The list of usable (practically introduced and researched in Slovenia) and economical valuable crops including their intercrops for increasing functional biodiversity in crop rotation.
\r\n\tThe Biomechatronic book will cover all health-related areas of mechatronic systems with emphasis on medical and health-related areas of mechatronic system components. The book will generally include the following areas: Biomechanics applications, Biomaterial systems, Mechatronic systems, Sensor systems, Control systems, Actuator systems.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"2a8b3299bd359d430bc9b5bfc54f9cdf",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Sezgin Ersoy and Dr. Ishak Ertugrul",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10029.jpg",keywords:"Biosensors, Mechatronics, Biomechatronics, Biosystem, Control, Control system, Bioactuators, Intelligent orthosis prosthesis, Implants, Upper and lower limb rehabilitation robots, Biomechanics applications",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 14th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 4th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 3rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 23rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 22nd 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"156004",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sezgin",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy",slug:"sezgin-ersoy",fullName:"Sezgin Ersoy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156004/images/system/156004.png",biography:"Sezgin Ersoy is an Associate Professor of Mechatronics Engineering and Material Science. After graduating from Marmara University, he became a faculty member at the same university. His publications include a variety of efforts to understand changes in automotive mechatronics, polymer science and biomedical technologies. He was granted fellowship at the TUBİTAK at Bourgogne University ISAT and spent one year as a visiting fellow there to study several projects between 2014 through 2015. He is the author of chapter Science Education in a Rapidly Changing World, USA 2011, and the author in Acoustic Properties of Bio Materials, Stuttgart, 2010. 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He is currently working as an Assistant Professor at Muş Alparslan University.",institutionString:"Marmara University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Marmara University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"287827",firstName:"Gordan",lastName:"Tot",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287827/images/8493_n.png",email:"gordan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Intracranial hemorrhage (ICH), contrary to popular belief, is not a ‘modern disease’ and is mentioned as ‘Cerebral Apoplexy’ in the writings of antiquity credited to Hippocrates [3]. ICH can be attributed to a number of underlying pathologies including amyloid angiopathy, cryptic vascular malformations, arteritis and hypertension [3]. Despite modern imaging such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), diagnostic uncertainty inhibits a serious study of the natural history and epidemiology of ICH [3]. ICH is predominantly of two types: primary ICH, when no underlying pathology is identifiable and secondary ICH, when hemorrhage occurs in a pre-existing lesion such as a tumor or arteriovenous malformation [2, 3].
\nICH occurring spontaneously is often referred to as ‘Hypertensive’ in common medical parlance, and there is little doubt that elevated blood pressures promote the occurrence of ICH; although several environmental factors have been identified as risk factors, hypertension remains the single most relevant of them all [3]. A systematic review of literature has demonstrated that hypertension is one of the commonest and most prevalent risk factors associated with ICH [1, 4]. A 3.5-fold increase in the incidence of ICH is noted in hypertensive patients in comparison with normotensive patients [2]. Isolated systolic hypertension is found to correlate most strongly with ICH in contrast to diastolic hypertension and borderline isolated systolic hypertension [1]. The other factors found to have some relevance to the occurrence of ICH are cigarette smoking(increases risk of ICH by 4x to 5x), alcohol consumption, diabetes mellitus, use of oral contraceptives and male gender [1, 3]. There has also been an association between low mean serum cholesterol and the incidence of ICH, especially in the older individuals [3, 5]. HIH also has a racial predilection, being highest in Asian population and least in the Caucasians [3]. Of the myriad diseases being studied today, HIH is not only one of the many which is being investigated so thoroughly that a clear understanding of the risk factors and their modifications has attributed to the plunging incidence of the disease [3].
\nClinical symptomatology of the ICH is dependent on the dissection of the brain tissue by the expanding hematoma and mass effect, implying the importance of the location and size of the hematoma [6]. Location of HIH is usually in the deep nuclei of the brain: basal ganglia (40%), the thalamus (10–25%), the cerebellum (5–10%) and the pons (5%) [6]. Thalamic hematomas may further be subdivided into four different locations: anterolateral (21%), medial (15%), posterolateral (55%) and dorsal (9%) [7]. Lobar hematomas involving the neocortex account for 20% or less [6]. The hallmark of ICH is ‘Acute neurological deficit with rapid progression,’ in contrast to ischemic strokes [6]. Fluctuating neurological symptoms are extremely uncommon [6]. The general symptoms include raised intracranial pressure which manifests as headache (33–57%), nausea and vomiting (29–46%) and decrease in the level of consciousness (28–37%)] [6]. At presentation, 4–20% of ICH patients are in a coma [6]. Meningeal irritation manifesting as neck stiffness and seizures (<10%)] are other general symptoms of ICH [6]. Symptomatology related to the location of the hematoma varies. Cortical lobar hematomas in the dominant hemisphere can present with higher mental function symptoms such as aphasia, acalculia or motor apraxia [6]. Non-dominant hemispheric symptoms appear as left-side neglect, agnosia or visuospatial dysfunction [6]. Hematomas may present with symptomatology specific to the cerebral lobe involved such as abulic-apathetic behaviors with frontal lobe involvement and contralateral homonymous hemianopsia with occipital lobe involvement [6]. The involvement of the deep grey nuclei usually depends on the location and direction of the hematoma expansion, e.g., caudate nuclei hematomas may involve the anterior limb of the internal capsule involving predominantly frontothalamic and frontopontine fibers manifesting as prominent neurobehavioral changes, in contrast to putaminal hematomas which usually involve the posterior limb of the internal capsule and may present with contralateral hemiparesis or hemiplegia [6]. Caudate and thalamic aphasias may occur in the dominant hemisphere [6]. Cerebellar hematomas may demonstrate the typical ‘Cerebellar Syndrome,’ and pontine hematomas may present with dense quadriplegia or the typical ‘locked-in syndrome’ in addition to cranial nerve deficits [6].
\nExpansion of ICH appears to be more common than initially thought. Over a third of patients may demonstrate the expansion of hematoma over the first 24 h [6]. A fivefold morbidity has been reported with the expansion of the ICH and a significant cause of death in these patients [8]. The radiographic criteria for hematoma expansion have been reported as an increase in hematoma volume by ≥12.5 cm or by ≥1.4 times [8]. Temporally, the highest probability of hematoma expansion is seen in the hyperacute stage (17% within the first 6 h) [8]. Hematoma enlargement after 24 h rarely occurs [8]. It stands to reason, therefore, if a hyperacute CT scans reveal an ICH, repeat scans should be considered periodically. There have been speculations about the etiology of the expansion, viz. whether there occur repeated small hemorrhages or there is a continuous oozing [9]. Expansion of an ICH generally follows the general ‘rule of thumb,’ and the larger the hematoma at presentation, the more likely it is to expand [10].
\nInterestingly, hematoma expansion has been shown to be an independent determinant of morbidity and mortality in ICH [11]. For an increase of 10% in the size of the ICH, there appears to be a 5% increased hazard of death [12].
\nIt has been proven that ICH usually occurs in the area supplied by small perforating arterioles (50–700 μm in dia.) and the rupture occurs as a consequence of hypertension-related pathological changes which include fibrinoid necrosis, microaneurysm formation and lipohyalinosis [6]. It is conjectural that the pulse pressure may in fact be more important than the absolute blood pressure, since the turbulence generated would damage the vessel resulting in a rupture if collagen is inadequate especially in the presence of repetitive cycles of arteriolar dilatation [7]. The Charcôt-Bouchard aneurysm, which has been a controversy since its original description, is a fusiform dilatation of the thinning, vasculopathic arteriolar wall which virtually entirely consists of collagen [7]. The controversy has stemmed from the use of the term ‘aneurysm’ for the ‘non-saccular,’ ‘fusiform’ dilatation of the vessel walls [7]. These, then, morphologically, characterize a segmental disease, fusiform (dilatation by a factor of two or three, over lengths of 100–200 μm), which has been revealed by the use of alkaline phosphatase techniques and may be visualized in the pathological specimen of the hematoma as extensions of a vessel into an acute hematoma lined by a endothelial lining [7].
\nThe management is symptomatic and mainly supportive, and no definite treatment modality has proven to improve outcomes in ICH [6]. Mortality is high, generally ranging from 30 to 55% with a very high case fatality rate in the first 7 days [6]. The long-term prognosis for the survivors is not very encouraging with less than 30% of patients being independent at 3 months of the ICH ictus [6]. The goals of management therefore include prevention of further brain injury by deterring hematoma expansion, restricting edema and to attempt recruiting the brain’s plasticity to improve the rehabilitation outcome [9]. Prehospital management is vital and primarily consists of ventilator and cardiovascular support and transporting the patient to the nearest available stroke unit [9, 13]. Management at the emergency room (ER) consists of a thorough neurological assessment, management of elevated blood pressures and neuroradiological evaluation and may entail emergency procedures such as insertion of an external ventricular drain, monitoring ICP and its management and reversal of coagulopathy [13]. Critical pathways should be formulated and followed at the ER level [13]. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging are both reasonable initial modalities of investigation, especially if the differentiation between infarction and hemorrhage is difficult clinically [13]. However, CT is considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of hemorrhage [13]. Intensive blood pressure lowering has been evaluated by several trials, and the majority of results reflect a proclivity toward rapid reduction to less than 140 mm Hg [10]. This seems clinically reasonable, generally well tolerated and appears to impact hematoma expansion in ICH [10].
\nUltra-early hemostatic therapy for ICH is recommended because an increase in the hematoma volume and expansion are associated with poorer outcome [12]. ICH has an increased incidence in patients on oral anticoagulants or antiplatelet drugs and those with coagulation factor deficiencies and platelet abnormalities [12]. Ultra-early hemostatic therapy is particularly indicated in these patients and includes appropriate intervention, such as platelet transfusions or administration of vitamin K, in addition to the other management options outlined above [12].
\nEarly studies had failed to demonstrate any significant difference between conservative and surgical management of ICH [9]. There were also reports of poorer surgical outcome due to the trauma of surgery itself and a higher postoperative re-hemorrhage rate [7]. There have been over a dozen randomized controlled trials, addressing the issue of the surgical management of ICH [9]. The surgical approach to the hematoma depends on the location and the depth of the hematoma and eloquence of the brain involved among other considerations [9]. It has also been reported that surgery may be beneficial only if undertaken within 8 h of ictus, thus limiting the toxic effects of the blood components on the brain [14].
\nThe initial Surgical Trial in ICH (STICH) trial of over 1000 patients did not reveal any statistically significant benefit of surgery for supratentorial ICH except for hemorrhage within 1 cm of cortical surface [7]. The STICH II trial for lobar hematomas found a small (3.7%) absolute benefit in the surgical group, but it was riddled with controversy because of the inclusion of patients with a normal level of consciousness (i.e., clinically no evidence of raised ICP) [14]. The STICH II trial, however, did demonstrate significant benefit from surgery in the group that was considered a poor prognosis group (i.e., low GCS and a large hematoma volume) [14]. There have been several recent trials researching minimally invasive surgical techniques such as endoscopic or stereotactic aspiration with or without fibrinolytic agents [9]. ‘Minimally Invasive Surgery and rtPA for Intracerebral Hemorrhage Evacuation’ (MISTIE) is a series of clinical trials where minimally invasive evacuation of ICH and the use of either a thrombolytic agent [MISTIE II (2013) and MISTIE III (ongoing)] or a CT-guided endoscope (MISTIE-ICES) is under study [15]. Early results were favorable for the successful and early removal of the ICH in addition to demonstrating a fall in the mortality rate and long-term qualitative outcome [15].
\nRecombinant activated factor VII (rFVIIa) therapy, although a well-documented therapy in the Haemophilias, it has found limited application in the indiscriminate use in ICH and is associated with multiple thromboembolic complicationsincluding death [11]. It has, however, demonstrated a reduction in the growth of the ICH when administered within 4 h of the ictus. Perihematomal edema and secondary injury are the focus of attention and includes altering events at the molecular level, which would precipitate secondary injury in ICHs. These include iron-mediated toxicity and acute inflammation which is induced by the degradation products of hemoglobin [10]. Multiple modalities, such as the use of minocycline, hypothermia and albumin, have been advocated as possible neuroprotective agents in the prevention of secondary injury from inflammation in ICH [10]. Deferoxamine mesylate is investigated to counter the neurotoxic effects of iron resulting from hemolysis of the red blood cells [10]. Preclinical work with Pioglitazone has revealed that the transcription factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma plays an essential role in enhancing phagocytosis with the dual role of restraining oxidative stress and inflammation [10].
\nThere is a slightly more than 1% chance of a survivor of an ICH to endure either a new ICH or an ischemic stroke each year [9]. The three most important and reliable indicators of poor outcome after ICH are volume of the hematoma, level of consciousness and intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), which is implicated most likely due to the involvement of more centrally located structures within the brain [9, 12].
\nAlthough, hemorrhagic stroke has been known since antiquity, it has been an extremely challenging medical condition to treat. One that has been investigated exhaustively, and future avenues of treatment will most likely combine several approaches not just at reducing the size of the hematoma and prevention of its expansion but also therapies aimed at mitigating the secondary insult. Further focus, understandably, would rest on grasping the molecular mechanisms of the pathogenesis and the innate immune responses and formulating remedies to combat these effects. This chapter has attempted a brief overview of the topic. Further sections will highlight many aspects of this neurological entity in depth, hopefully illuminating our understanding of this ubiquitous but challenging disorder.
\nIndustrial-supported production systems with monocultures production of one crop during the years at one place are known to unbalance complete biodiversity of the fields. The main reasons for decreasing soil, plant, and landscape biodiversity are bad agricultural practices such as: (i) reduction of organic inputs in the soil, (ii) use of synthetic compounds including heavy metals as a part of fertilizers, (iii) use of high inputs of herbicides, pesticides and fungicides, and (iv) “scientific” supported GMO organisms adaptable to high inputs of herbicides. Especially, GMO plants in field crop production represent a compensation for the mentioned bad agricultural practices.
Few basic documents on agroecosystems biodiversity [1, 2, 3] gave extensive descriptions and figures about relationships of forming sustainable biodiversity. It is now clear that monoculture gives rise to decreased natural enemies of species diversity and habitat diversification, whereas rotations and cover crops can improve biodiversity [2]. An extensive overview from different aspects contains terms such as (i) prevention of culture and ethno science, (ii) knowledge about potential uses of plants, and (iii) uses of local resources for pest control, etc., but on other hand, the whole approach is done in the context of industrial-supported agriculture by synthetic pesticides and fertilizers [3]. Assessment of potential indicators for sustainability (especially biodiversity) of food production on the field level looks like built a house without strong fundament [4]. Indicators of soil quality and food quality (influenced by different crops in crop rotation) are essential for the indicator frameworks; they are strongly correlated with each other.
The main problem of dominant monoculture production (based on five main crops such as maize, wheat, soybean, rice and cassava, and potato, rye, etc., depending on specific regional circumstances) is genetic erosion of plant diversity and associated biodiversity of life cycles in the soil and behavior of the plants (pests, diseases, new components of GMO sequences in the plants, etc.). It is true and important that agricultural and biodiversity conservation sectors must work in partnership [5]. However, kind of theoretical basis is not enough for protecting biodiversity from landscape to the soil level. Especially, it needs to be in the scope of natural processes of known good agricultural practices.
In spite of discussions with different officers (Brussels, Ministry) and presented chapter [6], where we focused on agricultural measures for increasing biodiversity on the field level with supporting remarks for policy makers, “green measures” is nothing new. EU green measures (also the USA and other parts of world are not exception) in many cases smell more like “green washing” than real base for increasing rich biodiversity on the field level and produce niche products of health and nutritional foods [7].
The aim of the chapter is to analyze potential underutilized species of field crops and their benefits for introducing them into broader crop rotation instead of monoculture or two crops rotation. It is also important to show the data and idea to environmental, agronomical advisers, and policy makers for better understanding and support of rich biodiversity of crop plants in the fields.
The chapter is based on extensive review of latest results and rare scientific papers (from databases Web Sci., Sci. Direct, keywords like functional biodiversity, crop rotation, and underutilized crops) particularly focusing on basic part of agricultural biodiversity with real change of crop rotation based on underutilized crops as a part of functional biodiversity. SWOT analyses of underutilized crops vs. biodiversity were also employed. As a special part of this basic change on the field instead of monoculture or two crops rotation, a special focus will be an interdisciplinary approach of underutilized crops vs. biodiversity and other environmental, social, and economic benefits.
According to numerous projects’ (e.g., by Agrobiodiversity international, different environmental agencies like PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency [8], and others) designs and explanations of agricultural biodiversity [2, 3] from agronomic point of view, underutilized crops are the main point for real sustainable biodiversity on the fields. Considering the basic part of agricultural biodiversity, especially underutilized crops growing in organic (biological, ecological) production system without synthetic chemistry and transgenic plants are the best support for rich agricultural biodiversity. In this way, rich functional biodiversity of underutilized crop supports all parts of natural biodiversity in the soil and on the field (Figure 1).
Some effects of underutilized crops like functional biodiversity on soil and field diversification.
Potential of underutilized crops for rich biodiversity is extensively described by different authors [9] through global and regional assessments from wild to cultivated plants. In different literatures, about 100,000 used plants, 80,000 explored plants by humans since down civilization and about 118,000 edible plants are listed. In addition, 9500 plants as a source of economics, etc., are reported at the world level. Regional types of species are diverse according to climatic conditions, but in every region, a lot of minor, underutilized, and even neglected crops also exist. It is also based on the fact that in one region, one species can be neglected, but it may be a main crop (like a chick pea).
In case of small country Slovenia, we can describe a relatively long list of potential edible and economical valuable field crops (Table 1). However, just a few of main crops are economically acceptable for the farmers. Because of this, agricultural biodiversity has reduced mainly to one or two crops per field. In recent years, biodiversity structure on the fields has been increasing especially on organic farms. The list in Table 1 can be longer if herbal and vegetable crops or even their intercrops with fruit plants are included in crop rotation. In this case, in every region over the world, the increase of functional plants is nonlimited due to usable plants. Only question is whether political decision-makers support it. In case of Slovenia, we numbered more than 200 plant species in these combinations. However, many of this kind of combinations were not examples of research and specific development. In case of more traditional plants, we can represent some possibilities from more conventional intercrops to the intercrops and sole crops of underutilized plants.
Crops | Intercrops |
---|---|
Main crops | |
Maize ( | Maize × climbing bean |
Cereals: wheat ( | Cereals × pea |
Potatoes ( | Hops × under sown cover crops |
Hops ( | (Clover, buckwheat, white mustard,…) |
Soybean ( | Pea × cereals, clover × maize, soybean × maize (strip sowing) |
Pea ( | |
Oil (seed) pumpkins | |
Oil rapeseed ( | |
Clovers, alfalfa,… | Clover × under sown cereals |
Horse bean ( | |
Beans ( | Maize × climbing bean |
White lupine ( | |
Buckwheat ( | |
Proso millet ( | |
Spelt ( | |
Einkorn ( | |
Emmer ( | |
Khorosan ( | |
Camelina ( | Camelina × barley |
Hemp ( | |
Flax ( | |
Garden poppy ( | |
Safflower ( | |
Quinoa ( | |
Grain amaranths ( |
The list of usable (practically introduced and researched in Slovenia) and economical valuable crops including their intercrops for increasing functional biodiversity in crop rotation.
Underutilized crops are better adapted to marginal soil, complex and difficult environments conditions (climate change, which will have impact on biotic and abiotic stress), and they can contribute significantly to diversification and resilience of agroecosystems [10, 11]. Underutilized crops, which are known for their drought tolerance, are the minor millets, sorghum, and amaranth [12, 13, 14]. We have to know that we need to grow population of crops, which would have the ability to maintain the satisfactory yield under changing climates. Excellent drought resistance combined with good tolerance of heat, low fertility, and a range of soils make cowpeas viable throughout the temperate climate. It makes an excellent N source and attracts many beneficial insects. Cowpeas also can be used on poor land [15].
As mentioned, underutilized species are generally deployed in multicropping system [12]. If more diverse production is required, we can use different intercropping. These cropping systems are more stable and resilient than monocultures [12]. Abiotic stress can be ameliorated by intercropping, which reduces the accumulation of nitrate in the soil, permitting lower application rates of N and reducing down streams effects [16]. Altieri [2] states that in the areas where intercropping system was used, 52% less arthropods were observed compared to monoculture. There was also an increase in density of all living organisms up to 15.3%.
It is a known fact that the most effective suppression of weeds in organic and more sustainable agriculture systems is intercropping. It can provide benefits in nutrient availability and pest control, finally higher yield too [16]. The most common combination is between cereals with legumes. This enables more stable yields, greater use of land, and effectively controls the growth of weeds and soil mainly to improve the hock (fixation of nitrogen of the roots of legumes), the quantity of organic material, and the quality of the soil by the addition of atmospheric carbon.
In Serbia [17], an experiment was performed in which impact of monocultures of corn and soya compared with the intercropping of both was investigated. They examined coverage, abundance, and biomass of weeds. In the monocultures, the number of weeds was statistically different compared with other production system. The intercropping system was proved to be more effective than the estimate parameters of monoculture. Earthworm population is more affected by species-rich if more legumes are included [16]. Cropping systems increase biological diversity and prevent the onset of nematode problems as it balances a dynamic soil ecological and improves healthier soil structure with higher organic matter [15].
For soya production, temperate climates in northern part of the Alps are too low to ensure yield potential and stability. This is the reason why soya can be neglected in this region, although on the global scale, it is in the fifth place in the list of the most important main crops [14]. Amaranth is a very notorious leaf vegetable; it can be comparable to spinach. With regard to resistance to cold weather condition, quinoa is similar to peas and faba beans. However, they are not adapted to modern production techniques. Switzerland has made adjustments to test if soya can be adapted to cold climate. Hemp is known as a robust plant for producing fibers, but has some other problems such as too short fibers for the construction industries and too long fibers for textile [24]. Buckwheat has short vegetation, so it can be suitable for regions that enable stubble crop. With global warming, there will be a longer growing season. In addition, the role of underutilized crops as a buffer for climate change should be promoted [10, 14].
Different species (like millets from different genera) are important in fragile ecosystems such as those of arid and semiarid lands, mountains, steppes, and tropical forests. Crops do not require high imputes, so they can be grown in degraded and wastelands. They can increase agricultural production and enhance crop diversification. At the same time, they can contribute useful genes to breed better varieties [10].
A lot of sole or mixed populations of underutilized crops can be used as cover crops. These can cover the soil during the summer and winter, thus improving soil diversity and also prevent leaching of nutrients. They can reduce the intake of various fertilizers for the next crops and minimize the use of nonrenewable resources [18].
There are an extensive number of crops at the world level, continent, region, or country (see Table 1 for Slovenia). From agronomic (Table 2) point, crop rotations with different underutilized crops have some opportunities and weaknesses, with more promising structure for increasing functional biodiversity (Table 3). In case of including underutilized crops and intercrops into crop rotation, we can increase important benefits of agronomic factors such as soil organic matter, soil structure, phosphorus mobilization, and reduction of diseases or weeds, etc. (Figure 1).
Rich crop rotation Less plant diseases, pests and weed populations No synthetic chemistry in process No transgenic plants More niche product Nutritional and healthy food Higher prices of products than conventional | Loss of genetic materials Not well organized breeding In some cases bad adaptation to environment Lack of whole chain knowledge Lack of knowledge about nutritional and health value of products Less specialized mechanization than in conventional production |
Les risks with sell prices Increasing employment Organize production whole chain (from seed to sell the product) Increasing production of diverse food Development of new tastes by consumers New trading possibilities | Low yields Unknown products as a food Opposition from intensive sector and multinational corporations |
SWOT analyses of crop rotations with more underutilized crops on main agronomic, social and economic parameters.
Increasing usable crops in the fields Natural populations of predators and pests, natural regulation of plant diseases and weed populations Increasing pollinator plants Green covered field during longer period More plant rests with different effects on the soil cycles More microorganisms in the soil | Bad organized breeding and gene banks exploitation Bad genetic adaptation to growing conditions |
Preservation of honey bees Increasing soil organic matter and available nutrients Symbiotic N fixation with legumes in crop rotation | Misunderstanding of policy makers about biodiversity benefits for support Use underutilized crops just for genetic modification of plants |
SWOT analyses of functional biodiversity of underutilized crops in total agricultural biodiversity.
Strengths, opportunities, weaknesses, and threats of including underutilized crops into crop rotation have been frequently criticized over the world from supporting industrial thinking agronomists. It is partly included in the lists of presented weaknesses and threats (Tables 2 and 3).
Due to SWOT analyses, including comments from literature, we need to underline that underutilized crops have a good impact on preservation of the ecosystem. Grasses, sacrum, and buckwheat are good ground cover, and they effectively prevent erosion with their dense root system. They produce a lot of biomass, which ensures the subsequent increase in the organic matter with increasing soil microbiology. With their intense growth of crops, they also prevent the growth of weeds. Hardy rye, sorghum, sudangrass, and the sacrum with their excreta prevent the germination and development of weeds due to allopathy. Particularly, rye is an effective crop for weed control as it can reduce the germination of weeds by preventing access of light to the ground; consequently, the soil is colder [19].
The role of grain legumes in cropping system is nitrogen effect caused by N provision from bacterial symbiotic fixation and N sparing process that provides a long-term supply to other crops [20]. Peas, legume, has ability to fix nitrogen from the air with the help of bacteria (
It is worth to mention that lupines included into crop rotation has the ability to accumulate heavy metals such as Cu, Cd, Ni, and Zn [21]. In the same time, it has a positive influence on the increase of N (it has the biggest content and uptake), the organic matter, the number of microorganisms (bacteria), and plant accessible metal “bioavailability metals” [22, 23]. According to our experience, hemp is a promising bioremediation crop as a part of crop rotation because of high production of biomass and their accumulation of heavy metals [22].
Cover crops can reduce the number of nematodes, pests, and diseases. Sudan grass is one of the good inhibitors of nematodes as it effectively reduces the formation of nematode eggs. This was evidenced in experiments on lettuce and its previous crops [25, 26].
Preissel et al. [22] compared different precrops without fertilizers application and reported that yields of cereals following grain legumes increased yield by 11–41%, and compared to oats or precrops, the benefits increase by 27–110%. Grain legumes, plants with multiple impacts on the environment can provide a stable yield and the possibility of reduce inputs (spraying, fertilization, and multiple treatments). They also indicated that grain legume intercropped with cereals is the most important in rotation system as they are the most effective natural way to prevent diseases of cereals. In the grains of cereals, the content of proteins also increased. Cropping system with legumes reduced nitrous oxide emission and caused lower nitrate-N leaching. In the same time, it had positive phytosanitary effects [23]. Alteri [2] argues the same emphasize that the polyculture (maize-beans and squash) can produce up to 4 t ha−1 of dry matter compared with 2 t ha−1 from monoculture of maize. This reflects that the presence of different crops can be efficient of using natural resources.
Diversified crop rotations may be one of the prospective methods of reducing the expansion of pests beside soil improvement. Phatak [15] proved that, by using crimson clover and vetch as cover crops, it is possible to reduce the amount of fertilizers and insecticides to 30–100%. As it is known that some crops like lupines and oilseed rape have big impact on the crop of cereals, especially on wheat. Both reduce the presence of root diseases and grass weeds. These combinations influence the effect on the final harvest index.
Pollination is an essential ecosystem service in which bumble and solitary bees play an important role. If we used crop rotations without using pesticides, we can improve production. If habitats islands were isolated from agricultural field, species richness of flower-visiting bees decreases. The same is valid for seed production. This is a proof how important is the relation between crop and pollinator diversity. It is a good example of importance of interactions among different components of biodiversity [16].
Intercropping can also have a negative effect on crops, particularly if it is not selected by the correct combinations within the intra- and interspecific varieties; consequently, there will be competition between crop plants. This is a reason why the next plant should be selected according to the characteristic of competition of the precrop.
Several vetches, clovers, and certain cruciferous crops increase high density of populations of beneficial insects such as insidious flower bugs (
Minimally tilled crimson clover or cahaba vetch before cotton planting have been successful in reducing fertilizer N down to 50% and insecticide inputs by 30–100%. A system of transplanting tomatoes, peppers, and eggplants into a killed hairy vetch or vetch/rye cover crop can influence benefits of weed, insect, and disease suppression, improved fruit quality, and overall lower production cost. Rye has the ability to reduce soil-borne diseases, nematodes, and weeds. It produces significant biomass that smothers weeds when it is left on the surface provides habitat for beneficial insects and controls weeds allelopathically through natural weed-suppressing compounds. Rye is not suitable cover where those worms are a problem (crops like corn, sweet corn, sorghum, or pearl millet) [15].
Crimson clover suppresses weeds effectively by forming a thick mulch and supports high densities of beneficial insects by providing food and habitat [15]. Buckwheat is very effective in suppressing weeds and supports high densities of beneficial insects. It is very attractive to honeybees and also sunflowers [15, 16].
After tests with oats, broccoli, white lupine, and field peas, researchers cautioned that it might take 3–5 years to effectively reduce stem lesion losses on potatoes. Cover crops with documented nematocidal properties against at least one nematode species include sorghum-sudangrass, marigold, hairy indigo, showy crotalaria, hemp, velvet bean, rapeseed, mustards, and radish. Sorghum-sudangrass and buckwheat are warm-season crops that suppress weeds by allelopathy. Cereal rye is an overwintering crop that suppresses weeds both physically and chemically. Rye residue, which is left on the soil surface, can release allelo chemicals [15].
We agreed with the statement of Frison et al. (2011) that “Diversity will be essential to improve productivity, to enhance ecosystem functions, and to provide adaptability.” In addition to environmental services, underutilized crops produced in different regions are urgent for preserving food security and food quality [28, 29], especially if grown under organic farming system [30].
We conclude that only real increasing of functional biodiversity is based on underutilized crops managed in multiple crop rotation and intercrops in organic farming production system. Conservation of many underutilized crops needs to be based on practical production on small-scale farms. This kind of supporting usable functional biodiversity would be a chance for increasing positive social and economic impacts by the farmers with an extensive protection of nature. Worldwide and EU policy makers need to find better ways to develop this kind of practical and beneficial environmental development.
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
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\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
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\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\n\n\n\n
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The accumulated knowledge has shown turbulent flow to be composed of islands of vortices and uniform-momentum regions, which are coherent in both time and space. Research has been concentrated on these structures, their generation, evolution, and interaction with the mean flow. Different theories and conceptual models were proposed with the aim of controlling the boundary layer flow and improving numerical simulations. Here, we review the different classes of turbulence coherent structures and the presumable generation mechanisms for each. The conceptual models describing the generation of turbulence coherent structures are generally classified under two categories, namely, the bottom-up mechanisms and the top-down mechanisms. The first assumes turbulence to be generated near the surface by some sort of instabilities, whereas the second assigns an active role to the large outer layer structures, perhaps the turbulent bulges. Both categories of models coexist in the flow with the first dominating turbulence generation at low Reynolds number and the second at high Reynolds number, such as the case in the atmospheric boundary layer.",book:{id:"7214",slug:"turbulence-and-related-phenomena",title:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena",fullTitle:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena"},signatures:"Zambri Harun and Eslam Reda Lotfy",authors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"},{id:"252195",title:"Dr.",name:"Eslam",middleName:null,surname:"Reda",slug:"eslam-reda",fullName:"Eslam Reda"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63059",title:"Generation, Evolution, and Characterization of Turbulence Coherent Structures",slug:"generation-evolution-and-characterization-of-turbulence-coherent-structures",totalDownloads:3624,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Turbulence stands as one of the most complicated and attractive physical phenomena. The accumulated knowledge has shown turbulent flow to be composed of islands of vortices and uniform-momentum regions, which are coherent in both time and space. Research has been concentrated on these structures, their generation, evolution, and interaction with the mean flow. Different theories and conceptual models were proposed with the aim of controlling the boundary layer flow and improving numerical simulations. Here, we review the different classes of turbulence coherent structures and the presumable generation mechanisms for each. The conceptual models describing the generation of turbulence coherent structures are generally classified under two categories, namely, the bottom-up mechanisms and the top-down mechanisms. The first assumes turbulence to be generated near the surface by some sort of instabilities, whereas the second assigns an active role to the large outer layer structures, perhaps the turbulent bulges. 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Recently, spectrum slicing wavelength division multiplexing (SS-WDM)-based FSO systems provide improved link range, high capacity, and efficiency. In this chapter, the SS-WDM-based FSO system is proposed with four channels to increase the performance of communication under various wind speed and heights of the buildings. But, atmospheric turbulence fading, scintillation, and pointing errors (PE) are the main impairments affecting the performance of FSO communication systems. Predominantly, the turbulence variation due to wind velocity, refractive index, and height of buildings has been majorly focused and analyzed for Vellore weather conditions. A case study has been experimented on how the height of buildings and the atmosphere around VIT, Vellore campus, affect the transmission of light in free space. The bit error rate of the proposed system is analyzed with distance, received power for various wind speed and different heights of the buildings.",book:{id:"7214",slug:"turbulence-and-related-phenomena",title:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena",fullTitle:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena"},signatures:"Prabu Krishnan",authors:[{id:"243249",title:"Dr.",name:"Prabu",middleName:null,surname:"K",slug:"prabu-k",fullName:"Prabu K"}]},{id:"61221",title:"Laser Beam Propagation through Oceanic Turbulence",slug:"laser-beam-propagation-through-oceanic-turbulence",totalDownloads:914,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Using a recently proposed model for the refractive index fluctuations in oceanic turbulence, optical beam propagation through seawater is explored. The model provides an accurate depiction of the ocean through the inclusion of both temperature and salinity fluctuations to the refractive index. Several important statistical characteristics are explored including spatial coherence radius, angle-of-arrival fluctuations, and beam wander. Theoretical values of these parameters are found based on weak fluctuation theory using the Rytov method. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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