, Elastic and Model) was used for printing the internal channels in terms of accuracy (from hundreds to thousands of micrometres). For this, an annular piece containing several internal channels with different diameters and at different angles was designed and printed for each resin, to analyse the achievable range of dimensions and accuracy.
In light of the results, resin accumulation was found to be the key element behind the correct formation of the channels. This has its origin in the operation principle of SLA printers, based on the layer by layer photopolymerisation of a liquid resin contained in a tank. Thus, the uncured resin must be properly evacuated from the successive layers if a suitable cavity without obstructions and malformations wants to be obtained. It was found that there are two critical parameters: the diameter of the channels and the printing orientation of the device.
While no channel formation was observed for diameters of 250 μm for any of the fabrication angles neither the studied resins, from 500 μm onwards, open lumens began to form. This was the case of Dental and Amber resin, which form channels with printing accuracy (ratio between the printed and theoretical designed diameter) over 80% for values of the angles above 60° and diameters above 500 μm.
In the case of larger diameters (around 1000 μm), the measured accuracies were greater than 70% for every studied resin and grew with the angle. For channels with a diameter of 1500 μm, it was found that all the resins achieved higher accuracy than 90%, so this range can be considered the optimum for the manufacture of complete and fully functional internal channels.
In conclusion, SLA 3D printers are one of the promising technologies in the fabrication of internal channels, showing interesting and promising results for channels of hundreds of micrometres in dimension, very suitable for the growing field of microfluidics. However, the formation of complete internal channels is difficult below 250 μm due to the incomplete evacuation of the uncured resin. There is still room for improvement, and it will be necessary to find both light sources and printing resins that allow higher accuracies, of the order of several tens of micrometres.
This work has been sponsored by contracts AEI RTI2018-097063-B-100, AEI/FEDER, UE; ED431B 2020/29; ED431E 2018/08 and ED481D-2021-019, Consellería de Cultura, Educación y Universidad Xunta de Galicia/FEDER e Estructuración Xunta de Galicia, IN607A2019-02. B. Carnero thanks to GAIN/Xunta de Galicia by the contract under no. 11_IN606D_2021_2604925.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this chapter.
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In-service vehicles equipped with sensors and GPS systems can act as probes to detect and analyse real-time vehicle vibration. Recently, a compact on-board sensing device has been developed. This chapter describes the track condition monitoring system that uses a compact on-board sensing device and diagnosis software. The diagnosis software provides the function of detecting track faults using the root mean square (RMS) of the car-body acceleration. It also allows analysis in the time-frequency domain using wavelet transform. A monitoring experiment in a local railway line showed that the system is effective for practical application.",book:{id:"4789",slug:"railway-research-selected-topics-on-development-safety-and-technology",title:"Railway Research",fullTitle:"Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development, Safety and Technology"},signatures:"Hitoshi Tsunashima, Hirotaka Mori, Masayuki Ogino and Akira\nAsano",authors:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima"}]},{id:"59302",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74277",title:"Model-Based Fault Analysis for Railway Traction Systems",slug:"model-based-fault-analysis-for-railway-traction-systems",totalDownloads:1384,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Fault analysis in industrial equipment has been usually performed using classical techniques such as failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) and fault tree analysis (FTA). Model-based fault analysis has been used during the last several years in order to overcome the limitations of classical methods when complex industrial equipment has to be analyzed. In railway and automotive sectors, the development and validation of new products are based on hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) platforms. In this chapter, a methodology to enhance classical FMEAs is presented. Based on HIL simulations, the objective is to improve the results of the fault analysis with quantitative information about the effects of each fault mode. 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In general, stress in steel elements may affect the energy state, phase changes, and corrosion. It may reduce fatigue strength and cause damage and cracks of the rails. It is one of the causes of accelerated development of standard railhead defects. Proper selection of, e.g., bending process parameters provides uniform distribution and acceptable level of residual stresses in the bent components. Residual stresses that develop during manufacturing process in the railway turnout steel components can change their strength properties. The first part of this chapter presents ultrasonic measurement method and computer simulation that allowed to develop a method to diagnose state and distribution of residual stresses in steel components of the railway turnout (wing rails and switch blades) in the production process. The second part of this chapter includes experimental and simulation studies of superstructure in operational conditions. 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A significant number of simulation calculations also allow to determine the duration of guaranteed functionality of a reinforced track substructure.",book:{id:"4789",slug:"railway-research-selected-topics-on-development-safety-and-technology",title:"Railway Research",fullTitle:"Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development, Safety and Technology"},signatures:"Jacek Kukulski",authors:[{id:"175842",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jacek",middleName:null,surname:"Kukulski",slug:"jacek-kukulski",fullName:"Jacek Kukulski"}]},{id:"49716",doi:"10.5772/62080",title:"A Systems View of Railway Safety and Security",slug:"a-systems-view-of-railway-safety-and-security",totalDownloads:4110,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter approaches the concerns over safety and security of modern mainline and light railways from a systems perspective. It addresses the two key concerns from the view point of systemic emergence arising from the interaction between all the principal constituents of the railway system, namely infrastructure, rolling stock, energy and human element comprising workers, passengers and the neighbours of the railways.",book:{id:"4789",slug:"railway-research-selected-topics-on-development-safety-and-technology",title:"Railway Research",fullTitle:"Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development, Safety and Technology"},signatures:"Ali G. Hessami",authors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali G.",middleName:null,surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-g.-hessami",fullName:"Ali G. Hessami"}]},{id:"57840",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71768",title:"Advanced Train Positioning/Communication System",slug:"advanced-train-positioning-communication-system",totalDownloads:1660,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In the past, in order to ensure train positioning as well as ground-to-train information exchange, railways have adopted various technologies. Over time, each new generation of equipment enriched the global information exchange but, as a consequence, necessitated higher data rate transfers. For the positioning functionality, the existing localisation systems are still limited, since most of them require an infrastructure installation with constraints such as laying equipment between the rails or having high database maintenance requirements and computational costs. Moreover, some of them accumulate errors (odometers and inertial sensors) or offer limited coverage in shadowed areas (GNSS, etc.). Currently, in railway applications, a widely used localization system is based on proprioceptive sensors embarked in the train. This on-board system is coupled to the use of balises located at ground between the rails. These balises are kilometre markers. They are used to compensate for the drift of the localization information computed using the proprioceptive sensors alone, when the train moves. The balises provide absolute localization information whenever the train passes over them. They can also provide spot communication during the short period of time when trains are passing over them. In the first part of this chapter, techniques for achieving train positioning and data exchanges between trains and infrastructure are introduced. In the second part, a new balise is proposed. Particular attention is paid to the contribution of this new solution in terms of localization error and communication performances.",book:{id:"6065",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",fullTitle:"Modern Railway Engineering"},signatures:"Fouzia Elbahhar and Marc Heddebaut",authors:[{id:"140822",title:"Dr.",name:"Fouzia",middleName:null,surname:"Elbahhar",slug:"fouzia-elbahhar",fullName:"Fouzia Elbahhar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57056",title:"Transmission-Based Signaling Systems",slug:"transmission-based-signaling-systems",totalDownloads:3049,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we describe the principal communication systems applied to the transmission-based signaling (TBS) systems for railways. Typical examples are communication-based train control (CBTC), European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS), and distance to go (DTG). Moreover, to properly address some of the challenges that need to face these systems, we will provide a deep insight on propagation issues related to all the environments (urban, suburban, rural, tunnel, etc.). We will highlight all the communication-related issues and the operational as well. Finally, a detailed survey on the directions of research on all these topics is provided, in order to properly cover this interesting subject. In this research, hot topics like virtual coupling are explained as well.",book:{id:"6065",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",fullTitle:"Modern Railway Engineering"},signatures:"Cesar Briso-Rodríguez, Juan Moreno García-Loygorri and Lei Zhang",authors:[{id:"171013",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Briso",slug:"cesar-briso",fullName:"Cesar Briso"},{id:"216915",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno Garcia-Loygorri",slug:"juan-moreno-garcia-loygorri",fullName:"Juan Moreno Garcia-Loygorri"},{id:"216916",title:"Dr.",name:"Lei",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"lei-zhang",fullName:"Lei Zhang"}]},{id:"49375",title:"Experimental and Simulation Study of the Superstructure and Its Components",slug:"experimental-and-simulation-study-of-the-superstructure-and-its-components",totalDownloads:2553,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The issues discussed in this chapter are of interest of both the manufacturers and the experts responsible for condition of the track superstructure. In general, stress in steel elements may affect the energy state, phase changes, and corrosion. It may reduce fatigue strength and cause damage and cracks of the rails. It is one of the causes of accelerated development of standard railhead defects. Proper selection of, e.g., bending process parameters provides uniform distribution and acceptable level of residual stresses in the bent components. Residual stresses that develop during manufacturing process in the railway turnout steel components can change their strength properties. The first part of this chapter presents ultrasonic measurement method and computer simulation that allowed to develop a method to diagnose state and distribution of residual stresses in steel components of the railway turnout (wing rails and switch blades) in the production process. The second part of this chapter includes experimental and simulation studies of superstructure in operational conditions. A track substructure with a crashed stone composite is a solution of reinforced standard track substructure. The results are used to draw conclusions concerning further development and possible modifications of a proposed solution. A significant number of simulation calculations also allow to determine the duration of guaranteed functionality of a reinforced track substructure.",book:{id:"4789",slug:"railway-research-selected-topics-on-development-safety-and-technology",title:"Railway Research",fullTitle:"Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development, Safety and Technology"},signatures:"Jacek Kukulski",authors:[{id:"175842",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jacek",middleName:null,surname:"Kukulski",slug:"jacek-kukulski",fullName:"Jacek Kukulski"}]},{id:"59304",title:"Improving Feasibility of High-Speed Train Project: Creating Added Value",slug:"improving-feasibility-of-high-speed-train-project-creating-added-value",totalDownloads:1471,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Infrastructure plays a significant role in increasing economic development by providing access of transportation and improving connectivity. High-speed train (HST), one of mega infrastructure projects, has a positive impact on economic development of a nation. However, the project feasibility requires the maximum value for money and an acceptable risk to attract private investors. This study aims to improve the feasibility of the project by producing a conceptual design of Jakarta-Surabaya high-speed train in Indonesia. Value engineering will be used to evaluate both technical and financial aspects of the project. The methodology uses both qualitative and quantitative approaches through a case study, in-depth interviews, and life-cycle cost analysis. The result shows an optimum route sketching for the project and potential added value to the project. It consists of the solar cell, fiber optic, tourism, and transit-oriented development. The output also generates the division of responsibility between the government and business entity during the project lifecycle regarding the project financing. The institutional scheme will regulate the position and roles for each related stakeholder that was involved in the HST project development.",book:{id:"6065",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",fullTitle:"Modern Railway Engineering"},signatures:"Mohammed Ali Berawi",authors:[{id:"207251",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Berawi",slug:"mohammed-ali-berawi",fullName:"Mohammed Ali Berawi"}]},{id:"57840",title:"Advanced Train Positioning/Communication System",slug:"advanced-train-positioning-communication-system",totalDownloads:1660,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In the past, in order to ensure train positioning as well as ground-to-train information exchange, railways have adopted various technologies. Over time, each new generation of equipment enriched the global information exchange but, as a consequence, necessitated higher data rate transfers. For the positioning functionality, the existing localisation systems are still limited, since most of them require an infrastructure installation with constraints such as laying equipment between the rails or having high database maintenance requirements and computational costs. Moreover, some of them accumulate errors (odometers and inertial sensors) or offer limited coverage in shadowed areas (GNSS, etc.). Currently, in railway applications, a widely used localization system is based on proprioceptive sensors embarked in the train. This on-board system is coupled to the use of balises located at ground between the rails. These balises are kilometre markers. They are used to compensate for the drift of the localization information computed using the proprioceptive sensors alone, when the train moves. The balises provide absolute localization information whenever the train passes over them. They can also provide spot communication during the short period of time when trains are passing over them. In the first part of this chapter, techniques for achieving train positioning and data exchanges between trains and infrastructure are introduced. In the second part, a new balise is proposed. Particular attention is paid to the contribution of this new solution in terms of localization error and communication performances.",book:{id:"6065",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",fullTitle:"Modern Railway Engineering"},signatures:"Fouzia Elbahhar and Marc Heddebaut",authors:[{id:"140822",title:"Dr.",name:"Fouzia",middleName:null,surname:"Elbahhar",slug:"fouzia-elbahhar",fullName:"Fouzia Elbahhar"}]},{id:"49716",title:"A Systems View of Railway Safety and Security",slug:"a-systems-view-of-railway-safety-and-security",totalDownloads:4110,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter approaches the concerns over safety and security of modern mainline and light railways from a systems perspective. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",signatures:"Zuhair S. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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