The refractive index of BST and other ferroelectric thin films.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7842",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Basic and Clinical Understanding of Microcirculation",title:"Basic and Clinical Understanding of Microcirculation",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Microcirculation is key to providing enough nutrition and oxygen from head to toe. This is possible only through an extensive network of blood vessels spread around the body. Effect of microcirculation abnormalities stretch beyond one’s comprehension. The effects could be felt at any age, from the foetal life to the adulthood. The chapters present in this book describe how these abnormalities could lead to diseases such as atherosclerosis, thrombosis, diabetes, hypertension. Disorders of microcirculation could be related to the structural and/or functional damage to the inner lining of the blood vessels. Early identification of these disorders could benefit many ailments including cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases such as heart attack and stroke.",isbn:"978-1-78985-552-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-551-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-968-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77660",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"basic-and-clinical-understanding-of-microcirculation",numberOfPages:166,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a57d5a701b51d9c8e17b1c80bc0d52e5",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad, Seyed Soheil Saeedi Saravi and Nazar Luqman Bilgrami",publishedDate:"July 22nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7842.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6241,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:15,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:29,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 5th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 3rd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 2nd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 21st 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 20th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhwqQAC/Profile_Picture_1643703122186",biography:"Professor Kaneez Fatima Shad, an Australian neuroscientist with a medical background, obtained a Ph.D. from the Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Australia, in 1994, followed by a postdoc at the Allegheny University of Health Sciences, Philadelphia, USA. She taught medical and biological sciences at various universities in Australia, the United States, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Pakistan, and Brunei. During this period, she was also engaged in research by obtaining local and international grants (a total of more than $3 million USD) and developing products such as a rapid diagnostic test for stroke and other vascular disorders (i.e., schizophrenia). She has published more than sixty-eight articles in refereed journals, edited nine books, authored ten book chapters, presented at more than ninety international conferences, and mentored thirty-four postgraduate students. She is an international mentor and a protocol development specialist.",institutionString:"University of Technology Sydney",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"University of Technology Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"291749",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazar",middleName:null,surname:"Luqman Bilgrami",slug:"nazar-luqman-bilgrami",fullName:"Nazar Luqman Bilgrami",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291749/images/system/291749.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nazar Luqman Bilgrami is an experienced cardiologist with over 30 years of clinical, research and academic experience. He was trained in India, United Kingdom and Australia. Having worked previously in Brunei Darussalam as a cardiologist and adjunct associate professor, he has now moved to Australia. At present he is working with Austin Health in Melbourne, Australia. He is an accomplished researcher with several publications. In addition to his clinical work, he is currently pursuing research in cardiovascular issues related to heart failure. His contribution as a co-editor has gone a long way in compiling this book on microcirculation and making it a worthy reference book for cardiologists.",institutionString:"University Brunei Darussalam",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Karachi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"14680",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Soheil",middleName:null,surname:"Saeedi Saravi",slug:"seyed-soheil-saeedi-saravi",fullName:"Seyed Soheil Saeedi Saravi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14680/images/2419_n.jpg",biography:'Dr. Seyed Soheil Saeedi Saravi, PharmD, PhD, senior scientist at Harvard Medical School, received his PhD in 2016 from Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS), followed by a post doc at Harvard Medical School. His research areas include cardiovascular biology and aging, atherosclerosis, and redox biology. He has authored of over 55 peer-reviewed publications, edited 8 books and chapters, and presented at over 30 international conferences. He has served as editorial board and reviewer of >20 prestigious journals, e.g. European Heart Journal, and professional member of over 10 international scientific associations, including American Heart Association (AHA), European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS). He has been honored with numerous international and national awards (25 prizes), namely, including \\"Paul Dudley White International Award\\" from American Heart Association, \\"AGLA Walter Riesen Award\\" from Swiss Atherosclerosis Association, prize of \\"European Atherosclerosis Society Young Investigator Fellowship 2021\\", and \\"Harvard Postdoctoral Fellowship\\".',institutionString:"Harvard Medical School",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Harvard Medical School",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"170",title:"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine",slug:"cardiology-and-cardiovascular-medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"68831",title:"Ion Channels and Their Regulation in Vascular Smooth Muscle",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88962",slug:"ion-channels-and-their-regulation-in-vascular-smooth-muscle",totalDownloads:928,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Vascular smooth muscle excitability is exquisitely regulated by different ion channels that control membrane potential (Em) and the magnitude of intracellular calcium inside the cell to induce muscle relaxation or contraction, which significantly influences the microcirculation. Among them, various members of the K+ channel family, voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, and transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are fundamental for control of vascular smooth muscle excitability. These ion channels exist in complex with numerous signaling molecules and binding partners that modulate their function and, in doing so, impact vascular smooth muscle excitability. In this book chapter, we will review our current understanding of some of these ion channels and binding partners in vascular smooth muscle and discuss how their regulation is critical for proper control of (micro)vascular function.",signatures:"Arsalan U. Syed, Thanhmai Le, Manuel F. Navedo and Madeline Nieves-Cintrón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68831",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68831",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"72343",title:"Cerebral Vascular Tone Regulation: Integration and Impact of Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90404",slug:"cerebral-vascular-tone-regulation-integration-and-impact-of-disease",totalDownloads:727,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter summarizes the current knowledge regarding the regulation of the tone of cerebral resistance arteries under conditions of normal health and with the development of chronic diseases (e.g., metabolic disease). The work integrates the myogenic (pressure-induced) regulation of vascular tone, the impact of elevated luminal flow or shear stresses, that of local tissue metabolic activity on vascular tone and the concept of neurovascular coupling (linking neuronal activity to the impacts on vascular diameter). In addition, this work summarizes some of the recent work on how diseases such as type 2 diabetes impact the mechanisms of cerebrovascular tone regulation. It is anticipated that the current review will provide the reader with an up-to-date understanding of how the cerebral resistance vessels respond to changes in their local environment and contribute to the regulation of blood flow within the brain.",signatures:"Brayden Halvorson and Jefferson Frisbee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72343",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72343",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69513",title:"Primary Cilia are Sensory Hubs for Nitric Oxide Signaling",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89680",slug:"primary-cilia-are-sensory-hubs-for-nitric-oxide-signaling",totalDownloads:698,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Primary cilia are sensory organelles present on the surface of most polarized cells. Primary cilia have been demonstrated to play many sensory cell roles, including mechanosensory and chemosensory functions. We demonstrated previously that primary cilia of vascular endothelial cells will bend in response to fluid shear stress, which leads to the biochemical production and release of nitric oxide. This process is impaired in endothelial cells that lack primary cilia function or structure. In this chapter, we will provide an overview of ciliogenesis and the differences between primary cilia and multicilia, as well as an overview of our published work on primary cilia and nitric oxide, and a brief perspective on their implications in health and disease.",signatures:"Sidney T. Ley and Wissam A. AbouAlaiwi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69513",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69513",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69403",title:"Endogenous and Inhaled Nitric Oxide for the Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89381",slug:"endogenous-and-inhaled-nitric-oxide-for-the-treatment-of-pulmonary-hypertension",totalDownloads:965,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since the discovery of nitric oxide (NO) as a physiological substance produced in the endothelium, the impairment of endothelial NO production and reactivity of the pulmonary vasculature to NO have been described in animal models and patients with pulmonary hypertension (PH). The NO synthase-NO-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) pathway is impaired in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), pulmonary veno-occlusive disease (PVOD), pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis (PCH), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Pioneering clinicians conceived that NO can be administered to the lung by inhalation and used this strategy to treat PH in humans and acute hypoxic PH in animal models. Inhaled NO (iNO) selectively decreases pulmonary arterial pressure with no changes in systemic arterial pressure. When iNO diffuses into the blood, it is converted to NO3−, thereby losing its vasodilatory effects. NO might then be recycled in hypoxic remote organs, where NO3− and NO2− are reduced to NO. In the present chapter, the metabolic fate of iNO, based on previous air pollution research in Japan, is discussed. Then, we describe recent clinical applications of iNO in pediatric patients with various diseases, including bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), persistent PH of neonates, and congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH). We also summarize the role of iNO in the catheterization lab, including acute vasoreactivity testing to assess prognosis, indications for specific PH therapy, and operability of congenital heart disease.",signatures:"Kazuo Maruyama, Junko Maruyama and Hirofumi Sawada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69403",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69403",authors:[{id:"157952",title:"Dr",name:"Kazuo",surname:"Maruyama",slug:"kazuo-maruyama",fullName:"Kazuo Maruyama"}],corrections:null},{id:"69686",title:"Endothelial Dysfunction in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89365",slug:"endothelial-dysfunction-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:948,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Endothelium is the inner most cell layer of blood vessels. Endothelial cells make special barrier that separate blood from extravascular tissues. Intact endothelium regulates vascular tone and permeability and maintains non-inflammatory, anti-thrombotic surface. Through its ability to express pro-coagulants, anticoagulants, vasoconstrictors, vasodilators, cell adhesion molecules, and cytokines, the endothelium has emerged as one of the pivotal regulators of vascular homeostasis. Under physiological conditions, endothelial cell sustains a vasodilatory, anticoagulant, and fibrinolytic state in which coagulation, platelet adhesion, as well as leukocyte activation and inflammation are suppressed. In contrast, during endothelial disturbances, a prothrombotic and pro-inflammatory state of vasoconstriction gets support from the endothelial surface. Release of platelet-activating factor (PAF) and endothelin-1 promotes vasoconstriction, whereas production of von Willebrand factor (vWF), tissue factor (TF), and plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1 shifts the haemostatic balance towards a procoagulant state. Several factors like infection, hyperglycaemia, hyperlipidaemia, malignancy, oxidative stress, and aging can interfere in endothelial function. It is believed that most of the cardiovascular diseases originate from endothelial dysfunction. Endothelial dysfunction has been shown to be involved in atherosclerosis, thrombosis, hypertension, diabetes, and other cardiovascular diseases. In this review we will specifically highlight the role of endothelial dysfunction in development of cardiovascular diseases.",signatures:"Indranil Biswas and Gausal A. Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69686",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69686",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68695",title:"Association between Peripheral Blood Inflammatory Markers, Endothelial Dysfunction Markers, and Depression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88693",slug:"association-between-peripheral-blood-inflammatory-markers-endothelial-dysfunction-markers-and-depres",totalDownloads:649,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The authors present an analysis of current research and their own data on the link between endothelial dysfunction (ED) and the severity of depression in middle-aged patients with cerebral microangiopathy. Levels of peripheral inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers were measured using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The results of the comparative and correlation analyses showed a statistically significant correlation between the severity of depression and increased levels of inflammatory, as well as endothelial dysfunction.",signatures:"Olga Vladimirovna Vorob’eva, Victoria Vyacheslavovna Fateeva, Ksenia Vladimirovna Nikulina, Kristina Konstantinovna Khacheva, Gulnara Rinatovna Khakimova and Oleg Ilyich Epstein",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68695",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68695",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69823",title:"The Role of Vasoregulatory Markers in the Formation of Microcirculatory Changes in Premature Babies with Hypoxic: Ischemic Encephalopathy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89910",slug:"the-role-of-vasoregulatory-markers-in-the-formation-of-microcirculatory-changes-in-premature-babies-",totalDownloads:617,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Endothelial function plays an important role in the extrauterine adaptation of newborn infants. Endothelium produces different biologically active mediators, which play the central role in physiological and pathological processes and also in the extrauterine adaptation of newborn infants. The imbalance between vasoconstrictive and vasodilatation factors results in impaired cardiovascular adaptation and microcirculation and also brain injury. Microcirculatory disturbances are observed very often in preterm babies, who have a serious risk for perinatal brain injury and further neurodevelopment disabilities. Present chapter presents the pathogenetic role of vascular tone regulators of endothelial genesis in the formation of microcirculatory changes in preterm babies with a high risk of perinatal hypoxic encephalopathy.",signatures:"Saadat Huseynova, Jamila Gurbanova, Afat Hasanova, Samaya Alizada and Nushaba Panakhova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69823",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69823",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69678",title:"Functional State of the Microvascular Bed of the Skin in Essential Arterial Hypertension Assessed by Laser Doppler Flowmetry with Amplitude-Frequency Wavelet Analysis of Blood Flow Oscillations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89852",slug:"functional-state-of-the-microvascular-bed-of-the-skin-in-essential-arterial-hypertension-assessed-by",totalDownloads:710,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Modern diagnostic technologies provide access to data which until recently were not available to specialists. Laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) with amplitude-frequency wavelet analysis of tissue perfusion oscillations in patients with essential arterial hypertension (AH) revealed two completely opposite functional states of resistive precapillary arterioles. One group of patients (48%) had a significant increase in the sympathetic vascular tone component and vasomotor microvascular endothelial dysfunction (precapillary resistance). The second group of patients (52%), on the contrary, exhibited a significant reduction in myogenic tone accompanied by raised arterial blood inflow and increased blood filling of the venular microcirculatory bloodstream (postcapillary resistance). Since the main target of most pharmaceuticals is the resistive vessels, LDF can be useful for the selection of personalized antihypertensive therapy that considers the functional state of resistive microvessels.",signatures:"Andrey A. Fedorovich",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69678",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69678",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1624",title:"Patch Clamp Technique",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"24164a2299d5f9b1a2ef1c2169689465",slug:"patch-clamp-technique",bookSignature:"Fatima Shad Kaneez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1624.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5780",title:"Serotonin",subtitle:"A Chemical Messenger Between All Types of Living 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It is well known that the optical properties of ferroelectric materials find wide ranging applications in laser devices. Particularly in the recent years, there has been tremendous interest in the investigation of the nonlinear optical properties of ferroelectric thin films [1-5] for planar waveguide and integrated –optic devices. A new class of thin film waveguides has been developed using BaTiO3 thin films deposited on MgO substrates [6]. Barium strontium titanate Ba1-xSrxTiO3 (BST) is one of the most interesting thin film ferroelectric materials due to its high dielectric constant, composition dependent Curie temperature and high optical nonlinearity. The composition dependent Tc enables a maximum infrared response to be obtained at room temperature. The BST thin films in the paraelectric phase, have characteristics such as good chemical and thermal stability and good insulating properties, due to this nature they are often considered the most suitable capacitor dielectrics for successful fabrication of high density Giga bit (Gbit) scale dynamic random access memories (DRAMs). Compositionally graded ferroelectric films have exhibited properties not previously observed in conventional ferroelectric materials. The most notable property of the graded ferroelectric devices or graded Functionally Devices (GFDs) is the large DC polarization offset they develop when driven by an alternating electric field. Such GFDs can find applications as tunable multilayer capacitors, waveguide phase shifters and filters [7]. Recently, BST thin films were used in the formation of graded ferroelectric devices by depositing successive layers of BST with different Ba/Sr ratios [8].
\n\t\t\tIn our work, the Barium strontium titanate (Ba0.05Sr0.95TiO3) ferroelectric thin films were prepared on single crystal [001] MgO substrates using the pulsed laser deposition method. The refractive index of BST (Ba0.05Sr0.95TiO3) thin films is determined in the wavelength range between 1450-1580 nm at the room temperature. The dispersion curve is found to decrease gradually with increasing wavelength. The average value of the refractive index is found to be 1.985 in the wavelength range between 1450-1580 nm which is important for optoelectronic device applications [9].
\n\t\t\t1: Present address: Director, PM College of Engineering, Kami Road, Sonepat-131001.
\n\t\t\t2: Present Address: 99 Cyril Road, Small Heath, Birmingham B10 0ST.
\n\t\t\tLithium heptagermanate Li2Ge7O15 (LGO) is regarded as a weak ferroelectric and its curie point Tc is 283.5K [10,11]. Due to its intermediate behaviour between order-disorder and displacive types in a conventional grouping of ferroelectric materials LGO remains a subject of interest from both the theoretical and the application point of view. The paraelectric phase above Tc is orthorhombic D14\n\t\t\t\t2h ~ pbcn and below Tc the ferroelectric phase is C5\n\t\t\t\t2v ~ pbc21 with four formula units in a unit cell in both the phases. Below Tc LGO shows dielectric hysteresis loop and the permittivity shows a sharp peak at Tc [10-12]. Below Tc the spontaneous polarization appears along the c-axis. Many interesting physical properties of LGO such as birefringence [13], elastic behaviour [14], thermal expansion [11], dielectric susceptibility [12,15, 16] and photoluminescence [17] exhibit strong anomalies around Tc. The optical properties, however vary only to such a small degree that the transition could not be detected with the aid of a standard polarization microscope [13]. Employing a high resolution polarization device, Kaminsky and HaussÜhl [13] studied the birefringence in LGO near Tc and observed anomalies at the phase transition.
\n\t\t\tThe study of piezo-optic dispersion of LGO (un-irradiated and x-irradiated) in the visible region of the spectrum of light at room temperature (RT=298 K) shows an optical zone/window in between 5400Å and 6200Å with an enhanced piezo-optical behavior [18]. The temperature dependence of the photoelastic coefficients of the ferroelectric crystals Li2Ge7O15 (both un-irradiated and x-irradiated) in a cooling and a heating cycle between room temperature and 273K shows an interesting observation including the lowering of the Tc under uniaxial stress contrary to the increase of Tc under hydrostatic pressure and observation of thermal photoelastic hysteresis similar to dielectric behavior [19]. The study of fluorescence spectra of the crystals Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ in the temperature interval 77-320 K shows the sharply decrease of intensities of the R1 and R2 lines (corresponding to the Cr3+ ions of types I and II) during cooling process near the temperature Tc = 283.5 K[16].
\n\t\t\tThe present chapter includes optical properties of the ferroelectric BST thin films and the Lithium heptagermanate (Li2Ge7O15) single crystals, fabrication methods, measurement procedures of the refractive index of BST thin films on MgO substrates, the fluorescence spectra and the photoelastic coefficients of LGO single crystals (un-irradiated and x-irradiated) at different wave lengths and temperatures around the phase transition temperature Tc. The potential of these materials for practical applications in the opto-electronic devices will also be discussed.
\n\t\t\tThe Barium strontium titanate (Ba0.05Sr0.95TiO3) ferroelectric thin films were prepared on single crystal MgO substrates using the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) method at a substrate temperature of 780 oC and then annealed at 650 oC for 55 min. The x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis revealed that the films are oriented with [001] parallel to the substrate [001] axis and thus normal to the plane of the films [9]. The films were grown to a thickness of 430 nm.
\n\t\t\t\tSchematic diagram of the experimental setup for the measurement of refractive index of the Ba0.05Sr0.95TiO3 thin films at room temperature. He-Ne Laser for alignment (1), Lenses (2), Polarizer (3), sample holder (4), BST sample (5), Agilent light wave measurement system (6) and Tunable Laser (7).
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 1 shows the schematic diagram of the experimental setup for the measurement of the refractive index of Ba0.05Sr0.95TiO3 thin films on MgO substrates through a reflection method. The He-Ne laser beam is used as a source of light to setup the alignment of the reflected beam of light from the samples to the detector. The incident beam is allowed to pass through a polarizer onto the sample. The reflected light is then passed through the same polarizing beam splitter oriented at 45o relative to the incident light and finally allowed to fall on the detector that is at 90o to the reflected/incident beam of light. The reflectivity measurement of the black metal, mirror, MgO substrate and Ba0.05Sr0.95TiO3 thin films were carried using the Agilent 8164A Light Wave Measurement system in the wavelength region of 1450-1580 nm at room temperature.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tThe refractive index of substrate MgO is taken to be 1.7 [9]. The reflectivity of Ba0.05Sr0.95TiO3 film is then normalized with respect to the mirror. The value of refractive index is derived from model described in ref. [20]. The fitting is done with the calculated data of the reflectivity of Ba0.05Sr0.95TiO3 in the wavelength range between 1450-1580 nm. Figure 2 shows the refractive index of Ba0.05Sr0.95TiO3 thin films as a function of wavelength at room temperature. The refractive index of Ba0.05Sr0.95TiO3 with BaxSr1-xTiO3 (BST) and other materials of ferroelectric thin films at different wavelengths are presented in table 1.
\n\t\t\t\tThe variation of refractive index of Ba0.05Sr0.95TiO3 thin films as a function of wavelength.
BaxSr1-xTiO3(x=0%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t600 nm (RT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [21] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
BaxSr1-xTiO3(x=30%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.42 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t600 nm (RT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [21] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
BaxSr1-xTiO3(x=50%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.37 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t600 nm (RT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [21] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
BaxSr1-xTiO3(x=70%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.34 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t600 nm (RT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [21] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
BaxSr1-xTiO3(x=50%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.45 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t470 nm (RT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [22] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
BaxSr1-xTiO3(x=80%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.27 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t430 nm (RT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [23] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PbZr1-xTixO3 (PZT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.87 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t400 nm (300 0C) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [24] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PbZr1-xTixO3 (PZT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.82 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t400 nm (50 0C) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [24] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PbZr1-xTixO3 (PZT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.66 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t500 nm (300 0C) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [24] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PbZr1-xTixO3 (PZT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t500 nm (50 0C) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [24] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PbTiO3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t470 nm (RT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [25] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PbTiO3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t490 nm (RT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [25] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PbTiO3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.75 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t550 nm (RT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [25] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
SrxBa1-xNb2O6 (x=61%) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.35 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t400 nm (RT) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [26] | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The refractive index of BST and other ferroelectric thin films.
As shown in Figure 2, the dispersion curve decreases gradually with increasing wavelength. The average value of the refractive index is found to be ~ 1.985 in the wavelength range of 1450-1580 nm which is important for optoelectronic device (optical waveguide) applications. The variation of refractive index is attributed predominantly to the changes of electronic structure associated with the larger lattice parameter and variations in atomic co-ordination [27] that is local relaxations.
\n\t\t\tSingle crystals of Li2Ge7O15 are grown in an ambient atmosphere by Czochralski method from stoichiometric melt, employing a resistance heated furnace. Stoichiometric mixture of powdered Li2CO3 and GeO2 in the ratio of 1.03 and 7.0 respectively was heated at 1100 K for 24 hours to complete the solid state reaction for the raw material for the crystal growth. The crystals were grown by rotating the seed at the rate of 50 rpm with a pulling rate of 1.2 mm/hour. The cooling rate of temperature in the process of growth was 0.8-1.2 K/hour. The crystals grown were colourless, fully transparent and of optical quality. The crystal axes were determined by x-ray and optical methods.
\n\t\t\t\tSchematic diagram of the experimental setup for the measurement of fluorescence spectra of the crystals Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+. He-Ne Laser for radiation (1), Glen prism (2), crystal sample (3), condenser (4), polarizer (5), spectrograph (6) Multichannel analyzer(7) and computer (8).
The desired impurities such as Cr+3, Mn+2, Bi+2, Cu2+ and Eu+2 etc are also introduced in desired concentration by mixing the appropriate amount of the desired anion salt in the growth mixture. The crystal structure of LGO above Tc is orthorhombic (psedohexagonal) with the space group D14\n\t\t\t\t\t2h (Pbcn). The cell parameters are a: 7.406 Å, b: 16.696 Å, c: 9.610 Å, Z = 4 and b~√3c. Below Tc a small value of spontaneous polarization occurs along c-axis and the ferroelectric phase belongs to C5\n\t\t\t\t\t2v (Pbc21) space group. The crystal structure contains strongly packed layers of GeO4 tetrahedra linked by GeO6-octahedra to form a three dimensionally bridged frame work in which Li atoms occupy the positions in the vacant channels extending three dimensionally [14, 28, 29]. The size of the unit cell (Z = 4) does not change at the phase transition and ferroelectric phase transition is associated with a relaxational mode as well as the soft phonon [30]. Activation of the pure crystals with impurity ions will demand charge compensating mechanism through additional defects in the pure lattice.
\n\t\t\tFluorescence Spectra of the crystals Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ at T=77 K.
Temperature dependence of intensity of R1 and R2 Lines of fluorescence in Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ crystals near the phase transition temperature Tc.
The fluorescence spectra of the crystals Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ were studied in the temperature interval 77-320 K including the phase transition temperature Tc = 283.5 K. The experimental set to record the fluorescence spectra of the crystals Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ is shown in fig.3. A laser with the pair of mode (λ1=510.6 nm, λ2=578.2 nm) was used as a source of excitation of the crystal sample. The recording of fluorescence spectra were carried out by the optical multichannel analyzer in combination with the polychromator. The radiation beam was initially polarized with glen prism. The plane Polaroid was used as an analyzer that was placed before the input aperture of the polychromator.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tThe fluorescence spectra consist of narrow intensity lines referred to R1 and R2 with frequencies γ1~14348 cm-1 and γ2 ~14572 cm-1. These lines split further into two components each R1\n\t\t\t\t\t/ and R2\n\t\t\t\t\t/ respectively at lowering the temperature towards 77 K. Besides this, a wide long wavelength region/zone is observed in the spectra. It may be related with the effect of electron-photon interaction. It is known that Cr3+ doping ions in the structure of Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ crystals substitute the Ge4+ host ions within oxygen octahedral (GeO6) complexes [31-36]. The optical spectra of Cr3+ ions shows the existence of two types of Cr3+ centre (type I and II with different values of effective g-factor) as observed in EPR (Electron Paramagnetic Resonance) spectra of Cr3+ ions in ferroelectric phase of the crystals Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ [32, 33]. Two pair of R lines 4A2 - 2E (at T=77 K, its positions are R1=14348 cm-1, R1\n\t\t\t\t\t/=14402 cm-1, R2=14572 cm-1 and R2\n\t\t\t\t\t/=14593 cm-1) are observed at low temperature region (T<190 K) in the optical spectra of the crystals Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ as shown in Fig. 4. Actually the two different types of Cr3+ centers (R and R/) with pretty different positions below Ē and above 2Ᾱ levels of the excited E2 level are duplicate [37, 38] and conform to the EPR observations.
\n\t\t\t\tPart of EPR spectrum of Cr3+ doped LGO crystal in an arbitrary orientation at RT. The four EPR signals are attributed to four distinct Cr3+ sites per unit cell of LGO.
The intensity of fluorescence of the R1 and R2 lines of the crystals Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ were studied near the phase transition temperature Tc at the direction E┴[001]. It is observed that the intensity of R1 and R2 lines are decreased sharply near the phase transition temperature Tc but at high temperature region (T>Tc) the intensity again increases as shown in figure 5. Such nature of suppression of R1 and R2 lines was not observed previously and it may be related with the mechanism of interaction of excitation spectra of light in the crystals Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ near the phase transition temperature Tc[17].
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tThe Crystals doped with chromium impurity give EPR (Electron Paramagnetic Resonance) signals characteristics of the trivalent chromium ions [Fig.6]. It is known that impurity Cr3+ ions substitute the Ge4+ host ions within oxygen octahedral in the basic structure of (LGO) crystal [31-36]. Incorporation of tri-positive chromium ions into GeO6-octahedra changes the local symmetry of the lattice site from monoclinic C2 group to triclinic C1 group. The local symmetry lowering is attributed to the effect of the additional Li+ defect required for compensating the charge misfit of Cr3+ ion at the Ge4+ site. Taking into account a weak coupling of lithium ions with the germanium – oxygen lattice framework, the interstitial Li+ is considered to be the most probable charge compensating defect, located within the structural cavity near the octahedral CrO6 complex (Fig.7). Subsequent measurements of optical spectra have confirmed the model of Cr3+– Li+ pair centers in the LGO crystal structure [32, 33].
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPhysical model of Cr3+ centers in Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ crystals and its dipole moment d.
The available data make it possible to assume that electric dipole moments of Cr3+– Li+ pairs are directed along the crystal axis “a” of the crystal. Interstitial Li+ ions locally break the symmetry axis C2 of the sites within the oxygen octahedral complexes [34]. As a result, there are two equivalent configurations of the pair centers which are conjugated by broken C2 axis and have dipole moments with opposite orientations. It may be assumed that pair centers can reorient due to thermal activation. Reorientation of the pair centers should be accompanied by: i) shortening of the configuration life time and ii) switching of defect dipole moments [35]. This is reflected in the typical temperature dependence of the imaginary part of dielectric permittivity of chromium doped LGO single crystals [35] along the a-axis of the crystal shown in fig.8.
\n\t\t\t\tTemperature dependence of Imaginary part
If a rectangular parallelepiped with edges parallel to x[100], y[010] and z[001] axes is stressed along z-axis and observation is made along y-axis, as shown in Fig.9, then the path retardation δzy introduced per unit length due the stress introduced birefringence is given by
\n\t\t\t\twhere Δnz and Δnx are the changes in the corresponding refractive indices, (Δnz – Δnx) is the corresponding stress induced birefringence, Pzz is the stress along z-axis and Czy is a constant called the Brewster constant or the relative photoelastic coefficient. In general the Brewster constant is related to the stress optical and strain optical tensors of forth rank [39] and is a measure of the stress induced (piezo-optic) birefringence. It is conveniently expressed in the unit of 10-13 cm2/dyne per cm thickness along the direction of observation is called a Brewster [39].
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTo study the piezo-optical birefringence the experimental set up consists of a source of light (S), a lens (L) to render the rays parallel, a polarizer (P), an analyzer Polaroid (A), a Babinet compensator (B) and a detector (D), as shown in Fig.10. The P and A combination are adjusted for optimal rejection of light. The sample with stressing arrangement and a Babinet compensator are placed between P and A. A monochromator and a gas flow temperature controlling device are used to obtain the piezo-optic coefficients (Cλ) at different wavelengths and temperature. The subscript λ in the symbol Cλ denotes that the piezo-optic coefficient depends on the wavelength of light used to measure it. The experiments are carried out for different wavelengths using white light and a monochromator and the monochromatic sodium yellow light. An appropriate stress along a desired direction of the sample is applied with the help of a stressing apparatus comprising a mechanical lever and load.
\n\t\t\t\tA solid under a linear stress of stress-optical measurements (Pzz is the applied stress and LL is the direction of light propagation and observation).
A schematic diagram of the experimental setup for the measurement of photoelastic constants of the crystals at room temperature. Source of light (S), Lense (L), Polarizer (P), Crystals (C) under stress, Babinet Compensator (B), Analyzer (A) and Detector (D).
To start with, the Babinet compensator is calibrated and the fringe width is determined for different wavelengths of light in the visible region. The crystal specimen is placed on the stressing system so that the stress could be applied along vertical axis and observation made along horizontal axis. A load on the crystal shifts the fringe in the Babinet compensator and this shift is a measure of the piezo-optic behavior. The piezo-optic coefficients (Cλ) are now calculated using the calibration of the Babinet compensator. The experiment is repeated for other orientations of the crystals and the results are obtained.
\n\t\t\tThe experimental procedure for the piezo-optic measurements is described in section 1.5. The polished optical quality samples worked out to dimensions i) 5.9 mm, 9.4 mm and 5.0 mm; ii) 3.17 mm, 5.88 mm and 6.7 mm, along the crystallographic a, b and c axes respectively. The stress was applied with an effective load of ~23 kg in each case [40].
\n\t\t\t\tThe values of C\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Obs. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCpq\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4358 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4880 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5390 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5890 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6140 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCxy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.024 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.819 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.722 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.328 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.677 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCxz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.243 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.895 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.770 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.552 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.451 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCyx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.084 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.525 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.092 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.562 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.913 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCyz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.353 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.118 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.946 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.261 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.866 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCzy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.179 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.814 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.177 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.713 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.172 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCzx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.312 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.991 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.650 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.190 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.618 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Stress optical coefficients cpq (in Brewster) for Li2Ge7015 at different wave lengths.
To the best knowledge of the authors this behavior is unique to the LGO crystals. For the sake of convenience we denote C\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Stress optical dispersion of Li2Ge7015 crystals with wavelength at room temperature (298 K).
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 12 shows the variation of Czx(
The observed peculiarity of piezo-optic behavior could be due to many factors, viz., i) anomalous behavior of refractive index or birefringence ii) anomalous ferroelastic transformation at some stage of loading iii) shift of absorption edge due to loading. The following have been done to identify the reasons for this peculiar behaviour.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tBirefringence dispersion has been investigated in the visible region and no anomalies in its behavior has been observed. This rules out the first of the reasons mentioned. The reason due to ferroelastic behavior also is ruled out since the effect would be uniform over all the wavelengths investigated. It was not possible to investigate the effect of load on the absorption edge. Hence an indirect experiment has been performed. If there is a shift in the absorption edge due to loading the sample, the peak observed now at sodium yellow light would shift with load. No clear shift of the peak could be observed within the experimental limits. Another interesting experiment was done to identify the source of the anomaly. It is well known that Tc of LGO changes under uniaxial stress. The measurements were made near Tc under different stress (loads). Although Tc was found to shift a little with load the dispersion peak did not show any discernible shift. No particular reason could be established as to why a dispersion peak appears around sodium yellow region. Another interesting work in this direction is on Gd2(Mo04)3 — where an anomalous peak was recorded in spontaneous birefringence at 334.7 nm [41], an observation made for the first time.
\n\t\t\t\tThe variation of Czx(
It is well known that the photoelasticity in crystals arises due to change in number of oscillators, effective electric field due to strain and the polarisability of the ions. In the present case, as the wavelength approaches around 5400 Å, the ionic polarisability seems to be changing enormously. There is no optical dispersion data available on LGO. We have conducted an experiment on transmission spectra of LGO along x, y and z-axes, which shows a strong absorption around 5400 Å. The observed anomaly in the piezo-optic dispersion may be attributed to the absorption edge falling in this region. This explanation needs further investigation in this direction. It is also known that the strain optical dispersion arises due to the shift in absorption frequencies and a change in the oscillator strength caused by the physical strain in the crystal.
\n\t\t\tThe ferroelectric single crystals Li2Ge7O15 was irradiated by x-ray for one hour and the experimental processes described in section 1.5 were repeated for the crystal (irradiated) LGO in order to understand the radiation effect on piezo-optical birefringence dispersion [18]. The values of Cλ of the crystal (irradiated) LGO thus obtained at different wavelengths are given in Table 3 and the results are plotted in Fig. 13.
\n\t\t\t\tObs. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tpq\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4358 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4880 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5390 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5890 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6140 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\txy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.08 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.87 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.72 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.33 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.73 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\txz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.35 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.88 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.59 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.55 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tyx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.02 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.47 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.01 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tyz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.39 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.01 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.26 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.90 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tzx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.63 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.46 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.41 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.66 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.29 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC/\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tzy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.71 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.26 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.97 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.43 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.72 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Stress Optical Coefficients Cpq (in Brewsters) for Li2Ge7015 (irradiated) at different wavelengths.
Some interesting results are obtained in the case of irradiated crystal LGO. The peak value of C/\n\t\t\t\t\tzx has decreased about 18% and that of C/\n\t\t\t\t\tzy has increased about 25% at the wave length λ= 5890 Å. Also, it is interesting to note that the value of C6140, is less than that of C5390 for the un-irradiated and irradiated sample of LGO crystal, in tune with usual observation of piezo-optic dispersion.
\n\t\t\t\tIrradiation of crystals can change physical properties of the crystals. Irradiation brings about many effects in the crystal such as creating defects, internal stress and electric fields etc. These irradiation effects in turn are supposed to affect the physical properties of the irradiated crystal as compared to un-irradiated crystal. While there was no appreciable change in the lattice parameters, a significant drop in the value of dielectric constant and tan δ was observed upon x-irradiation of ferroelectric glycine phosphate. An appreciable shift in the phase transition temperature towards the lower temperature was observed. These changes are attributed to the defects produced in it by irradiation [42]. The studies of triglycine sulphate (TGS) showed that very small doses of x-irradiation can give large changes of the ferroelectric properties. The direct evidence of domain clamping by defects was obtained from optical studies. With increasing dosage the dielectric constant peak and polarization curve broaden and move to lower temperatures. In our present studies, the x-irradiation is believed to produce internal stress and electric fields inside the crystals LGO due to defects that can change the values of piezo-optic constants [43].
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe temperature dependence of the photoelastic coefficients of the ferroelectric crystals Li2Ge7O15 in a cooling and heating cycle between 298 K and 273 K was carried out with the experimental procedure described in section 1.5 [19]. A special arrangement was made to vary the temperature of the sample. The temperature was recorded with a digital temperature indicator and a thermocouple sensor in contact with the sample.
\n\t\t\t\tStress optical dispersion of Li2Ge7015 crystals (un-irradiated and irradiated) with wavelength at room temperature (298 K).
Temperature dependence of the piezo-optic coefficients Cxy, Cxz, Cyz and Cyx of the crystals LGO in a cooling (0) and heating (Δ) cycle.
The temperature dependence of piezo-optic coefficients Cpq of the crystals Li2Ge7O15 between 298 K and 273 K were determined and are shown in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15. The values of Cpq at 291 K and 278 K were reported in paper [44] and it was observed that there were large changes in the values of Czy and Cyz at 278 K and 291 K as compared to other components and Czy did not show a peak in its temperature dependence between 291K and 278 K.
\n\t\t\t\tAnomalous temperature dependence of the piezo-optic coefficients Czx and Czy of the crystals LGO in a cooling (0) and heating (Δ) cycle.
Here in contrast we observed a peak in the temperature dependence of both Czy and Czx at 279 K. The temperature dependence of Cpq are quite interesting, for example the piezo-optic coefficients Cyz, Cyx and Cxz have negative temperature derivatives but Cxy has a positive temperature derivative. In complete contrast both Czy and Czx have both positive and negative temperature derivatives at different temperature intervals between 298 K and 273 K (Table: 4). Besides a clear thermal hysteresis is observed in Czy and Czx in a complete cooling and heating cycle (Fig. 15) whereas no discernible hysteresis is observed in rest of the piezo-optic coefficients (Fig. 14). The two distinct anomalies in the temperature dependence of Czy and Czx are characterized by a valley at Tm (∼289 K) and a peak at Tc (∼279 K). Anomalous temperature dependence of Czx at different wave lengths is also shown in Fig. 16. The temperature dependence of the dielectric permittivity along the c-axis of LGO shows a sharp peak at Tc (283.5 K) and the Curie-Weiss law holds only for a narrow range of temperature (Tc ± 4 K) [11,15, 16]. The peak for piezo-optic coefficient is attributed to the paraelectric to ferroelectric phase transition of LGO at Tc. To check the curie-Weiss law like dependence near Tc the following relation is used.
\n\t\t\t\tWhere CT\n\t\t\t\t\tpq and C0\n\t\t\t\t\tpq denote the value of the corresponding piezo-optic coefficients at temperature T and 273 K respectively and Kpq is a constant. Fig. 17 shows the (CT\n\t\t\t\t\tpq – C0\n\t\t\t\t\tpq)−1 vs (T−Tc) curve for Czx and Czy. It is clear from these curves that like dielectric constant the relation fits well only within a narrow range of temperature near Tc(Tc± 4 K). The solid lines denote the theoretical curves with the following values Kzx = 1
Czx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.013 -0.022 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t -0.090 0.181 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t ~0 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t296K-289K -1.69 289K-283K \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 282K-279K -2.0 279K-276K \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 276K-273K | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cxz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-0.003 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t293K-273K | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Czy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.020 -0.015 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t -0.095 0.179 \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t ~0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t296K-289K -0.75 289K-283K \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 282K-279K -1.9 279K-276K \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t 276K-273K \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cyz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-0.026 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t293K-273K | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cxy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.007 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t293K-273K | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cyz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-0.023 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t293K-273K | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The temperature derivative [dlnCpq /dT] of the piezo-optic coefficients of Li2Ge7O15.
Furthermore the magnitudes of the ratio of the temperature derivatives below and above Tm and Tc are given in Table 4 and we can see that the ratio near Tc comes out to be about 2. Therefore it satisfies the law of two for the ratio of such derivatives of quantities which are coupled with the spontaneous polarization in second order ferroelectric phase transition such as in the case of triglycine sulphate [45] and LGO. Therefore the peak around Tc is [ 13, 15, 16] attributed to the paraelectric to ferroelectric phase transition of LGO. The smallness of Kpq and the applicability of relation (2) above only in a narrow range of temperature suggest that LGO may be an improper ferroelectric. The law of two does not hold for the ratio at Tm (Table 4). Therefore this anomaly is not related to the spontaneous polarization.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFrom the behaviour that only Czx and Czy show anomalous it is obvious that birefringence (Δnz–Δny) and (Δnz–Δnx) show steep increase around Tc and below Tc show a (T–Tc )1
Anomalous temperature dependence of piezo-optic coefficient Czx of the crystals LGO at different wave lengths in a cooling (0) and heating (Δ) cycle.
As mentioned by Lines and Glass [43], under an external pressure Tc of a ferroelectric phase transition may be shifted. This shift may be to the higher or the lower side of normal Tc. Wada et al. [46] studied the pressure effect on the ferroelectric phase transition in LGO through the dielectric and Raman scattering measurements and found a positive pressure coefficient dTc /dp = 14.6 K/kbar. Preu and HaussÜhl [12] studied the dependences of dielectric constants on hydrostatic and uniaxial pressure as well as temperature. They observed a shift of Tc at a rate of 14.02 K/kbar for the hydrostatic pressure and ∼7 K/kbar for the uniaxial pressure. In the present case the position of the peak of Czy is found to depend on the stress applied. If the peak position is believed to represent the Tc, it appears to shift to the lower side under the uniaxial stress. To see whether Tc shifts linearly with uniaxial stress similar to the earlier observations [12, 46], we used different stresses within the elastic limits of LGO for Czx and found a linear relationship (Fig. 18). However, a negative stress coefficient dTc /dp ∼−22 K/kbar is obtained in this case which agrees only in magnitude with the hydrostatic pressure coefficient. The linear curve (Fig. 18) extrapolates to a Tc = 281.5 K in the unstressed state instead of 283.5K as determined by dielectric measurements [11, 15, 16]. This may be due to a non linear dependence of shift of Tc under stress near 283.5 K.
\n\t\t\t\tPlots of (CT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tpq – Co\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tpq )-1 vs (T-Tc) curve for Czx and Czy.
The stress dependence of the shift of Tc for Czx.
Now we turn to the anomaly around Tm. Morioka et al. [47] proposed that there is an interaction between the soft phonon mode and a relaxational mode in the paraelectric phase in the temperature interval 300 K to Tc. The critical slowing down of the relaxational mode near Tc is expected to cause the increase of the fluctuation of the spatially homogeneous polarization and thereby the increase of the fluctuation of the hyperpolarizability with kc = 0. Wada et al. [48] measured the soft phonon mode with the help of their newly designed FR-IR spectrometer and proposed that as Tc is approached from above soft phonon mode becomes over damped and transforms to a relaxational mode.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tOn the other hand there may exist a relaxational mode with an independent degree of freedom as well as the soft phonon mode and the character of the softening transfers from the phonon to the relaxational mode. This is an important problem in determining the dynamics of the peculiar ferroelectric phase transition of LGO, where both the dielectric critical slowing down characteristic of the order-disorder phase transition and the soft phonon mode characteristic of the displacive phase transition are observed [11, 14]. In the light of the above discussion we may say that the change up to Tm is caused by the softening of mode and the softening character transforms to the relaxations mode near Tm causing a change in the trend below Tm and near Tc the relaxational mode becomes dominant. The valley around Tm is perhaps caused by the interplay between the competitive relaxational mode and the soft phonon mode. It has been observed that softening of the velocity and rise of the damping of acoustic phonon occur in the paraelectric phase of LGO even quite far from Tc, i.e.(T-Tc) ∼ 30 K and the effect is attributed to the fluctuation induced contributions [49].
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCxy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.38 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCxz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.55 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCyx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.60 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.46 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCyz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.26 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCzy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.71 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCzx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.19 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.45 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Stress optical coefficients cpq (in Brewster’s) of Li2Ge7015 at RT=298 K and at Tc = 279 K.
Another interesting aspect is the observation of a significant thermal photoelastic hysteresis (Fig. 15). Although the peak position does not shift in the heating cycle the values of the photoelastic constants get reduced significantly in the heating cycle as compared to the corresponding values in a cooling cycle. A similar kind of hysteresis was observed in the dielectric behaviour of LGO and the appearance of the dielectric hysteresis is attributed to the internal space charge (electrets state) effects which produce an internal electric field in LGO on heating from the ferroelectric phase [15-17]. It was possible to compensate the internal electric field effects in dielectric measurements by an external electric field [15-17]. It is suspected that the photoelastic hysteresis also occurs due to similar effects. Although it was not possible to try to compensate the electric field effects in the present investigation, it is possible to attempt experiment under the simultaneous application of a suitable electric field and stress along z-direction.
\n\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCxz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.74 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.28 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [50] for RS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCyz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.29 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.28 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta- polar axis | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCyx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.56 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.04 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [51] for KDP | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCzx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.85 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.54 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRef. [52] for ADP | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCzy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.61 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.54 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCxy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.04 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.04 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
Piezo-optic coefficients cpq (in Brewsters) for some ferroelectric crystals in their paraelectric (PE) phases.
The Stress optical coefficients Cpq of the crystals Li2Ge7O15 at paraelectric phase (RT = 298 K) and at Tc = 279 K are presented in Table 5. It is important to compare the values of Cpq for Li2Ge7O15 with other ferroelectric crystals given in Table 6 particularly with Rochelle-salt (RS) which belongs to the orthorhombic class like LGO [44]. The values of Cpq are significantly higher for LGO as compared to these ferroelectric systems. So, the large photoelastic coefficients and the other properties like good mechanical strength, a transition temperature close to room temperature and stability in ambient environment favour LGO as a potential candidate for photoelastic applications.
\n\t\t\t\tThe EPR (Electron Paramagnetic Resonance) spectroscopy of the transition metal ion doped crystals of LGO (Mn2+, Cr3+) has also been studied both in Paraelectric (PE) and ferroelectric (FE) phases in the temperature interval from 298 K to 279 K during cooling and heating cycles [17, 36, 53]. It is observed that on approaching Tc in a cooling cycle, the EPR lines are slightly shifted to the high field direction and undergo substantial broadening. At the temperature Tc ( ≈ 283.4 K), the EPR lines are splitted into two components which are shifted to the higher and lower field directions progressively as a result of cooling the sample below Tc as shown in Fig.19.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tDuring heating cycle (i.e. approaching Tc from below), the phenomena occurred were just opposite to the above processes observed in the cooling cycle. However, the EPR line width (peak to peak ∆Hpp) for H║c, H┴a was found to decrease to about one third of its value at Tc in a heating cycle as compared to its value in the cooling cycle. The shape of the EPR resonance lines far from Tc has a dominant Lorentzian character (a Lorentzian line shape) but very near to Tc, the line shape has been described mainly by Gaussian form of distribution (a Gaussian line shape). All the peculiarities observed are attributed to the PE ↔ FE phase transition of the LGO crystals. The line width reduction near Tc is attributed to the internal space charge (electret state) effects which produce an internal electric field inside the crystals on heating process from the ferroelectric phase. This observation is similar to the photoelastic hysteresis behavior of the crystals LGO near Tc.
\n\t\t\tTemperature dependence of EPR lines of Li2Ge7O15:Cr+3 crystals for |M|= ½ ↔3/2, H║a, H┴c near Tc during cooling process.
Temperature dependence of photoelastic coefficients Cxy, Cxz, Cyz, Cyx, Czx and Czy of the crystal (x-irradiated) LGO in a cooling (0) and heating (∆) cycle.
The photoelastic coefficients Cpq of the ferroelectric crystals Li2Ge7O15 (x-irradiated) in a cooling and heating cycle between 298 K and 273 K was carried out with the experimental procedure described in section 1.5 and are shown in Fig. 20 [54]. The results show an interesting photoelastic behaviour.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPeaks are observed in the temperature dependence of the photoelastic coefficients Czy and Czx at temperature ~ 279 K in a complete cooling and heating cycle whereas no discernible hysteresis is observed in rest of the photoelastic coefficients. Anomalous temperature dependence of Czx of the crystal (x-irradiated) LGO at different wave lengths are shown in Fig.21.
\n\t\t\t\tIt is observed that the peak value of Czy has increased about 25% and that of Czx has decreased about 18% at the wave length λ=5890 Å during cooling process of the crystal (Fig.15 and Fig.20). The peak value of Czx of the crystal (un-irradiated and x-irradiated) LGO thus obtained at different wave lengths (Fig.16 and Fig.21) are given in Table 7 and the results are plotted in Fig.22.
\n\t\t\t\tTemperature dependence of photoelastic coefficient Czx of the crystal (x-irradiated) LGO at different wave lengths in a cooling (0) and heating (∆) cycle.
It has been observed that the changes in the value of photoelastic coefficients Czy and Czx of the crystal (x-irradiated) LGO in a cooling and heating cycle occur only if the crystal is stressed along the polar axis (z-axis). It is known that the irradiation of crystals can change physical properties of the crystals.
\n\t\t\t\t(Å) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCooling | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHeating | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCooling | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHeating | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4880 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5390 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.95 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5890 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6140 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The peak value of Czx (in Brewster) for the Crystal (un-irradiated and x-irradiated) LGO at different wave lengths in the cooling and heating cycles.
The peak value of Czx for the un-irradiated (black colour) and x-irradiated (ash colour) crystal LGO at different wave lengths in a cooling (0) and heating (∆) cycle.
Irradiation brings about many effects in the crystal such as creating defects, internal stress and electric fields etc [43]. In our present studies, the x-irradiation is believed to produce internal stress and electric fields inside the crystals Li2Ge7O15 due to defects that can change the values of photoelastic coefficients.
\n\t\t\tIt is known that the Barium strontium titanate Ba1-xSrxTiO3(BST) is one of the most interesting thin film ferroelectric materials due to its high dielectric constant, composition dependent curie temperature and high optical nonlinearity. The wavelength dependence of refractive index of BST (Ba0.05Sr0.95TiO3) thin films has shown a nonlinear dependence in the 1450-1580 nm wavelength range at room temperature as described in section 1.1. The dispersion curve decreases gradually with increasing wavelength. The average value of the refractive index is found to be 1.985 in the 1450-1580 nm wavelength range which is considered to be important for optoelectronic device applications.
\n\t\t\tThe study of fluorescence spectra of the crystals Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ in the temperature interval 77-320 K shows the sharply decrease of intensities of the R1 and R2 lines (corresponding to the Cr3+ ions of types I and II) during cooling process near the temperature Tc = 283.5 K as described in section 1.3. Such nature of suppression of R1 and R2 lines was not observed previously and it may be related with the mechanism of interaction of excitation spectra of light in the crystals Li2Ge7O15:Cr3+ at the temperature Tc. The doping of chromium in LGO is believed to create Cr3+- Li+ defect pairs in the host LGO lattice at Ge4+ sites creating dipoles in two conjugate directions. The EPR, optical, dielectric and fluorescence studies conform each other and pose more scope for further studies.
\n\t\t\tThe high optical quality, good mechanical strength and stability in ambient environment and large photoelastic coefficients in comparison with other ferroelectric crystals like Rochelle-salt, KDP and ADP favour the crystals LGO as a potential candidate for photoelastic applications. The piezo-optic dispersion of the crystals (un-irradiated and x-irradiated) LGO in the visible region of the spectrum of light at room temperature (298 K) have been described in sections 1.6 and 1.7. It shows an “optical zone or optical window” in between the wavelengths 5400 Å and 6200 Å with an enhanced piezo-optical behavior. This peculiar optical window can have a technical importance for example this window region can act as an optical switch for acousto-optical devices. From the studies undertaken it may be concluded that LGO is an attractive acousto-optic material which deserves further probe. It may be possible to understand the observed behavior if extensive piezo-optic and refractive index data become available over an extended range of wavelengths.
\n\t\t\tThe temperature dependence of the photoelastic coefficients of the crystals (un-irradiated and x-irradiated) LGO in a cooling and heating cycle between room temperature (298 K) and 273 K have shown an interesting observations: lowering of the Tc under uniaxial stress contrary to the increase of Tc under hydrostatic pressure and observation of thermal photoelastic hysteresis similar to dielectric hysteresis behavior as described in sections 1.8 and 1.9. In our studies, the x-irradiation is believed to produce internal stress and electric fields inside the crystals LGO due to defects that can change the values of photoelastic coefficients, as described in sections 1.7 and 1.9.
\n\t\tThe common obstacles for the social skills of children with autism include the following [1]: they have difficulty in their social reciprocity with others, they have difficulty in maintaining mutual social relations, they are unable to share their feelings with others, they are unable to think like, and understand the emotions, of others, from their perspective [2, 3], and they have a lack of empathy [4, 5]. Children with autism find it difficult to establish effective social relations due to their social skill barriers [6, 7, 8, 9], which lead to them to feel uneasy and to retreat when interacting with a crowd [7], and indirectly lead to social isolation [5]. A person’s social skills refers to his/her ability to successfully and independently participate in social interaction, to establish and maintain social relations with others [10, 11], and to meet the social reciprocity conditions and communication skills required in different situations [12]. Having social skills is one of the important abilities that people need, in order to get along with others in society. It includes the ability to observe and listen to others, to make basic eye contact with people [13], to give social body feedback [14], to have complex social interactions and to manage their emotions [15]. Social skills are often constructed on the basis of some non-verbal social communication behaviors [16], such as facial expressions, head or hand movements [2], posture and eye expressions, etc. However, children with autism generally lack these important social communication skills [17, 18].
The social communication skills that autistic children need to master are mainly divided into various levels: (1) social initiation, (2) social reciprocity, and (3) non-verbal social communication [19, 20]. Social initiation refers to the ability to actively interact with others and to initiate social content. Social reciprocity refers to the ability to have good social communication and interaction with others, to be able to have appropriate behavioral responses, and to engage in a dialog. A person’s non-verbal social communication ability refers to his/her ability to understand the deeper meaning, or symbolic metaphors, of other people’s body language and expressions in non-verbal communication [21]. Among them, the ability to reciprocate socially summarizes most of a person’s comprehensive ability and behavior performance in social skills, and it is also considered as the most important comprehensive ability in social contact [22, 23]. For example, people can judge the environmental background and social situation of the other party, while understanding the other party’s emotion and discourse and making an appropriate social response [24]; it includes the ability to understand other people’s emotions [25], their deep feelings, and their implications [26]. Therefore, social reciprocity is often regarded as the focus of learning social skills for autistic children.
The DSM-V [27] of the fifth edition of the diagnostic manual of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) points out that one of the most important symptoms of autistic patients is the behavioral disorder of social reciprocity. The key to this behavior is whether they can master some more subtle non-verbal social communication clues, including facial expressions, eye contact, social body movements, social ceremony actions, or emotional gestures and eye expressions [17, 28]. These social features cover a large number of slight visual characterizations and non-verbal communication cues, which provide the basic elements of strong social reciprocity for ordinary people to interact with others, to share their feelings, to think and understand their behavior, from their perspective, as well as their intentions, emotional feelings and empathy [3]. Moreover, this ability requires considerable visual information for grasping and making social judgments [17, 18]. However, this ability is very difficult for autistic children, as they often have difficulty in handling non-verbal social communication proficiently, and they cannot carry out effective social interaction and communication with others. Similarly, it is a challenge for them to actively make eye contact with others and to make appropriate social responses [29]. Such symptoms will cause autism patients to become estranged from people and will make it difficult for them to effectively integrate into society [30].
There are many social training methods [31] and teaching strategies to help autistic children learn to judge more “social situations”, to understand different “non-verbal social cues”, and to make an appropriate social reciprocal performance; these include behavioral interventions [32], pivotal response training (PRT) [33], scripting [34], story-based interventions, etc. [35].
Among them, the most common training strategy is the use of Social Stories™ [36], or the social intervention training method, based on situational stories [35]. The Social Stories™ method can help children with autism to better understand and follow social rules and routines. In addition, it can promote a better self-awareness, help them to gain insight into the perspectives of others, and to understand how their behavior impacts others. This model appropriates social interaction by describing a situation by using the relevant social cues, it gives the perspectives of others, and it suggests an appropriate response. Generally-speaking, social stories or scripts are created to test for autism and they are used to assess the effects of multiple-baseline designs, across the different participants of Social Stories™, for intervention or training [36]. By using the social story method, combined with role play, autistic children can be guided to handle a situation and understand the relationship between social objects and other social communication states [37]. This includes how to respond with appropriate social reciprocal behavior, according to different social objects, and to grasp social skills [38]. For example, according to other people’s non-verbal social cues (such as their posture and eye expressions, facial expressions, or all kinds of social body movements), they will try to figure out the social intentions of the other person, or to carry out a role exchange and a role disguise game [39], which is the same as a psychological intervention training strategy [21]. This kind of teaching method can help autistic children to master the situation, as well as the interpersonal interactions in social stories, and it guides them to observe, and familiarize themselves with, the social behavior and skills that an adult society should have [36]. Through targeted social behavior intervention training [32], the social reciprocity and judgment of autistic children in a social situation can be gradually improved, and their ability to communicate socially with others can be enhanced [17, 40].
The existing social intervention training, such as role-playing, using the social story method, or interpersonal skills on empathy, requires considerable imagination and pretend-game skills [41] to guide autistic children to figure out and understand “social relations” and “social behavior cognition”. Among them, empathy is the ability to understand and comprehend the emotions and behavior of another person. This skill, which can be trained, facilitates interpersonal relationships.
However, children with autism are reluctant to participate in the situation guidance of intervention training, when they cannot see the scene, or anything to help them understand the situation or game [42]. For example, starting from general social training, game intervention activities, such as role-playing or perspective-taking, are training methods that are used for autistic children to perceive the feelings of other people and to generate empathy. However, due to their inherent social defects and weak imagination, they cannot be effectively implemented, which leads to the exclusion of autistic children from teaching and training, making it even more difficult to attain effective training results [43].
In addition, the ability of role play or transposing their thinking is a very difficult skill for autistic children, and they cannot understand their social relationship with others, from the perspective of the others, by using empathy or their imagination [43]. Moreover, they are often unable to identify the non-verbal social cues in different complex social situations. It is difficult to effectively teach autistic children to understand special and complex social situations, or to develop further empathy. It is a complicated and abstract social structure for them, which makes it challenging for them to acquire such concepts and social skills [17, 18].
For children with autism, the key point of a good social intervention strategy is to provide powerful visual media in this training game, to attract their attention and maintain their interest [17]. Compared with oral expression, or the written communication performance, image information is one of the best ways of learning. Temple Grandin, who is one of the most well-known and accomplished adults with autism [44], once described in his work that all the words and dialogs presented before the eyes of autistic patients are like pictures, which represents the unique visual learning approach and learning ability of autistic patients.
However, past research has pointed out that the traditional way of matching a picture with a text is not attractive to autistic children, and the effect is not significant [21]. The reason for this phenomenon is that traditional teaching strategies lack interaction and a clear teaching framework, and it is difficult for them to present or demonstrate an appropriate interactive situation. For example, traditional storybook combines social storytelling methods for teaching; however, storybooks can only provide fragments of situational pictures. (Situational pictures, like the normal photographic capture of a real scene, which we call a “montage” or a “stop motion video”, include some people’s interactions and social reciprocity behavior in a specific place. This material is used to help the therapist to teach the children and to indicate their roles and their interaction with it). However, it is difficult to show continuous details from situational pictures, and traditional storybooks lack an interactive mechanism, and many details can only be imagined, which causes autistic children to get bored or to lose interest.
With the intervention of Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) technology, these training problems have been improved, to varying degrees. Due to an autistic child’s innate visual and learning advantages, A/VR technology provides users with a great breakthrough by providing a visual sensory experience [45]. This includes the most basic interactive game operation for complex multi-person perspective exchanges, self-reference imitations, and a variety of situation simulations [42, 43, 46].
AR technology is an interactive display platform that superimposes virtual objects in a real environment. Using the computer, it generates 3D image display, sound, text and animation effects to enhance the user’s visual sensory experience. Therefore, it is good for pretend-play and symbolic play games to use AR technology, because they can augment the virtual 3D materials by overlaying them on the real objects to make it look like another thing. For example, by using AR technology, we can add the 3D model or animation overlay to real matchboxes to symbolize cars (Figure 1). By using the AR app, the matchboxes will look like the shape of a car on the screen, which can help autistic children to pretend and imagine that the matchboxes are cars. This concept can be easily understood from Bai’s (2014) research article [47].
AR technology is used to help children with autism to elicit pretend-play and imagination skills, such as imagining a square matchbox as a car. The original picture was produced and re-drawn from Bai [
Another VR technology provides a more immersive and realistic environment in which people can experience the environment. VR provides visual images on the media to help children with autism to have an in-depth experience, to master their imagination, and to experience visual sensory stimulation. Thus, VR technology has another benefit in that it lets the children with autism become immersed in another world and to empathize with another person’s perspectives, feelings and thoughts. Therefore, the goals of AR and VR technology can be very different in the way that it presents the virtual environment, by either enhancing or changing the perceptual world.
The biggest difference between AR and VR is that AR integrates with real objects (Table 1), while VR is completely immersed in a virtual environment. AR presents an interaction with the objects in the actual field, such as the social skills training that is used in pretend games or iconic games, while VR strengthens the experience of simulation and the environment of situational feelings, which means that they have different functions and characteristics in social training for autism. Therefore, we will show some examples in the following chapter, and explain how AR and VR technology are applied in the social skills training of autism.
AR technology | VR technology (including VR CAVE) | ||
---|---|---|---|
1 | Technical Description | AR technology can add additional visual information on the surface of specific objects, space environments, or image information, and its application in teaching has been effective | Enhancing the perceptual state of an immersive perception environment. |
2 | Technology core | AR technology can help autistic children with their expressions through self-reference and watch their social status with others through pretend and symbolic games, or from the perspectives of different persons | VR can provide different situations for autistic children to speculate about their current immersion feelings and to master environmental information through the immersion environment. |
3 | Execution strategy | Additional virtual information is superimposed on physical space objects, e.g. the 3D virtual car model is overlaid on the box, making it look like a real car. It is usually combined with board games or pretends to operate. | A head-mounted display is usually used to exchange perspectives in immersive situations, to strengthen and experience empathy |
4 | Learning mechanics | Pretend-play and symbolic play (imagination training), self-reference and imitative learning | The role perspective exchange of the first person and the third person (taking a perspective and empathy construction), and social situation simulation |
5 | Social Skills Enhancement | Strengthens the mastery of (1) pretend play and symbolic play (imagination training), (2) self-reference and imitative learning. | Strengthens the behavioral cognitive training of (3) role perspective exchanges of the first person and the third person (taking a perspective and empathy construction), and (4) social situation simulations |
The differences of AR and VR technology in social skills training for autism.
A/VR technology for the social intervention training of autistic children has developed to another different sensory level and visual cognitive stage and, from the general game interactions, different teaching interaction strategies have gradually developed. One by one, they correspond with the different social aspects of autistic patients, such as teaching them how to pretend to be others and to symbolize things through AR technology games [47]. In addition, empathy, imagination, and non-verbal social communication skills are the abilities that ordinary children should have when they are involved in social interaction with adults. These abilities will also be indirectly reflected in the performance of their social skills. Therefore, A/VR technology has considerable advantages in the social training strategies of autistic children, not only because it can reproduce and simulate different situations, social roles, and other perspectives, but also because it is advantageous for the different psychological levels of vision. For example, VR can provide different situations for autistic children to speculate about their current immersion feelings [43, 48], and the 3D modeling technique in AR technology also allows them to practice social reciprocity with specific characters through pretend-playing and role-playing [43]. In addition, AR technology can help autistic children to express themselves and watch their social status with others by playing pretend and symbolic games and seeing things from the perspective of different people [49]. A/VR technology has greatly broken through the traditional training framework, but at the same time, it has extended the training on the basis of the existing teaching strategies and theories, giving it a certain theoretical basis for development, as well as a learning framework [50].
Because AR technology can add additional visual information onto the surface of specific objects, space environments, or image information, its application in teaching has been effective [51]. For autistic children, AR technology can help to overcome their weak imaginations, as it is capable of presenting visual information beyond words or pictures [52]. Moreover, the superimposed information can make autistic children perform the operation and teaching application of disguise and symbolic games. Below are some special teaching and training cases to illustrate and analyze the follow-up research.
In the process of learning how to interact and play with others, impersonation and symbolic games play an important role for normal children [53]. The children can try to figure out different situations and things and even have a tacit understanding between each other, by pretending to be in a game [54, 55]. For example, in the game of pretending to have a specific role or occupation, such as a doctor, nurse, or salesman, normal children can use the available items at hand as accessories, in the process of their diagnosis and treatment, or they can use the items on display in stores, such as using bananas as telephones [56], using matchboxes to symbolize cars (Figure 1), using sticks to symbolize a king’s scepter, or using a bottle as a microphone. In general, normal children can achieve the operation of each other’s games by defining different objects, formulating game rules and interactive methods, and even developing them into more complex game mechanisms. For example, children are often “playing house “or “playing grown-up” games (playing house, is a traditional children’s game. It is a form of make-believe, where players take on the roles of a nuclear family). They are game forms that help children to understand each other’s gestures and social interactions and to grasp metaphorical symbols. In the process of playing these games, they need to use a lot of imagination, to follow the rules of the game, and to have the ability to understand the concept of the symbolic form and the ability to guess the intention [37, 52].
These games not only retain specific symbols and rules, but they also integrate many different ways of interaction. In addition to the game, some more subtle interactive information helps children to learn and familiarize themselves with more complex social skills in the process of the game. These techniques can convey different information through oral or non-verbal communication and they can also involve social and emotional connections. People will use some conventional objects or gestures to replace the content of complex dialogs. For example, certain body movements, including nodding, shaking hands, hugging, high-fives, and shoulder-clapping, are used to express the participants’ concern and interaction. Moreover, different body movements will naturally convey the distance and intimacy of their social relations. However, there is a certain degree of complexity that is required to implement such a social approach with autistic children, by using traditional teaching strategies. Because autistic children find it difficult to understand complex and abstract social communication codes, the symbolic concepts and social cognition content need to be translated [57, 58].
Therefore, this is an opportunity to use AR technology to help autistic children to understand and participate in pretend-games and try to use their imagine to decode the social signals, because pretend games usually require an imagination to figure out some state that does not exist on actual objects, for example, imagining a square matchbox as a car (Figure 1), or imagining some actions and processes in the game, such as using a toy car on the table to imagine a real car running on the road. In this way, AR technology can today superimpose the 3D model and animation of the car and overlap it on the square matchboxes, to let the matchboxes look like real cars. In this way, it can help autistic children to master the skills of pretend-play, by using visual methods.
Non-verbal social communication ability covers a wide range of social cognitive levels and sensory ability integration, including judging the other party’s emotional expressions, their body gestures, empathy, and the ability to pretend to play games and imagine things [59]. These non-verbal social cues convey the way people communicate and their ability to convey emotions [60]. For autistic children, such content needs to be visualized, or even structured, to achieve a better performance of social details and social connections. How to translate abstract and complex non-verbal social cues is a research topic that makes researchers curious, because non-verbal social communication often represents some symbolic social communication symbols and behavior performance, which are conveyed to others through body movements or facial illustrations that involve the relationship between physical and social communication symbols [21]. For example, when a man hands a red rose to a young woman, the series of hand and body movements and their facial expressions convey each other’s behavior, intentions, social relationship, and even their emotional feelings [28] (Figure 2). The use of situational pictures can facilitate and develop a child’s ability to adapt to social relationships and to understand the overall interactive situation described in this series of story plots, by repeated learning and guessing. However, these abstract non-verbal communication expressions appear to be difficult for autistic children to understand [61], as they are unable to deconstruct the information content and social communication codes conveyed by such non-verbal communication. They need to make an extra effort and give extra attention, in order to detect these different social context fragments and non-verbal social cues.
When a man hands a red rose to a young woman, the series of hand and body movements and their facial expressions convey each other’s behavior, intentions, social relationship, and even their emotional feelings [
As described in a previous study, attention is one of the key factors in social cognition and in the deconstruction of social communication codes [62]. The study points out those autistic children often find it difficult to detect and perceive these key non-verbal social cues. However, traditional social training, whether by using video modeling [4, 53] or specific social story methods [36], did not have effective outcomes or help autistic children to deconstruct and understand the social cues in situational pictures. In such training, therapists or special education teachers guide autistic children to observe specific situational pictures or play the videos repeatedly, through which they gradually become familiar with the social details in the story. After multiple practices, autistic children can gradually grasp such social information and apply the information in their daily lives. This kind of teaching strategy is a very common approach in social training; however, it is considered to be a rather passive method and does not attract the interest of an autistic child, even with films or picture storybooks.
On the basis of our previous study [21] extracted non-verbal social cues from a series of dynamic life films and compiled them into a social storybook. Through the fixed visual structure of the storybook and the sequential page-by-page learning framework, autistic children can clearly grasp the visual pictures and clues of the occurrence of the social situations. A fixed and structured visual information deconstruction method, which researchers call Stop Motion Video (SMV), can guarantee a simultaneous and stable visual interpretation, just like traditional social storytelling [18].
Although the key frames are structural, they are quite fragmentary [28]. Such social storybooks lose most of the social context clues and story content. At the same time, static images do not easily attract the attention of autistic children and encourage them to read. Therefore, by combining them with AR technology, researchers can use the key social context clues in social storybooks as visual primers, and they can also use the explicit learning framework and visual structure of social storybooks, to help autistic children deconstruct and master the specific non-verbal language in a series of complex social films. For example, the social interaction state, a handshake, a hug, or special eye contact, and the expressions of male and female protagonists in the film, are employed to guide autistic children to master the key events of the complete story by using a visual primer that is constructed on the fixed screen. The situational information that is guided by the back of the protagonist can then be played in a dynamic video and superimposed on the social storybook, for autistic children to refer to and read repeatedly, thus making up for the lack of information in social storybooks. At the same time, focusing on non-verbal social cues by using AR technology, successfully increases the attention and motivation of autistic children. The film that is triggered by AR technology promotes the opportunity and vision for autistic children to understand the more complex stimulation of social cues [21].
Non-verbal social communication covers a wide range of levels, including the structural relationship between people and symbols. Different body movements that correspond to the extraction of different symbols, also endow the situational story with a specific social narrative framework and clues [63]. For example, a man with a bunch of flowers kneeling on one knee before a woman may represent a marriage proposal, while taking out a diamond ring represents a wedding ceremony. These social cues and symbols will be continuously expanded upon in the process of a child’s growth, as a part of their acquired learning. Generally, children obtain more social experiences when interacting with adults, which help them to apply the non-verbal social communication information and signs, and to establish a connection between such information and signs [28].
As indicated by the playing-house game, children become familiar with the strategy of the disguise and the symbolic game, which leads them to deliberate on the situation and to feel during the process. However, these social information and symbols are full of metaphorical and social content for autistic children, who find it difficult to decipher the invisible and abstract social communication codes. Therefore, additional visual aids can help them. For example, the abstract concepts, such as honor, friendship, peer recognition, praise, or respect for others, could help them to understand some social implications and emotional components, and thus to eventually develop the ability to handle the mechanism of social interaction [37]. Generally, children can figure out these skills through symbolic and pretend-game strategies, such as giving a badge to represent honor, bowing to each other as a symbol of respect, offering a handshake as a symbol of friendship, giving high-fives for peer recognition, or giving a thumbs-up as a symbol of praise. Such content often appears in children’s game stories. However, the question is whether such ways can trigger and motivate autistic children to devote more attention, and their imagination, to specific non-verbal social cues and to successfully link them to a symbolic ceremony.
Nowadays, AR can play a very important role [37]. The relevant literature points out that it offers a significant breakthrough in the disguise and symbolic game strategies, because the additional visual information given by AR can enhance an autistic child’s attention and mastery of specific social cues [21]. At the same time, it also gives some abstract symbolic content that is different from any visual sensory interpretation, such as giving a visual perception of abstract symbolic content at the moment when the perceptual acousto-optic feedback of an event is triggered [37]; for example, when courage is acquired, AR systems provide animated responses for children with autism.
We can understand the benefits of AR technology from different perspectives. For example, in metaphorical social relationships, it is difficult to explain to autistic children about the relationship between you, me, and him. We have always called them pronouns, which are a common part of speech, but they are the concepts that make children with autism most likely to encounter confusion. Autistic children often reverse their status of use, which may be one of the reasons why it is difficult for them to change their role status or feel empathy for others.
Moreover, it is not easy to explain the relationship between social intimacy and intimacy. Usually, when one teaches ordinary children about the differences between the concept of family members and their relatives (such as uncles and aunts) and even neighbors and friends, we can easily convey a distant relationship by using an oral description or some other explanations. However, autistic children find it difficult to grasp such a concept, because of their relationship with society; so they become obstacles in the transformation of the concept of communication. An oral description lacks a clear visual framework and image structure to help them understand. Therefore, it is necessary for autistic children to deconstruct different social concepts and situations by using visualization and images. One can use a Concept Map (CM) plus AR technology to deconstruct different social concepts and situations, by linking different role objects (Figure 3). Autistic children can then understand such social connections through visual aids. In addition to the social content that can be taught, AR provides auxiliary content, so that the visual interface on static images can be extended and generate more visual stimuli, which can subsequently attract autistic children to invest in more attention and observation [21, 49].
A concept map plus AR technology provides additional visual aids to help autistic children to construct abstract concepts and enhance their learning motivation and attention [
Through AR technology, we can give different visual interpretations to abstract social concepts. In the past, autistic children could only understand social content through role-playing and social stories. However, with the intervention of AR technology, some social content can be presented and interpreted in different ways, and can extend the sensory level given by static images or inanimate objects, such as teddy bears, dolls, or a doll in human form (Figure 4). The therapist uses these entity dolls to explain the situational dialog and emotional feelings between different characters to the autistic children, by using disguise and symbolic game strategies. However, in the process of a pretend-game, the dialog content, body movements, and the palm of the eyes are included. This becomes a very difficult task for autistic children, because their imagination is inherently weak, and they do not easily associate and interact with each other. The rigid thinking mode makes it difficult for them to understand each other’s communication, as well as the real intention behind the words and the social meaning that they hope to convey.
Personification is when something non-human is given a human characteristic/personality. However, personification is sometimes given a broader definition. Therefore, in this section, we focus on enhancing the autistic person’s empathy towards others and trying to think, feel, and understand the emotions of another person, from their perspective. The AR system will turn an inanimate object into a real creature.
Through the superposition of 3D animation and situational sound, AR technology can easily solve the problem of a weak imagination in autism. A therapist can easily make a lifeless doll appear to be alive (Figure 4). Through the man–machine interface and context design, the social interaction content can be successfully deduced [64]. In addition to increasing the motivation and attraction of autistic children in learning, the whole process also involves the sensory connection of entity interaction, which could help them to acquire this social concept. When autistic children play with the entity doll, they can link the social cognitive relationship between the senses and the body, which reinforces their understanding of a social relationship. In addition, AR technology gives a deeper feeling to the physical interaction and sensory manipulation required by the disguise game. From the perspective of the third person, the social interaction relationship between the disguised role and AR technology can become a more complete social training mode and make the social training of autistic children, from a visual sense, gradually push to the level of a psychological feeling. Next, the researchers will explain how to further use AR technology to transform the transposition thinking ability of autistic children and to trigger their inner ability to show empathy.
Empathy is seen as the ability to perceive another person’s emotions, intentions, and feelings [65]. In the growth process of ordinary children, it is an innate ability and can indirectly become a skill for social interaction between people [66]. If they have this ability, people will understand another person’s feelings through transpositional thinking and then be able to predict and adopt his/her behavior representation and social communication mode [67]. However, this ability is difficult to achieve in autistic children and it is closely related to non-verbal communication cues. In general, normal adults can understand the feelings and intentions of others through their facial expressions, body movements, voice intonation, and even some of their gestures and their eyes, which are all non-verbal communication clues that could transmit abundant social information. People can use them to perceive the emotions and intentions of others and to make further judgments. Through the accumulation of experience and learning, people’s judgments thus become more accurate and effective.
In the teaching strategy of the transposition thinking ability training for autistic children in the past, facial pictures [68], or asking autistic children to look in the mirror, was often used for repeated judgment training [69]. However, this method has not been effective, especially when autistic cases enter a real-life field, whereby such training is difficult to implement and the effect is not obvious. The researchers pointed out that it is necessary for autistic children to be proficient in this skill by using more flexible and authentic sensory stimuli. This also shows that it is difficult for autistic children to use simple images and integrate their creative imagination into a more profound on-the-spot experience, and such a perceptual environment can only be achieved in real life. However, some autistic children have a fear of the real environment, and the complexity of the information in the environment makes those with poor communication more afraid and likely to retreat, which means it cannot really achieve the purpose of training [70]. Therefore, transpositional thinking skills and empathy (also known as defects in the Theory of Mind (ToM) - the ability to interpret another person’s interests, intentions, and emotions) has always been the focus of researchers in the training of autism [71]. However, there are many difficulties in the training and implementation of a person’s transpositional thinking ability. The first difficulty to be faced is how to let autistic children figure out how to take on another role? It is very difficult for them to show their abilities, because they cannot understand why therapists ask them to show the emotions and feelings of another character, or even to pretend to be another character, because they have a weak imagination and rigid logical thinking [72]. This is a rather difficult task for autistic children to understand. These communication methods are not in line with their real identity, they are abstract, and cannot be interpreted through a visual mode. For autistic children, who understand things through vision, it is only when they can truly see, or feel, the social status of different roles that they can solve the current training problems [43].
With the application of AR technology, a person’s transpositional thinking ability has been greatly improved. AR can simulate the facial expression of patients through self-reference (Figure 5) [46], Unlike the traditional training strategy, where autistic patients are asked to look into a mirror to guess, and learn about, emotional expressions, which is especially futile for them [69], AR technology can give correct facial expressions and superimpose them on the faces of autistic children [46]. The training methods listed above (Figure 5), whether they are looking at their own facial expressions in a mirror or imitating their own social actions, are collectively referred to as self-referential imitation, especially the visual reference of social cues (such as facial expressions, body movements, voice intonation, etc.). Whether viewed from their own first-person perspective, or from the perspective of others (a third-person perspective), it is a very special visual sensory experience for autistic children [46].
AR technology can achieve a self-face reference training strategy to solve the dilemma of autism in social skills training [
AR can help children with autism to implement empathy skills, by using board games. The intervention method of AR technology is usually to superimpose the content of different media on an object. For example, AR can superimpose different 3D virtual facial expressions on the autistic patient’s face to help them think about the different kinds of emotions that are present in themselves. We call this as self-facial modeling (Figure 5), which was previously impossible to achieve, but it can be done by using AR technology. In addition, AR can provide some virtual 3D decorations for children to play with, or it can augment some virtual 3D animations on their body by self-reference, which are shown on a screen, to help a child pretend he is a king or a specific character (Figure 6). In this form, AR will become a tool to help autistic children to imagine and pretend, and they will gain the ability to empathize from it. This strategy lets autistic children play the game of empathy through the mechanism of pretend-play. Most of the AR methods are used to manipulate or passively perceive the comparison between real objects and the virtual content, in order to obtain the feeling of empathy.
Using AR technology to help children with autism to elicit pretend-play and symbolic play (a crown means a king, or courage). An autistic child can also play a self-role game; its meaning is different from a table game, because participants can join this scene face-to-face and play with others who are also self-imitating.
From another perspective, VR provides a completely immersive picture experience, but it has different effects, compared to AR. The current VR technology can change a person’s judgment of the senses, which allows one to fully integrate another person’s perspectives, and this method can make one see the world through another person’s eyes. In addition, through the exchange of different perspectives, the individual can even see the state of interaction between himself and another person, through the eyes of others, or he can experience and observe the type of social interaction from a different personal perspective. This approach greatly changes and breaks through the VR of the past, as a mechanism for on-site experience, but with the performance of empathy, and it helps users to think from the perspective of others and to master the skills and abilities of empathy. In addition, the empathy experience provided by VR is felt from the first-person perspective and is achieved through the mechanism of exchanging perspectives (Table 2).
AR technology | VR technology (include CAVE VR) | ||
---|---|---|---|
1 | Viewing angle (perspective view) | From the third-person perspective, a person must try to figure out the feelings of the posing object and watch the superimposed animation to understand the interactive content. | The game experience method, from the first-person perspective, helps autistic children to engage directly in face-to-face social reciprocity activities with virtual characters, and to master skills. |
2 | Special visual situation to achieve empathy and transpositional thinking skills | Visually, it can be transformed into a state of empathy in a fake game, by comparing the relationship between the virtual and the real state. For example, through the teddy bear doll in the hand and the realistic animation of AR, the doll becomes a real bear and one must to try to figure out his feelings.(Figure 4.) | Visually, it can switch to the perspective of different characters, such as viewing things from the perspective of friends, or viewing yourself from the perspective of others, and feeling the feelings of others. |
3 | Teaching and implementing the mechanism | Self-imitation, self-modeling, pretend-play game, symbolic game operation, | A multi-person perspective exchange, direct face-to-face interaction |
Differences in the implementation of empathetic and transpositional thinking skills between AR and VR.
Similar concepts can also be presented in the creation of science and technology art. For example, the work is called the inter dis-communication machine created by the Hachiya [73]. The Dis-Communication Machine is a communication system that is aimed at transmitting and receiving sensual experiences used by two people wearing head-mounted displays. The ‘machine’ projects one wearer’s sight and sound perception of the environment into the other one’s display, thus confusing the borders between the identities of ‘you’ and ‘me’. Through the exchange with the world, from the perspective of the different role objects, the participants can understand and feel the sensory world visually [73]. In the past, this visual sensory effect was achieved through the exchange and transmission link of entity lens images. Today, VR technology can achieve this surreal sensory experience. The case subjects can view others (first person) from their own perspective and interact with virtual characters, or view themselves from the perspective of others, or even watch their interaction with others (third person) from the perspective of another person (Table 3). These switching perspectives successfully achieve the visual thinking mode of transpositional thinking in the virtual world. For autistic children, the empathy training strategy can promote the physical sensory experience synchronously. Whether immersed in a specific virtual environment, or watching themselves interact with virtual characters, from God’s perspective, they have achieved different visual sensory experiences, thus forming another training application of self-reference. This training framework has also been preliminarily verified by experiments, which proves that autistic children can still achieve the common perception of psychological and physiological perceptions, with the help of technology. Autistic children can effectively perceive and express empathy, which encourages them to use the mechanism of social reciprocity, and enhances their social skills [43].
The self-reference application of a synchronous visual sensory world achieved by CAVE-like immersive 3D technology (a-autistic participant, A”-(participant’s virtual avatar captured by front or back camera), B-virtual character).
Researchers believe that VR technology has some unique visual advantages in the training of autistic children, which can form surreal visual and sensory benefits [43], such as a role perspective exchange of the first person and the third person (taking a perspective and empathy construction), and social situation simulation (Table 3). Compared to the existing teaching strategies, VR technology has considerable differences and has made major breakthroughs [45]. As a compensation mechanism of visual sense and additional training advantages given to the visual characteristics of autistic children, VR technology can encourage them to face more social objects and to observe the behavior and reactions of others. Moreover, these external stimuli can increase the possibility and opportunity of real social interaction between autistic children and their peers. Therefore, expanding these non-verbal communication training units, as well as visual assistance and additional sensory compensation, can help autistic children to reinterpret and solve their problems, even though they have a non-verbal social disorder and a weak imagination. The unique visual and sensory advantages of these VR technologies have repeatedly reminded researchers that they should make good use of VR technology, so that it can be applied and brought into play in these unique special education fields. In the next section, we will further explain and analyze the visual and sensory advantages of these VR technologies.
As described above, the past training in social reciprocity behavior would make autistic children come into wide contact with real social environments and different social situations, which can promote their skills in social reciprocity with others. VR technology has sensory advantages in situation simulation and social training, especially in the early stages of its application. It is often used to solve the problems that autistic children are afraid to face in the real world, and to help them to simulate and experience different situations, such as going to school, taking busses, shopping, or to solve different levels of social fear problems [70]. However, most of these training styles are still in the stage of scenario simulation, which is also the most common and best operating mechanism of VR technology. Situation simulation solves most of the social training problems that cannot be repeated in real situations, such as helping autistic children learn how to complete a certain task under different situations (such as customers checking-out in front of a cash register, or ordering meals for customers by using an ordering machine). These training mechanisms are mostly aimed at solving the problems that autistic children need to face and overcome in real society, and to encourage them to be able to enter the workplace, in order to integrate better into the society [30].
Most researchers recognize that VR technology has several major advantages. For example, the situation simulation training developed by VR technology can be used for repeated situation training and task operations and can help the children to overcome some situations, which may be difficult to do in the real world. Another example is that it allows autistic children to experience social interactions by using different roles. However, it is undeniable that social interaction in the face of a real life environment cannot be replaced, and so VR technology is generally recognized as an early-training framework that can help autistic children to integrate into a real-life environment. When an autistic patient is unable to successfully face a real social field, he is considered to be in need of training through role-playing and placing him in social situations. He can then carry out situation experience and social simulation training under the game mechanism of specific social situation guidance and role exchange. However, the inborn social defects of autistic people often make them resist such game mechanisms. The main reason is that they are not interested in the interactive content, or that it is difficult to make a social conjecture of game interaction. These problems are related to their innate weak imagination, their inability to think transpositionally, or their own rigid behavior problems. Therefore, it is necessary for VR technology to move from the framework of situation simulation and to gradually cross over to the psychological and sensory level, because then it will obtain better results. The following section will provide some suggestions for AR and VR, respectively.
Whether in non-verbal social communication or in different visual image information, AR technology is considered to be a scanner. Through a hand-held tablet, PC or other imaging devices, any image information can be converted into a scanning icon that is suitable for AR application (Figure 7). Moreover, through lens sensing in front of a hand-held tablet or PC, the AR app can overlay dynamic information images (such as 3D animations, additional visual information assistance, videos and audio media, etc.) behind the static images. Researchers call this a framework approach for visual cue guidance, which means that it constructs an autistic child’s sensory cognition of the visual guidance through a fixed visual framework (they are usually static images, such as social storybooks, which are commonly used in autism training). With a fixed visual cue framework and sequential story guiding the content, children with autism can quickly grasp the main structure of social stories through visual images and they can then extend to more complex and diverse social content, or context, details. This division of labor can greatly reduce the cognitive load of autistic children in their understanding of information, through the hierarchical information of AR technology, and it can also attract the attention of autistic children with the help of the audio-visual effects of AR technology (Figure 7). The information provided by AR includes different layers of visual information, and complex social information is deconstructed by using a visual architecture. Moreover, with the support of AR technology and visual cues, the extended social information content is supported and improved [21, 28].
AR realizes hierarchical visual indexing. Firstly, the fixed visual structure is used to help autistic children master the social context framework. Secondly, AR technology is used to link further videos and audio information [
Visual information can be deconstructed, and then presented by linking CM (Figure 8) or sequence learning [38, 74]. Since people’s reception of sensory stimuli depends on the interaction of their vision, hearing, and body senses, autistic children are endowed with a touchable “concept of objects”, which can help them to clarify the symbolic meaning that is conveyed “behind the things”. Moreover, such a form can also be used to teach autistic children to understand the state of social stories. For example, the storybook itself is a symbol that can help to construct structured concepts. By reading the situational stories in the storybook, we can help autistic children to construct the visual state of situational concepts and the sequence of events. Just like operating tools with people, we can construct a smooth operation mechanism between the mind and body, through repeated practice. Although the mechanisms of tactile, visual, and physical perceptions in sensory acceptance are different, autistic children can use their common sensory memory to grasp complex social content and sensory information, so that they could learn to deconstruct continuous social actions and interaction concepts.
Concept mapping can help autistic children to form visual and abstract social relations and help them to understand and master the content of a social situation [
Through the interaction strategy of a structured visual concept and entity, a visual framework, or visual primer, can be established to help autistic children understand and deal with abstract social relations, such as the distance between relatives in social relations, the social connection between different roles, or role playing and the speculation of transpositional thinking (Figure 8) [49]. In addition, the 3D character animations provided by AR also have the advantage of multiple viewing angles. Autistic children can watch the social relations of different character objects by different role identities and then speculate on the game. At the same time, through the game’s dolls in the board games, such a learning framework can become a key training strategy for understanding social games, or disguising games, with the aid of the concept mapping and visual content that is superimposed by AR technology [50]. By combining the game operating mechanism with the board game concept, players can easily pretend to take on the role of God (or the third-person perspective). In this way, we can at the same time solve the problem of the weak imagination of autistic children. As AR animation directly makes up for the visual sensory information, which is difficult to show in the operation content, it provides effective social animation content to help autistic children understand the social status among different roles (such as hugging family, waving at friends, schoolmates clapping encouragement), supplemented by fixed visual guidance, which constitutes a more stable and dynamic social interaction structure [17].
VR technology is a great breakthrough in the field of autism social training. It can change the visual training strategy under different sensory conditions and through multiple viewpoints (‘multiple viewpoints’ means that there is a perspective shift of being able to look at something through another person’s eyes. One of the biggest influences that multiple viewpoints have is that they enable us to see how others view the world, which enables one to experience another person’s sense of sight face-to-face; of course, we just let the autistic person wear the head mount display, in order to display the other person’s viewpoint via a camera), and an immersive theater game environment. Moreover, it contributes to the scale, from being a table game size to a sensory experience with the whole immersion environment, and even to the development of a semi-immersive Mixed Reality (MR) training mechanism. Such content has a different training purpose and different game strategies on the basis of training. Through visual experience and fixed visual guidance, researchers can enlarge the scale of board games to the framework of immersive theater games. Using the same visual concept strategy, we can develop a social interaction mode, with the first-person perspective and God’s third-person perspective, and then, through to the immersive and semi-immersive interaction experience, we can construct the participants’ on-the-spot sensory experience of the social interaction objects. These visual senses can be used to guide and induce empathy through the visual sensory mechanism provided by VR technology, and they are applied in the following situations, as described previously: (1) first-person and third-person role perspective exchange (empathy and empathy construction), and (2) social situation simulation. The operation of this mechanism requires more situational guidance and sensory conditions, combined with different game and entity interaction strategies, to achieve the training effect, and such a training form needs to be designed and interpreted through a situational script. Through such a mechanism, autistic children can gradually acquire social skills and non-verbal communication and it will equip them to live their own lives.
In real daily life, children with autism have to face many obstacles, with regard to social reciprocity, most of which are reflected in the mastery of some non-verbal social behavior. These social actions and reciprocity behaviors are not impossible to achieve in real life, but because of the innate social barriers of autism, they cannot master social skills in a more natural or appropriate way. In such a state, it is difficult to use traditional methods, such as VM or storybooks, to train them. However, AR or VR, as a visual method and teaching strategy, helps them to “see” the situation, to feel, and to have a status in these states. It even helps children with autism to understand the feelings, the states, or social reciprocity of others by multi-person perspective exchange, self-reference imitation, and a variety of situation simulations. These social actions and reciprocal behaviors usually have to be felt and communicated through empathy and inner mechanisms, and are not tangible skills (because the skill of empathy is not like riding a bicycle, as long as you can master it with proficiency, it needs the ability to function effectively in a dynamic environment in which multiple, and substantively different, perspectives must be maintained). Because empathy is an inner state and a social cognition mental skill, A/VR technology provides an attempt to help autistic children to master this ability, but not all feelings can be expressed. Children with autism still need to rely on repeated training, or to learn this skill with the growth of life experience, so this article is only a stepping-stone to help researchers to think of other ways and other methods of thinking about social training issues, to get rid of traditional memorization method, and to become a more flexible training strategy (Table 4).
Difficult to achieve non-verbal social skills training in the real world | Main technical assistance | Non-verbal social skills to be strengthened (training purpose) | Teaching strategy description | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Self-facial expression reference and limitations | AR | Master emotions and facial expressions by observing the face and facial expressions, such as head movements (refer to the Figure 5) | It is very important for children with autism to observe the correct expression state that they should make through AR technology, and, especially when they cannot master the correct emoji, AR can solve this problem |
2 | Give life to items in the pretend-game | AR | Master the state of social and physical interactions through pretend-play games. (non-verbal social communication skills, such as eye contact, social body movements, social ritual behaviors) (refer to the Figure 4) | In the real world, some inanimate objects cannot truly interact, but with the assistance of AR technology or VR technology, these inanimate objects can become real characters for interaction (for example, an inanimate teddy bear becomes an alive role) |
3 | See the relationship between each other through virtual information | AR | Improve the grasp of social relationships with the aid of visual information (refer to the Figure 3) | There are many intangible social relationships and statuses in the real world. In the AR interface, the social distance between each other can be presented visually. For example, through a combination of the AR and CM strategies, the relationship between each other can be represented by images. |
4 | Observe the detailed state of different body movements from all angles | AR/VR | Use visual information aids to enhance social interaction and behavior control (facial expressions, social actions) (refer to the Figure 7) | In the real world, there are many details relating to body language. Only in the virtual environment can you repeatedly figure out and observe from different perspectives. |
5 | Watching and practicing social body movements repeatedly | AR/VR | Use visual resources to enhance the mastery of social reciprocal behaviors (social actions, including nodding, shaking hands, hugging, high fives, and shoulder clapping) | It is impossible to practice social action repeatedly in the real world, but the virtual mechanism can. |
6 | Socialize as someone else | VR | Grasp the state of empathy through different personal perspectives (refer to the Table 2) | In the real world, it is difficult to see things as another person, such as thinking about things in different roles, and autism can only be taught through visual images (thinking from the perspective of others). VR technology can achieve this function. |
7 | Instantly see your social interaction status with others | VR | Grasp the state of empathy through different personal perspectives (refer to the Table 2) | In the real world, only through video recordings and video referencing can you see the state of interaction between yourself and others at the same time, but it can be achieved in real time under the framework of VR. |
Non-verbal social skills training that is difficult to perform in the real world.
The situational script design and social story context are often two of the most critical and characteristic training materials in the training process. The situational script involves many important training items, including the setting of social reciprocity behavior, the social context content, non-verbal communication body action, the conversation content, the symbolic metaphor story, the role interaction mechanism, and so on. Through the interpretation and visual deduction of A/VR technology, we can achieve the training framework on a visual level and then promote the transformation of social behavior in learning. This depends on a different scenario script design and social story writing. In the execution, subjects are often obtained from the participants’ daily life and applied to script writing. Therefore, A/VR technology has become an interactive platform and game carrier for social training and it also gives these social materials and scripts another visual interpretation. Through the interposition of A/VR technology, autistic children can pay attention to the information details of different non-verbal social cues and transform their communication feelings in the visual images, so that the visual information can be deconstructed and presented sensitively. This kind of training strategy breaks away from the traditional story-book and pure film training mode and expands the understanding level of sense and perception. It has been released in the training of autistic children and has become another new training framework.
The visual training strategy of A/VR technology has gained its initial achievement in the non-verbal social training of children with autism, and the application of this technology has solved many limitations in traditional teaching. However, in the application and practice of this new technology, researchers must adopt a more rigorous experimental design and take a cautious attitude. Especially for autistic children with mental development defects, the use of this technology must consider more clinical and experimental evidence and it needs to be evaluated by more therapists and physicians. Therefore, we look forward to the breakthrough and development of A/VR technology in the field of special education. At the same time, we are also careful to apply the various visual effects of A/VR technology on social interaction stimulation (e.g., body language, social situations, social reciprocity, and relevant non-verbal communication in social interactions). We hope that it will be used better and applied in the future and that its advantages in working with these special children with autism will be displayed.
This work is supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan (107-2218-E-027 -013 -MY2/109-2221-E-027-069 -MY2). The authors thank the referees very much for their valuable comments and suggestions on this paper.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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Generally, harvested fruits are used for fresh consumption or are processed (mainly to produce juices). In this chapter, the authors discuss the state of art on citrus postharvest with a scientific approach, evaluating the current knowledge about the physiology and pathology of citrus fruits and the main causes of deterioration. In addition, the authors explain the main facilities for the cold storage of citrus fruit with particular reference to the rapid-cooling techniques and treatments needed prior to shipment of citrus fruits (refer shipment). In the last part of the chapter, the non-destructive methods for the quality evaluation are presented.",book:{id:"5606",slug:"citrus-pathology",title:"Citrus Pathology",fullTitle:"Citrus Pathology"},signatures:"Maria C. Strano, Giuseppe Altieri, Naouel Admane, Francesco\nGenovese and Giovanni C. 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The tobamoviruses are highly stable plant viruses that could cause severe disease symptoms. The well-known tobamovirus Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV) has recently caused severe damages in the cucumber, melon, and watermelon cucurbitaceous crops, worldwide. Similarly, a recent widespread of the newly identified tobamoviruses, Tomato mottle mosaic virus (ToMMV) and Tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV), has reduced the solanaceous crop production. The primary route of tobamoviral infection is through mechanical means. These viruses adhere to agricultural facilities, contaminate the soil, infect seeds, and spread via beneficial pollinators and irrigation water. Mechanical plant injury suffices to initiate viral infection. Practicing hygiene by plant growers and in nurseries is currently the main strategy for mitigation of tobamoviral infection. Promoting the production of solanaceous vegetable crops genetically resistant to ToMMV and ToBRFV infection is a promising approach. However, CGMMV-resistant sources of cucurbitaceous vegetable crops are scarce. Conferring resistance to rootstocks and cross-protection strategies are newly implemented approaches that could alleviate tobamovirus disease spread in both solanaceous and cucurbitaceous crops.",book:{id:"8814",slug:"plant-diseases-current-threats-and-management-trends",title:"Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Plant Diseases - Current Threats and Management Trends"},signatures:"Elisheva Smith and Aviv Dombrovsky",authors:null},{id:"68107",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87958",title:"Plant Metabolites in Plant Defense Against Pathogens",slug:"plant-metabolites-in-plant-defense-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:1404,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Medicinal plants are widely used worldwide to treat various diseases. Its widespread use is due in part to the cultural acceptance of traditional medicine in different regions of the world, as well as its effectiveness in treating various diseases. Many of its active substances or secondary metabolites are formed to a response of various situations that generate stress in their habitat, such as sudden changes in environmental temperature, humidity, rain, drought, and infections by phytopathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, protozoa). The production of these secondary metabolites is a mechanism of defense of plants. In this context, the objective of this chapter is to study the secondary metabolites of medicinal plants that could have a promising application in the control of different phytopathogens in crops of agricultural and economic interest.",book:{id:"8814",slug:"plant-diseases-current-threats-and-management-trends",title:"Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Plant Diseases - Current Threats and Management Trends"},signatures:"Xóchitl S. 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Prediction of future requirements in disease management is of great interest for agro-industries, extension services, and practical farmers. A comprehensive analysis of potential climate change effects on disease control is difficult because current knowledge is limited and fragmented and due to the complexity of future risks for plant disease management, particularly if new crops are introduced in an area. Uncertainty in models of plant disease development under climate change calls for a diversity of management strategies, from more participatory approaches to interdisciplinary science. Involvement of stakeholders and scientists from outside plant pathology shows the importance of trade-offs. All these efforts and integrations will produce effective crop protection strategies using novel technologies as appropriate tools to adapt to altered climatic conditions.",book:{id:"8814",slug:"plant-diseases-current-threats-and-management-trends",title:"Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Plant Diseases - Current Threats and Management Trends"},signatures:"Sahar Abdou Zayan",authors:null},{id:"62605",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75837",title:"The Biology of Thecaphora frezii Smut and Its Effects on Argentine Peanut Production",slug:"the-biology-of-thecaphora-frezii-smut-and-its-effects-on-argentine-peanut-production",totalDownloads:1117,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Thecaphora frezii was first reported in 1962 in wild peanut from Aquidauana, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. In Argentina, it was first detected in 1995 in commercial crops from the central-northern area of Córdoba province. The fungus can survive in the soil as teliospores. When peanut gynophore penetrates the soil, their exudates disrupt telial dormancy; T. frezii penetrates and colonizes the tissues and replaces the cells with teliospores. Since its first report, peanut smut prevalence has gradually increased in peanut areas to reach a 100% in 2012. Currently, it is the most important peanut disease in Argentina, not only for its destructive power on crop but also for its quick spread throughout the growing region of Córdoba and the lack of effective tools for its management. It is important for additional research to find effective agronomical practice that reaches high control efficiencies. The collaboration of all those involved in Argentinian peanut production systems is necessary for the management of peanut smut to be successful.",book:{id:"6642",slug:"advances-in-plant-pathology",title:"Advances in Plant Pathology",fullTitle:"Advances in Plant Pathology"},signatures:"Luis Ignacio Cazón, Juan Andrés Paredes and Alejandro Mario Rago",authors:[{id:"232647",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Luis Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Cazón",slug:"luis-ignacio-cazon",fullName:"Luis Ignacio Cazón"},{id:"240515",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Andrés",middleName:null,surname:"Paredes",slug:"juan-andres-paredes",fullName:"Juan Andrés Paredes"},{id:"240517",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Rago",slug:"alejandro-mario-rago",fullName:"Alejandro Mario Rago"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53686",title:"Major and Emerging Fungal Diseases of Citrus in the Mediterranean Region",slug:"major-and-emerging-fungal-diseases-of-citrus-in-the-mediterranean-region",totalDownloads:3195,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"This chapter deals with major endemic and emerging fungal diseases of citrus as well as with exotic fungal pathogens potentially harmful for citrus industry in the Mediterranean region, with particular emphasis on diseases reported in Italy and Maghreb countries. The aim is to provide an update of both the taxonomy of the causal agents and their ecology based on a molecular approach, as a preliminary step towards developing or upgrading integrated and sustainable disease management strategies. Potential or actual problems related to the intensification of new plantings, introduction of new citrus cultivars and substitution of sour orange with other rootstocks, globalization of commerce and climate changes are discussed. Fungal pathogens causing vascular, foliar, fruit, trunk and root diseases in commercial citrus orchards are reported, including Plenodomus tracheiphilus, Colletotrichum spp., Alternaria spp., Mycosphaerellaceae, Botryosphaeriaceae, Guignardia citricarpa and lignicolous basidiomycetes. Diseases caused by Phytophthora spp. (oomycetes) are also included as these pathogens have many biological, ecological and epidemiological features in common with the true fungi (eumycetes).",book:{id:"5606",slug:"citrus-pathology",title:"Citrus Pathology",fullTitle:"Citrus Pathology"},signatures:"Khaled Khanchouch, Antonella Pane, Ali Chriki and Santa Olga\nCacciola",authors:[{id:"193916",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khaled",middleName:null,surname:"Khanchouch",slug:"khaled-khanchouch",fullName:"Khaled Khanchouch"},{id:"193918",title:"Dr.",name:"Santa Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Cacciola",slug:"santa-olga-cacciola",fullName:"Santa Olga Cacciola"},{id:"196942",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Pane",slug:"antonella-pane",fullName:"Antonella Pane"},{id:"196943",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Chriki",slug:"ali-chriki",fullName:"Ali Chriki"}]},{id:"67930",title:"Impact of Climate Change on Plant Diseases and IPM Strategies",slug:"impact-of-climate-change-on-plant-diseases-and-ipm-strategies",totalDownloads:1988,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"There has been a remarkable scientific output on the topic of how climate change is likely to affect plant diseases. Climate change influences the occurrence, prevalence, and severity of plant diseases. Projected atmospheric and climate change will thus affect the interaction between crops and pathogens in multiple ways. This will also affect disease management with regard to timing, preference, and efficacy of chemical, physical, and biological measures of control and their utilization within integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. Prediction of future requirements in disease management is of great interest for agro-industries, extension services, and practical farmers. A comprehensive analysis of potential climate change effects on disease control is difficult because current knowledge is limited and fragmented and due to the complexity of future risks for plant disease management, particularly if new crops are introduced in an area. Uncertainty in models of plant disease development under climate change calls for a diversity of management strategies, from more participatory approaches to interdisciplinary science. Involvement of stakeholders and scientists from outside plant pathology shows the importance of trade-offs. All these efforts and integrations will produce effective crop protection strategies using novel technologies as appropriate tools to adapt to altered climatic conditions.",book:{id:"8814",slug:"plant-diseases-current-threats-and-management-trends",title:"Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Plant Diseases - Current Threats and Management Trends"},signatures:"Sahar Abdou Zayan",authors:null},{id:"74757",title:"The Trends in the Evaluation of Fusarium Wilt of Chickpea",slug:"the-trends-in-the-evaluation-of-fusarium-wilt-of-chickpea",totalDownloads:734,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the important annual legume crops, cultivated throughout the India since ancient time. It is also grown in many countries of the world. The crop has been facing numerous biotic and abiotic constraints. Among biotic constraint crop affected adversely by diseases, caused by many pathogens. Ever since 1918 when for the first time wilt disease of chickpea was reported and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri was the causal organism many strategies have been adopted to control the wilt disease. The controlling methods included conventional as well as modern one. However, more and more emphasis was given on biological control agents such as AM fungi and Trichoderma. The role of AM fungi have been evaluated for controlling the wilt disease similarly role of Trichoderma is thoroughly established biological control agent against Fusarium wilt. With the advent of modern tools and techniques developing markers, resistant varieties, all such sources enable us to reduce the effect of pathogens. Here an attempted has been made to acknowledge the trend of disease management and evaluation strategies of Fusarium wilt of chickpea for getting better yields of the crop.",book:{id:"10113",slug:"diagnostics-of-plant-diseases",title:"Diagnostics of Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Diagnostics of Plant Diseases"},signatures:"Chandan Singh and Deepak Vyas",authors:[{id:"315463",title:"Mr.",name:"Chandan",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"chandan-singh",fullName:"Chandan Singh"},{id:"338974",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak",middleName:null,surname:"Vyas",slug:"deepak-vyas",fullName:"Deepak Vyas"}]},{id:"60615",title:"Leaf Curl Disease: A Significant Constraint in the Production of Tomato in India",slug:"leaf-curl-disease-a-significant-constraint-in-the-production-of-tomato-in-india",totalDownloads:1457,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is one of the most economically important vegetable crops in the world. Among the major biotic constraints, virus-associated Tomato leaf curl disease (ToLCD) is a major limiting factor affecting its cultivation and yield. Different symptoms associated with disease are reported such as leaf curling, puckering of leaves, vein yellowing, stunting, excessive branching, from pale yellowing to deep yellowing, and small leaves. The genus Begomovirus is a circular single-stranded DNA virus which is exclusively being transmitted by whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) in a persistent circulative manner. Most of the begomovirus species are monopartite (having DNA-A molecule only), except few species, which are bipartite (having DNA-A and DNA-B as the genomic component). No absolute effective control measures of the disease could be developed so far, except resistance, management of insect vectors, and altering the dates of sowing to avoid peaks of insect vector population. This chapter reports an account of history, symptoms, transmission, genome organization, distribution, and management of Tomato leaf curl disease.",book:{id:"6642",slug:"advances-in-plant-pathology",title:"Advances in Plant Pathology",fullTitle:"Advances in Plant Pathology"},signatures:"Pradeep Kumar and Manish Kumar",authors:[{id:"234558",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"manish-kumar",fullName:"Manish Kumar"},{id:"239750",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Pradeep",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"pradeep-kumar",fullName:"Pradeep Kumar"}]},{id:"68015",title:"Sisal Bole Rot: An Important but Neglected Disease",slug:"sisal-bole-rot-an-important-but-neglected-disease",totalDownloads:988,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Sisal (Agave sisalana) is one of the main sources of hard natural fibre and raw materials for the industry, medicine and handicrafts. Sisal yields a coarse and strong fibre that is increasingly being used in composite materials for automobiles, furniture, construction and plastic and paper products. Extracts of sisal contain substances with anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anthelmintic activities. Sisal is adapted to warm environments with low rainfall and is an excellent option for cultivation in semiarid conditions, where other crops cannot be grown. The world’s largest sisal producers are Brazil, Tanzania, China, Kenya and Madagascar. Sisal is a labour-intensive crop with great socio-economical importance as it is cultivated in poor areas employing familiar labour. Sisal bole rot is the main disease of sisal, responsible for substantial losses in producing countries. The disease is caused by certain species of the genus Aspergillus, especially the ones belonging in the section Nigri. The main symptoms are yellowing of the aerial parts and the red-coloured rot of the bole, which causes the plant to die. In this review we are going to address the taxonomy of the causal agents, disease diagnosis and epidemiology and disease management, with emphasis on biological control.",book:{id:"8814",slug:"plant-diseases-current-threats-and-management-trends",title:"Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Plant Diseases - Current Threats and Management Trends"},signatures:"Valter Cruz-Magalhães, Jackeline Pereira Andrade, Yasmim Freitas Figueiredo, Phellippe Arthur Santos Marbach and Jorge Teodoro de Souza",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"367",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. 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He is the author of several scientific articles, book chapters, and books.",institutionString:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Gingival Disease - A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",value:2,count:3},{group:"subseries",caption:"Oral Health",value:1,count:6}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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