Components and functions of saliva.
\r\n\tAnimal food additives are products used in animal nutrition for purposes of improving the quality of feed or to improve the animal’s performance and health. Other additives can be used to enhance digestibility or even flavour of feed materials. In addition, feed additives are known which improve the quality of compound feed production; consequently e.g. they improve the quality of the granulated mixed diet.
\r\n\r\n\tGenerally feed additives could be divided into five groups:
\r\n\t1.Technological additives which influence the technological aspects of the diet to improve its handling or hygiene characteristics.
\r\n\t2. Sensory additives which improve the palatability of a diet by stimulating appetite, usually through the effect these products have on the flavour or colour.
\r\n\t3. Nutritional additives, such additives are specific nutrient(s) required by the animal for optimal production.
\r\n\t4.Zootechnical additives which improve the nutrient status of the animal, not by providing specific nutrients, but by enabling more efficient use of the nutrients present in the diet, in other words, it increases the efficiency of production.
\r\n\t5. In poultry nutrition: Coccidiostats and Histomonostats which widely used to control intestinal health of poultry through direct effects on the parasitic organism concerned.
\r\n\tThe aim of the book is to present the impact of the most important feed additives on the animal production, to demonstrate their mode of action, to show their effect on intermediate metabolism and heath status of livestock and to suggest how to use the different feed additives in animal nutrition to produce high quality and safety animal origin foodstuffs for human consumer.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-404-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-403-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-405-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",keywords:"Technological Feed Additives, Feed Industry, Quality of Compound Feed, Non-Antibiotic Growth Promoter, Product Quality, Additive Enzymes, Digestibility of Nutrients, NSP Enzymes, Farm Animals, Livestock, Immunity, Microbiome",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 20th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus from the University of Debrecen, Hungary who authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited 3 books. Member of various committees and chairman of the World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.jpg",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus of animal nutrition at the University of Debrecen, Hungary. From 1984 to 1985 he worked at the Agricultural University in Wageningen and in the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition in Lelystad (the Netherlands). He also worked at the Agricultural University of Vienna in the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Austria) and in the Oscar Kellner Research Institute in Rostock (Germany). From 1988 to 1992, he worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition (Agricultural University in Wageningen). In 1992 he obtained a PhD degree in animal nutrition from the University of Wageningen.He has authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters). He edited 3 books and 14 international conference proceedings. His total number of citation is 407. \r\nHe is member of various committees e.g.: American Society of Animal Science (ASAS, USA); the editorial board of the Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A- Animal Science (Norway); KRMIVA, Journal of Animal Nutrition (Croatia), Austin Food Sciences (NJ, USA), E-Cronicon Nutrition (UK), SciTz Nutrition and Food Science (DE, USA), Journal of Medical Chemistry and Toxicology (NJ, USA), Current Research in Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences (USA). From 2015 he has been appointed chairman of World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).\r\nHis main research areas are related to pig and poultry nutrition: elimination of harmful effects of heat stress by nutrition tools, energy- amino acid metabolism in livestock, relationship between animal nutrition and quality of animal food products (meat).",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"25",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"66233",title:"Functions of Saliva",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84709",slug:"functions-of-saliva",body:'\nThe secretions of the major and minor salivary glands, together with the gingival crevicular fluid, constitute whole saliva which provides the chemical milieu of the teeth and oral soft tissues [1]. Saliva formation can be evoked by sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulations [2]. The critical function of saliva is required for the preservation and maintenance of oral tissue [3]. Saliva is a complex secretion. About 93% by volume is secreted by the major salivary glands and the remaining 7% by the minor glands. About 99% of saliva is water and the other 1% is composed of organic and inorganic molecules [4]. Saliva consists of both full-length and partially degraded forms of mRNA, and its association with macromolecules may protect salivary RNA from degradation [5]. The proteome of the whole saliva will be relevant to oral health and be crucial for the identification of meaningful biomarkers for oral disease [6]. Sialometry and sialochemistry are used to diagnose systemic illnesses, monitoring general health, and as an indicator of risk for diseases creating a close relation between oral and systemic health [7]. Saliva acts as a mirror of the body’s health and could constitute the first line of defense against oxidative stress by controlling and/or modulating oxidative damages in the oral cavity [8].
\nThe analysis of salivary transcriptome may be beneficial effects in the detection of oral cancer and salivary diagnostics [9]. Cationic peptides and other defense proteins like lysozyme, bactericidal−/permeability-increasing protein (BPI), BPI-like proteins, PLUNC (palate lung and nasal epithelial clone) proteins, salivary amylase, cystatins, proline-rich proteins, mucins, peroxidases, and statherin are primarily responsible for innate immunity [10]. The protein and ion components make a solution that is 99% water into a viscoelastic solution capable of many roles, such as acting as a lubricant and an antimicrobial, preventing the dissolution of teeth, aiding digestion, and facilitating taste [11]. With the rapid advancement in salivaomics, saliva, as a noninvasive and safe source, could be a substitute for blood in the diagnosis and prognosis of diseases [12]. Saliva has important functions in maintaining mucosal integrity and indigestion through salivary enzymes, buffering, remineralization, and lubrication [13].
\nSaliva is an aqueous fluid found in the oral cavity playing a fundamental role in the preservation and maintenance of oral health [14]. Saliva acts in relation to taste, mastication, bolus formation, enzymatic digestion, and swallowing. The protective functions of saliva including maintenance of dental and mucosal integrity indirectly influence the digestive process [15]. The review aimed to discuss the different functions that are performed by the saliva.
\nSaliva is composed of a variety of electrolytes, including sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate, and phosphates. Also found in saliva are immunoglobulins, proteins, enzymes, mucins, and nitrogenous products, such as urea and ammonia. These components interact in related functions in the following general area: (1) bicarbonates, phosphates, and urea act to modulate pH and the buffering capacity of saliva; (2) macromolecule proteins and mucins serve to cleanse, aggregate, and/or attach oral microorganisms and contribute to dental plaque metabolism; (3) calcium, phosphate, and proteins work together as an antisolubility factor and modulate demineralization and remineralization; and (4) immunoglobulins, proteins, and enzymes provide antibacterial action. The components listed above generally occur in small amounts, varying with changes in flow; however they continually provide an array of important functions. It is important to stress that saliva, as a unique biologic fluid, must be considered as a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts [3, 16].
\nSaliva is a very dilute fluid, composed of more than 99% water. Saliva is not considered an ultrafiltrate of plasma [16, 17]; initially, saliva is isotonic; it is formed in the acini, but it becomes hypotonic when it travels through the duct network. The hypotonicity of unstimulated saliva allows the taste buds to perceive different tastes without being masked by normal plasma sodium levels. Hypotonicity, especially during low-flow periods, also allows for expansion and hydration of mucin glycoproteins, which protectively blanket tissues of the mouth [18]; lower levels of glucose, bicarbonate, and urea in unstimulated saliva augment the hypotonic environment to enhance taste.
\nThe organic and inorganic compositions of saliva can supply information about alterations in enzymatic activity in response to periodontal inflammation [19]. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is a calcium-phosphate binding protein and a phosphor-hydrolytic enzyme. ALP is considered to be an important indicator of bone formation and is a phenotypic marker for osteoblast cells [20]. ALP was detected in the parotid, submandibular, and minor salivary glands, as well as in desquamated epithelial cells, leucocytes, and bacteria from dental plaque. The presence of the ALP in the saliva and in the gingival crevicular fluid is usually indicative of inflammation and/or destruction of the periodontal tissues. Among the several salivary components, urea is an organic compound that represents the final product of the human catabolism of proteins.
\nThe hydrolysis of urea by bacterial urease enzymes generates ammonia and CO2 and is considered a major pathway for alkali production in the oral cavity. In addition, ammonia is potentially cytotoxic for the periodontal tissues [21]. Ammonia can increase the permeability of the sulcular epithelium to other antigenic and toxic substances, thereby playing a fundamental role in the initiation of gingivitis [22]. The volume of saliva in the oral cavity depends on several factors, such as stimulation, circadian rhythm, diet, age, drugs, and the hydrogen (H+) ion concentration. Meanwhile, these factors can also be altered due to pathological conditions, such as periodontal disease [23] (Table 1).
\nSalivary component | \nFunction | \n
---|---|
Amylase | \nDigestive | \n
Bicarbonate | \nBuffering | \n
Calcium | \nRemineralization | \n
Salivary antibodies | \nAntimicrobial | \n
Lactoferrin | \nAntimicrobial | \n
Lysozyme | \nHydrolysis of cell membrane | \n
Mucins | \nDigestion, lubrication, and pellicle formation | \n
Protease | \nDigestion | \n
Water | \nMucosal integrity | \n
Components and functions of saliva.
The components like lysozyme, lactoferrin, salivary peroxidase, myeloperoxidase, and thiocyanate concentrations act as a defense mechanism in the whole saliva [24]. The natural defense properties of salivary secretions through clinical modalities such as the development of (1) diagnostic reagents and tests for local and systemic disease, (2) artificial salivas for the treatment of salivary dysfunction, and (3) topical vaccines to combat against oral diseases [25]. Salivary mucins are well recognized as an important factor in the preservation of the health of the oral cavity and are of significance to the processes occurring within the epithelial perimeter of mucosal defense [26]. Human saliva contains a number of physical, physicochemical, and chemical agents that protect oral tissues against noxious compounds. It effectively removes exogenous and endogenous microorganisms and their products into the gut and continuous presence of both nonimmune and immune factors in the mouth [27]. Salivary mucosal pellicle forms the structural basis of the local innate immune defense mechanism of the oral mucosa [28].
\nThe salivary flow rate influences to a high degree the rate of oral and salivary clearance of bacterial substrates included in foods and snacks [29]. Salivary IgA and lysozyme were inversely correlated with self-perceived work-related stress. As these salivary biomarkers are reflective of the mucosal immunity, results support the inverse relation between stress and mucosal immunity [30]. There was an inverse relationship between the presence of hyaluronidase and the presence of hyaluronidase inhibitors particularly in relation to intraoral wound healing and periodontal disease [31]. Human salivary α-amylase (HSA) is a major secretory protein component of saliva and has important biological functions, including the initial digestion of starch [32]. The collagen-cleaving enzyme matrix metalloproteinase-8 (MMP-8) is present in saliva and acts as measurable indicator of periodontal disease [33].
\nAmylase present in human saliva was one of the first enzymes to be recognized and molecular mechanisms involved in amylolysis of starch and even of the physiological role of the salivary amylase itself [34]. Lactoferrin in saliva represents an important defense factor against bacterial injuries including those related to Streptococcus mutans and periodontopathic bacteria through its ability to decrease bacterial growth, biofilm development, iron overload, reactive oxygen formation, and inflammatory processes [35]. Some defense proteins, like salivary immune globulins and salivary chaperokine HSP70/HSPAs, are involved in both innate and acquired immunities [10]. Lactoferrin is a major component of biologically important mucosal fluids and is essential for mucosal-mediated immunity [36].
\nThe antimicrobial in vitro effects of the salivary proteins lactoferrin and lysozyme on microorganisms is involved in the carious process, obtaining their minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration [37]. Salivary alpha-amylase has been proposed as a sensitive noninvasive biomarker for stress-induced changes in the body that reflect the activity of the sympathetic nervous system [38]. Salivary α-amylase levels may therefore serve as an effective indicator in the noninvasive assessment of physical stress [39]. Lactoferrin is a multifunctional mammalian immunity protein that limits microbial growth through sequestration of nutrient iron [40]. Lysozyme in saliva is found to have the antibacterial activity against the pathogen, and there is potential for it to serve an antimicrobial role in the specific application of medical industry [41].
\nLactoferrin may be a useful agent to prevent irradiation effects in salivary glands [42]. LTF is examined as a first-line mediator in immune defense and response to pathogenic and nonpathogenic injuries as well as a molecule critical for control of oxidative cell function [43]. Salivary and pancreatic amylases hydrolyze starch and involvement of amylase in adiposity and starch metabolism [44]. Lactoferrin is a secretory protein with various physiological functions, and oral lactoferrin may mitigate psychological stress in humans [45].
\nThe complex mix of salivary constituents provides an effective set of systems for lubricating and protecting the soft and hard tissues [46]. The lubricating and antimicrobial functions of saliva are maintained mainly by resting; saliva results in a flushing effect and the clearance of oral debris and noxious agents [47]. Saliva is a complex fluid, which influences oral health through specific and nonspecific physical and chemical properties [48]. Saliva contains numerous antimicrobial proteins that help protect the oral ecosystem from infectious agent [49]. Proteins can move from blood circulation into salivary glands through active transportation, passive diffusion, or ultrafiltration; some of which are then released into saliva and hence can potentially serve as biomarkers for diseases [50]. Saliva covers the oral hard and soft tissues with a conditioning film which governs the initial attachment of microorganisms, a crucial step in the setup of the oral microflora [51].
\nA high quality of saliva is an essential factor to protect the dental elements against attrition and promote the digestion process [52]. Saliva is the principal fluid component of the external environment of the taste receptor cells which is involved in the transport of taste substances and protection of the taste receptor [53]. The role of human saliva and its compositional elements in relation to the GI functions of taste, mastication, bolus formation, enzymatic digestion, and swallowing [54]. Salivary nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) are proposed to play a role in oral health and oral fat detection, and they may hold diagnostic and prognostic potential [55].
\nLingual lipase generates nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) from dietary fats during oral processing by lipolysis. Lingual lipase in rodents has strong lipolytic activity and plays a critical role in oral detection of fats [56]. Physiological role of salivary lipolytic activity in the regulation of the basal FFA concentration could be involved in fat taste sensitivity [57]. During chewing, saliva helps in preparing the food bolus by agglomerating the formed particles, and it initiates enzymatic food breakdown [58]. Saliva plays a key role in the eating process and on the perception of flavor. Flavor corresponds to the combined effect of taste sensations, aromatics, and chemical feeling factors evoked by food in the oral cavity [59].
\nAnalysis of saliva may be useful for the diagnosis of hereditary disorders, autoimmune diseases, malignant and infectious diseases, and endocrine disorders, as well as in the assessment of therapeutic levels of drugs and the monitoring of illicit drug use [61]. Fluid addition facilitated chewing of dry foods and feeding disorders caused by hyposalivation [62]. Saliva has been demonstrated to be a promising bodily fluid for early detection of diseases, and salivary diagnostics have exhibited tremendous potential in clinical applications [63]. Saliva has the potential to become a first-line diagnostic sample of choice owing to the advancements in detection technologies coupled with combinations of biomolecules with clinical relevance [64]. Saliva is a useful diagnostic fluid for oral-related diseases. Monitoring salivary biomarkers for oral and systemic diseases could become an important complement to clinical examinations in epidemiological surveys [65] (Figure 1).
\nDifferent functions of the saliva [60].
The high rate of changes in the composition of saliva can be used for the monitoring of various biorhythms in order to study the physiological characteristics of the human body [66]. The significant influences of the oral environment observed in this study increase the current understanding of the salivary microbiome in caries. These results will be useful for expanding research directions and for improving disease diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy [67].
\nThe role of saliva, the prevalence of oral dryness and the consequent importance of salivary flow as well as the relationship between xerostomia and salivary gland hypofunction amongst the causes of oral dryness [68]. Saliva is the medium that bathes the taste receptors in the oral cavity and in which aroma and taste compounds are released when food is eaten. Moreover saliva contains enzymes and molecules that can interact with food [69]. Saliva is an important fluid in the oral cavity as it bathes the teeth and the soft tissues. The salivary pH, buffer capacity and mineral content of calcium (Ca), phosphate (P), sodium (Na), and potassium (K) are important in the tooth de−/remineralization process and calculus formation [70]. Significant change in the pH depends on the severity of the periodontal condition. The salivary pH shows significant changes and thus relevance to the severity of periodontal disease. Salivary pH may thus be used as a quick chairside diagnostic biomarker [71]. Taste perception elicited by food constituents and facilitated by sensory cells in the oral cavity is important for the survival of organisms. In addition to the five basic taste modalities, sweet, umami, bitter, sour, and salty, orosensory perception of stimuli such as fat constituents is intensely investigated [72].
\nTeeth are exposed to food, drinks, and the microbiota of the mouth and have a high resistance to localized demineralization that is unmatched by bone [73]. The pH of saliva and plaque will result in white spot lesions on the tooth surface which are considered initialization of caries because of demineralization [74]. Saliva is an important biological fluid that aids in mechanically removing food debris and bacteria from the oral cavity and teeth; reduced salivary flow causes ill effects to the oral tissues [13].
\nA group of salivary proteins like lysozyme, lactoferrin, and lactoperoxidase working in conjunction with other components of saliva can have an immediate effect on oral bacteria, interfering with their ability to multiply or killing them directly. Lysozyme can cause lysis of bacterial cells, especially Streptococcus mutans, by interacting with anions of low charge density chaotropic ions (thiocyanate, perchlorate, iodide, bromide, nitrate, chloride, and fluoride) and with bicarbonate. It has recently been shown that another cationic peptide in saliva the histidine-rich peptide of parotid saliva has growth-inhibitory and bactericidal effects on oral bacteria. The histidine-rich peptides appear to be an effective antifungal agent as well, able to inhibit growth and kill Candida albicans at a very low concentration [75].
\nLactoferrin, the exocrine gland equivalent of transferrin, is effective against bacteria that require iron for their metabolic processes. It can compete with the bacterial iron-chelating molecules and deprive the bacteria of this essential element. Lactoferrin is also capable of a bactericidal effect that is distinct from simple iron deprivation. Salivary peroxidase is part of an antibacterial system which involves the oxidation of salivary thiocyanate by hydrogen peroxide (generated by oral bacteria) to hypothiocyanite and hypothiocyanous acids. These products, in turn, affect bacterial metabolism (especially acid production) by oxidizing the sulfhydryl groups of the enzymes involved in glycolysis and sugar transport. The antimicrobial effect of salivary peroxidase against S. mutans is significantly enhanced by interaction with secretory IgA.
\nThe protective potential of all the antibacterial proteins can be extended by interaction with mucin which can serve to concentrate this defense force at the interface of the mucosa and the inhospitable external environment. When teeth are present, especially if some gingivitis exists, the oral fluids will be augmented by a contribution from the gingival crevice area, the gingival crevicular fluid. This fluid can contribute to the oral defense system by providing (a) serum antibodies against oral bacteria, especially IgG antibodies, (b) phagocytic cells (PMNs), and (c) antibacterial products liberated from the phagocytic cells, e.g., lysozyme, lactoferrin, and myeloperoxidase [27].
\nThe large number of antibacterial and antiviral proteins is present in human saliva. Of interest, most of these antibacterial proteins display antiviral activity, typically against specific viral pathogens. The review focuses on one protein that interacts with both bacteria and viruses, gp340, originally referred to as salivary agglutinin. In the oral cavity, soluble gp340 binds to and aggregates a variety of bacteria, and this is thought to increase bacterial clearance from the mouth. However, when bound to the tooth surface, gp340 promotes bacterial adherence. In the oral cavity, most gp340 proteins are found soluble in saliva and can function as a specific inhibitor of infectivity of HIV-1 and influenza A. In contrast, in the female reproductive track, most gp340 proteins are bound to the cell surface, where it can promote HIV-1 infection [76].
\nThe saliva anti-fungal activity against Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans. Therefore, the importance of the search for new, broad-spectrum anti-fungals with little or no toxicity cannot be overemphasized. The following properties make histatins promising antifungal therapeutic agents: (1) they have little or no toxicity, (2) they possess high cidal activities against azole-resistant fungal species and most of the fungal species tested, and (3) their candidacidal activity is similar to that of azole-based antifungals. Current research efforts focus on the development of improved histatins with enhanced cidal activity and stability and of suitable and effective histatin delivery systems. These and other approaches may help to outpace the growing list of drug-resistant and opportunistic fungi causing life-threatening, disseminating diseases. The histatins with improved protective properties may also be used as components of artificial saliva for patients with salivary dysfunction [77].
\nSaliva is secreted by salivary glands and has multiple proteins and enzymes. The saliva flow rate and pH are very important for maintenance of oral tissues. The protective role and benefits including buffering, remineralization in the healthy oral mucosa, immune defense, digestion, lubrication, diagnostic purpose, and proteome analysis are fulfilled by saliva. Saliva aids in maintaining mucosal integrity and in digestion through salivary enzymes. Saliva is essential information of the pellicle, which protects the tooth after eruption. Normal salivary composition, flow, and function are extremely important on a daily basis. It occurs in quantities, large or small, and recognition should be given to the many contributions it makes to the preservation and maintenance of health.
\nThe authors report no declarations of interest.
With its profession founded in the need for vocational guidance in the early 1900s, professional school counseling has substantially evolved during the last century. Historically, there has been a considerable amount of role confusion regarding the responsibilities placed on the professional school counselor (PSC) [1]. This lack of clarity and uniformity of the role of the PSC has prompted the need to further define it “to help the profession become as integral, understood, and valued as other disciplines in a school building” [2]. The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) states that by implementing a comprehensive school counseling program, PSCs can improve student success for all students [3]. Furthermore, ASCA emphasizes that school counselors maximize student success as vital members of the education team [3]. The overall objective of school counseling “is to help students overcome barriers to learning and to prepare for successful careers after graduation”[2].
Over the past few decades, the profession of school counseling has answered the call to implement a more holistic and comprehensive approach to describe and delineate the roles and responsibilities of the PSC. The concept of a comprehensive school counseling program is not a new one, having first been introduced by Norm Gysbers in the late 1960s. This holistic approach has allowed for PSCs to implement a more equitable and inclusive comprehensive school counseling program for all students by infusing the three domains of academic achievement, career readiness, and social/emotional development by placing an equal emphasis on each of the three domains. PSCs also understand that each domain compliments one another. For example, PSCs guiding students toward college, career, or other post-secondary pathway must do so in collaboration with maximizing every student’s ability to learn while also helping them to manage their emotions [2].
Over the last few decades, the domains of academic achievement, career readiness, and social/emotional learning have been expanded upon by the ASCA National Model which provides PSCs with a formal structure for implementing comprehensive school counseling programs [2]. For example, the career readiness domain includes competencies used to guide school counseling programs so that students understand the connection between school and work and can plan and transition effectively to a future postsecondary education or work setting [2]. The ASCA National Model provides a framework for PSCs to be more intentional in the establishment of school counseling programs that are “comprehensive in scope, results-oriented in design, and developmental in nature”[2]. This comprehensive approach to school counseling allows for PSCs to deliver services that promote a culture of equity from which all students can benefit.
Given that comprehensive school counseling programs are designed to benefit all students, PSCs are tasked with a plethora of responsibilities including administrative demands outside of the three ASCA domains [4]. It is common for PSCs to be assigned large caseloads of students that can impact the overall effectiveness of their school counseling program. Although ASCA recommends an appropriate student to school counselor ratio of 250:1, there are few schools in the United States that adhere to that ideal ratio and, in some cases, that ratio is nearly quadrupled [5]. Thus, given the large caseloads and myriad of responsibilities assigned to PSCs, it is of no surprise that dedicating sufficient time to career development has been found to be lacking [5].
Research has shown that career development processes are necessary and critical components of a school counseling program during the PK-12 years [6, 7]. Through the leadership of the PSC, the concept of career development should begin as early as the preschool years [8, 9] and must continue as students make the journey through high school. As part of a comprehensive school counseling program, PSCs who implement career readiness are giving students the knowledge, skills, and self-awareness needed to manage their own education and career decision-making for a lifetime [10]. Students who do not receive any type of career intervention during the elementary years will likely miss the opportunity to build career development skills that will later impact their vocational lives [11]. Career guidance may potentially have the most significant impact on middle school students as there is still time for them plan and shift directions before exiting high school [1]. Recognizably, high school students are at the crossroads for critical college and career decision making that will greatly influence their future selves [7].
Due to an increasingly globalized economy that views a college education as a gateway to a secure economic future, college and career readiness initiatives have become an important policy goal within education [10]. Notably, perhaps the most significant policy goal was introduced by former U.S. president Barack Obama when he emphasized the importance for students to continue their education past high school in his Delivery Address to Joint Session of Congress [12]. As part of that vision, the National Reach Higher Initiative was introduced, [13] which provided support to school counselors in their work preparing high school students to successfully transition to college, a career, or other post-secondary pathway [1]. Never forgetting their roots founded in vocational guidance, PSCs have reinvented a career counseling focus sustainable for the 21st century as they aim to “create a culture of college and career readiness for all students”[2].
In the digital age, technology plays a prominent role in the lives of students who are engaging in more virtual learning than at any other time before. At this point in history, all current students were born as digital natives [14] into a world of ubiquitous technology consisting of computers and the Internet and have never known a world without it. Students in schools today are often referred to as the Google generation or the digital generation. These are terms that underscore the use of technology as a way of life [15]. Social networking sites serve as logical tools for career counseling centers to connect with students and increase student responsivity [16]. Responsivity is an important consideration as we consider computer assisted career planning as 21st century students often expect fast response times and instant results in their quest for knowledge regarding nearly any question they seek an answer.
Computer assisted career planning systems have existed since the late 1960s. These systems have assisted individuals in career development and decision making. Computer assisted career planning systems offer effective tools for career guidance [17]. Students who create career goals using these systems are more likely to remain in high school and proceed to some form of postsecondary education. It has been shown that gains from using these systems can be enhanced by spending more time interacting with the systems themselves [17] and through supportive individuals, such as counselors, that can augment learning [11, 17].
Computer assisted career group guidance is effective at increasing career decision making and self-efficacy for students [18]. Students assigned to an online career intervention group show greater career adaptability and life satisfaction than those in a traditional type of career intervention [19]. Furthermore, using career websites to store various resources, including assessments, allows for communication and collaboration among individuals including teachers, parents, counselors, administrators, and students [20]. Online career guidance systems are often viewed as tools for the delivery of assessment, information, and career planning support [17] and prove to be invaluable tools to assist students in career exploration and development.
Considering the comfort level of students to engage in virtual learning, the use of technology in the classroom and counseling has quickly become an expectation and is commonly used as a supplement to traditional instructional and counseling methods. Due to the demands placed on school counselors’ time, the school counselor to student ratio concerns, and educational initiatives for college and career readiness for all students, career interventions in schools are critical components to students’ postsecondary success.
Students can use online career guidance systems either independently or collaboratively with educator involvement, and these systems can be time and resource efficient. Online career guidance systems provide convenience and economy to students making career decisions and those individuals, such as school counselors, who are assisting them in the process [21]. Interestingly, technology-based career development programs appear to be used more frequently than many other types of counseling tools [4]. In addition, many of these career counseling tools serve as sources of accountability measures for educational mandates.
For the purpose of this chapter, we will examine three online career guidance systems frequently used in the United States. These systems include the Kuder Career Planning System (KCPS) [22], Naviance College and Career Readiness Program (NCCRP) by Hobsons [23], and Xello [24]. These three systems share commonalities and differences. Notably, they were created to assist school-aged students and adults in their career development journeys. They can be considered solutions for connecting career theory to practice in comprehensive school counseling programs across elementary, middle, and high school settings.
The first career guidance system we will present is the KCPS. This system can be accessed by students via desktop, laptop, or tablet in both English and Spanish language versions. The KCPS has three distinct programs, or subsystems, highlighting the developmental career progression from preschool to postsecondary school. These include Kuder Galaxy (KG) [25], Kuder Navigator (KN) [26], and Kuder Journey (KJ) [27]. Each will be explored separately so that educators can form a basic understanding for how these systems may compliment, or add value to, career exploration and planning that occurs within educational settings. It is important to recognize that the three subsystems of the KCPS work in tandem to form a complete career guidance planning system across the PK-12 years and across the lifespan.
KG is a career awareness program dedicated to elementary school students (prekindergarten through Grade 5). The content of the system is aligned to ASCA. KG was designed by career development and elementary experts to help young learners begin their career exploration process as early as preschool [25].
Each grade level of the KG includes learning objectives to guide educators and students. Students learn about the world of work through various games, videos, and activities utilizing an outer space concept. The use of space creatures in this system promotes equity by avoiding gender roles, race, and prestige stereotypes. Using the Holland Theory of Vocational Choice as the undergirding for the system, students visit six different planets at each grade level that correspond with the six Holland work environments and include realistic (doers), investigative (thinkers), artistic (creators), social (helpers), enterprising (persuaders), and conventional (organizers). Students are introduced to a different lead commander at each grade level who serves as a guide. KG is presented as play to a child but includes important information regarding the world of work and the careers that people pursue. Children deepen their learning regarding familiar occupations within their communities while also gaining exposure to new occupations, as the system includes awareness of 120 different careers. There is an age appropriate career readiness theme and question for each grade level so that learning is scaffolded across the elementary years. All learning activities relate to each grade level theme. The theme for prekindergarten defines what work is; kindergarten focuses on what people do at work; Grade 1 includes reasons why people work; Grade 2 showcases the tools and skills people use at work; Grade 3 identifies where people work; Grade 4 provides information regarding the training and education needed to prepare people for work; and Grade 5 helps students learn more about occupations of interest to them. Individual I statements are included in the system and are customizable by school districts. Students can begin to build their career portfolios early in life by understanding their capabilities and making connections to a future career. Children have the opportunity to earn badges as they navigate the grade level activities to encourage completion and success and promote positive reinforcement. Additionally, the system includes dashboards for teachers and administrators to track progress, ensure completion, and present data for showing evidence of meeting career and education standards. A parent dashboard is also included so parents can create space for conversations with their children regarding the school to career connection. Additional information regarding the KG system can be accessed here:
KN is another developmental career program within the KCPS suite of products. This system is geared toward middle and high school students and their future career planning needs as they approach the critical transition from high school to work, college, or other postsecondary endeavor. In the KN, students gain access to a variety of career assessments that can be completed in approximately 20 minutes. They can also find out about their interests, skills, and values as they create education plans for their future. The portfolio that was started in KG is continued and expanded upon in KN [26].
There are several comprehensive career planning tools included in KN such as information regarding financial aid, scholarships, academic course planning, graduation planning, and college application tracking. There are also additional services that can be added to KN such as a college access package, pathways link, and administrative database management system. In the college access package, students gain additional services including college entrance test preparation and practice materials, a college match calculator to show how student academic achievement corresponds with personal goals and finances, a tracking system for scholarships and applications, and management features for important documents such as transcripts and letters of recommendation. With the pathways link, students can complete a career interest assessment and learn how their interests match with course offerings in their school or career and technical education program. In the administrative database management system, educators can review student information, generate reports, and provide accountability. Within the KN, students can tailor their e-profile to their unique plans and save their information in a portfolio that they will have access to for life. Parental involvement is also encouraged through a parent account that is complimentary with KN. Additional information regarding the KN system can be accessed here:
KJ is the final subsystem of the KCPS dedicated to postsecondary students and adults. In this chapter, we are focused specifically on the career development needs of PK-12 students in schools, however, we would like to emphasize that the KJ system recognizes career development as lifelong and that career planning needs do not stop as students exit high school. KJ provides information that is relevant to individuals who are in various stages of their careers such as those who are new to the workforce, those who are changing jobs, and those who are recently retired, as just a few examples. Practical career advice such as building a resume, interview tips, and job search strategies can benefit individuals at all career junctures. Additional information regarding the KJ system can be accessed here
NCCRP is a comprehensive career guidance platform for Grades 6-12 dedicated to help students develop skills for “college, career, and life readiness after high school”. This program does not have an elementary version but rather focuses on the middle and high school years of development. It is estimated that 40% of high school students use NCCRP within the United States. Educators can use the platform to discuss students’ interests, strengths, and needs and assist students in strengthening competencies. Additionally, NCCRP allows for collaboration among educational professionals, such as school administrators, school counselors, and family members. All of these individuals are vital contributors to the career success of students. Specifically, school counselors can “save time by streamlining course planning, college search, and college applications to focus on building the skills and knowledge for students to be successful”. Due to the many demands placed on school counselors’ time, finding innovative ways to help students flourish in their future is fundamental [23].
NCCRP emphasizes six competencies that are deemed essential for student postsecondary success. These include social emotional learning, interpersonal skills, academic skills, career knowledge, college knowledge, and transition skills. Each of these competencies will be defined for clarity. Social emotional learning “helps students understand their strengths, manage emotions, build relationships, plan ahead, and make informed decisions.” Interpersonal skills “gives students insights into their personality types and group interactions so they can strengthen interpersonal skills”. Academic skills “helps students understand their learning styles, strengthen study and test taking skills, and create an academic plan to meet their goals”. Career knowledge “helps students match potential career paths to their strengths and interests, learn about career requirements and wages, and prepare a resume”. College knowledge “helps students to make data-informed college decisions and complete the steps necessary to apply to and enroll in college.” Transition skills “help students build skills that smooth transitions from elementary to middle and high school, then to college and independent life”. Additional information regarding the Naviance platform can be accessed here
Xello is another college and career planning software program designed to prepare K-12 students for success through building “self-knowledge, personalized plans, and life skills”. Two separate programs exist; one for elementary school and another for middle and high school. These programs are developmentally appropriate for the ages and stages of school-aged students in promoting future career success. Students can access the program via a desktop, tablet, or mobile device and are available in both Spanish and English language versions [24].
The elementary school program aims to spark children’s curiosity regarding their future through age appropriate career awareness and skills development. Xello for elementary school “encourages self-discovery, creates career awareness, and builds future readiness skills”. Xello indicates that students are more self-assured and excited about their future as a result of participating in the age appropriate skills and lessons. The program also includes built in activities for students aligning with educational standards such as the ASCA mindsets and behaviors for student success. Additional information regarding Xello for elementary school can be accessed here
Xello boasts a seamless transition in programming from elementary school to middle and high school as it aims to assist students from all backgrounds to become future ready. Specific focus in meeting educational requirements for college and career readiness is emphasized. Xello for middle and high school offers tracking for progress and completion, which is essential given the accountability standards inherent in educational programs of the 21st century. Additionally, assessments are offered as part of this program and include career, personality, and learning style inventories. Similar to other career guidance programs discussed in this chapter, Xello for middle and high school includes personalized student portfolios that can be updated as students grow, learn, and develop through the years. Support for tracking college applications and sending transcripts and letters of recommendation are useful features for college bound students. Additionally, test preparation for college entrance exams are provided along with college acceptance criteria. As students navigate their impending postsecondary transitions, dates and deadlines increase in importance. Xello for middle and high schools offers summary data of important upcoming deadlines for students to see at a glance and a course planner for identifying courses that fit with a student’s career goals. The interactive planning tools also help students create personalized career plans that are as unique as they are. Additional information regarding Xello for middle and high school can be accessed here
The three programs described in this chapter highlight the need for progressive web-based career interventions that can help to enhance the career development initiatives that PSCs offer to school-aged students. However, it is vital to assess research to determine the efficacy of online career guidance programs implemented in PK-12 school settings. It is important to note that there are very few published research studies examining the specific online career guidance systems discussed within this chapter. Although these systems are widely used in school settings across the United States, few studies have examined their utility, impact, or outcomes. In our literature search, we found two relevant studies regarding the NCCRP, one study regarding the KCPS, and no studies regarding Xello. We will review those existing studies as they are relevant to school-aged students.
There were two research studies that studied the use of the NCCRP. The reasons why school counselors chose (or did not choose) to utilize NCCRP was examined [28]. Four constructs were measured and included: perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitudes, and actual behaviors. This study considered if PSCs acceptance and use of NCCRP improved counseling practices, job productivity, and efficiency. Results indicated that the majority of middle and high school counselors agreed that NCCRP was easy to use and was useful in increasing job-related effectiveness and productivity. The study also noted that, overall, counselors had a favorable attitude toward using the system which was shown through their high usage rates. Notably, this study emphasized the value of using a system, such as the NCCRP, to help introduce and prepare high school students for college. Another study examined using the NCCRP as a supplement to college counseling in increasing college access [29]. The purpose of this study was to determine if using the system would influence college application rates. Results indicated that those students who used NCCRP more frequently had higher college application rates. The average number of times that students accessed NCCRP within a given year was a strong predictor of college application rate.
KCPS also had a relevant research study that examined the use of the KGP with fourth and fifth grade elementary school students as a career guidance intervention [11]. In this experimental study, students were randomly assigned to a series of four web-based career guidance lessons or four traditional (human facilitated) career guidance lessons and were administered pretest and posttest assessments. Four subscales of the assessment (information, curiosity/exploration, interests, and locus of control) were examined as those were the scales that most closely related to the content of the lessons. Overall, findings indicated that both the web-based and traditional guidance groups did not differ much in their average scores regardless of the career guidance intervention received, however students in the traditional career guidance intervention group had slightly higher scores posttest than those in the web based career guidance intervention group. The authors of this study assert that web-based career guidance systems should be supplementary, or adjunctive, in nature and should not replace the important role of the PSC’s human connection in providing career guidance and counseling.
There has been a significant shift in how PSCs deliver career services to their students, with online career guidance programs growing in popularity as they are regarded as both time and resource efficient. Career development must begin for students as they make the journey from pre-school through high school and beyond. Even though the profession of school counseling has evolved from vocational guidance, career development often receives the least amount of attention by PSCs [5]. Thereby, career development interventions have received little attention from counselors who predominantly define their roles to focus on academic achievement or social emotional development [30].
Online career guidance systems that work in tandem with PSCs can bridge the theory to practice gap and enhance, or compliment, a comprehensive school counseling program. There is value in using technology to support counselor growth and student outcomes in education [28]. PSCs should understand the capabilities, benefits, and shortcomings of using online career guidance systems with their clients [31].
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