Noise level limits in different categorized areas of the city (Pakistan).
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9532",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Occupational Wellbeing",title:"Occupational Wellbeing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Occupational Wellbeing examines the risks for various diseases in a range of workplace environments. Section 1 analyses the occupational health and safety parameters in various occupational sectors, while Section 2 focuses on physiological and psychosocial wellbeing. Chapters cover such topics as migrant workers in the construction industry, farm and fishery workers, how the body responds physiologically to high-risk occupational duties, psychosocial wellbeing of workers, bullying in the workplace, and more.",isbn:"978-1-83962-339-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-338-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-340-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87327",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"occupational-wellbeing",numberOfPages:220,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b653470d0eea86ec71dc2b3423db7c36",bookSignature:"Kavitha Palaniappan and Pamela McCauley",publishedDate:"August 25th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9532.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4263,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 8th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 29th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 28th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 16th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 15th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"311189",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavitha",middleName:null,surname:"Palaniappan",slug:"kavitha-palaniappan",fullName:"Kavitha Palaniappan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311189/images/system/311189.jpg",biography:"Associate Professor Dr. Kavitha Palaniappan is the academic director at Newcastle Australia Institute of Higher Education (Singapore), a wholly-owned entity of the University of Newcastle, Australia. She teaches the program of Bachelor of Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (BEnvOHS). Apart from teaching, Dr. Palaniappan is also actively involved in multi-disciplinary research, including the prevalence of psychosocial illnesses and their impacts on society, economy and country. She also researches alternative therapies to enhance sleep, yoga and its health benefits, the toxicity of nanomaterials, exposure measurements and hygiene requirements for nano-titanium dioxide, exposure to nano-silver in mattresses and beddings and their health effects, associations between seasonal patterns, climate variables, and dengue risks in Singapore. She is a graduate member of the Institution of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH).",institutionString:"Duke-NUS Medical School",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Duke NUS Graduate Medical School",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Singapore"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"141524",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"McCauley",slug:"pamela-mccauley",fullName:"Pamela McCauley",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRBOsQAO/Profile_Picture_1627892909877",biography:"Dr. Pamela McCauley is Associate Dean for Academic Programs, Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in the Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University. She is an internationally recognized industrial engineering researcher in the development of mathematical models, ergonomics, biomechanics, and leadership in STEM. Dr. McCauley served as the director of the Ergonomics Laboratory in the Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Central Florida, and as the program director for the National Science Foundation, Computer Information Science and Engineering Directorate’s I-Corps Program. She previously held the position of Martin Luther King, Jr. Visiting Associate Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). She has written more than 100 technical publications, an internationally used ergonomics textbook, and books on STEM leadership.",institutionString:"North Carolina State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"North Carolina State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1133",title:"Occupational Safety and Health",slug:"medicine-public-health-occupational-safety-and-health"}],chapters:[{id:"75688",title:"The Importance of Exposure Assessment in Blue Collar Jobs: Construction as an Example",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96678",slug:"the-importance-of-exposure-assessment-in-blue-collar-jobs-construction-as-an-example",totalDownloads:209,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Exposure to musculoskeletal disorder (MSDs) risk factors are not only common but also omnipresent in almost every workplace. The purpose of this chapter is to describe how we can attempt to reduce the exposure to the risk factor in order to attain a reduction in negative physiological outcomes (like injuries and illnesses). Blue collar jobs are often subject to heavy manual handling and intervening these jobs with any new technique is burdensome. This chapter gives the example of construction job as a blue collar and hard to reach job in which an intervention was implemented in a systematic way.",signatures:"Priyadarshini Dasgupta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75688",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75688",authors:[{id:"335748",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"priyadarshini",surname:"dasgupta",slug:"priyadarshini-dasgupta",fullName:"priyadarshini dasgupta"}],corrections:null},{id:"74038",title:"Occupational Health Hazards Associated with Nigerian Fisheries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94205",slug:"occupational-health-hazards-associated-with-nigerian-fisheries",totalDownloads:442,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fisheries constitute an important component of Nigeria’s agriculture sector contributing meaningfully to the socio-economic development of the nation in terms of employment generation, source of high quality animal protein, and foreign exchange earnings. Despite its significance, fisheries like other agricultural-related activities are not without inherent occupational hazards. The aim of the authors was to review literature on the occupational health hazards associated with the Nigerian fisheries. This was done by specifically reviewing literatures on the linkages between occupational health and sustainable development, overview of occupational hazards, fisheries in Nigeria, and occupational hazards in fisheries with empirical evidences from Nigeria. Based on our review, it was concluded that fisheries like other components of agriculture is a very risky venture which can lead to severe injuries and eventual death if workers’ health is not protected and promoted within the industry. It was recommended that occupational health and safety should be promoted within the different value chains of fisheries.",signatures:"Olalekan Jacob Olaoye and Wahab Gbenga Ojebiyi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74038",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74038",authors:[{id:"234929",title:"Dr.",name:"Olalekan",surname:"Olaoye",slug:"olalekan-olaoye",fullName:"Olalekan Olaoye"},{id:"239512",title:"Dr.",name:"Wahab",surname:"Ojebiyi",slug:"wahab-ojebiyi",fullName:"Wahab Ojebiyi"}],corrections:null},{id:"73571",title:"Occupational Health and Safety Standards of Foreign Seasonal Farm Workers: Evaluation of Personal Protection Measures, Policies and Practices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94056",slug:"occupational-health-and-safety-standards-of-foreign-seasonal-farm-workers-evaluation-of-personal-pro",totalDownloads:380,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Health and safety standards are paramount to all agricultural workers and more so to the foreign seasonal farm workers. European, North American and Oceanic agricultural sector heavily depends on the foreign workers migrating temporarily to carryout seasonal agricultural work that are not attractive to local citizens. The aim of this chapter is to critically analyze existing workplace health and safety measures, policies and practices of Foreign agricultural workers with a secondary focus on Canadian public health standards that applies to COVID-19 pandemic control and beyond. During the pandemic, many countries opened international labour migration as a measure of economic recovery. Recent news media reported two Caribbean workers in the Canadian Agricultural sector, had died of COVID-19 complications. The basis of this chapter is the research based evidence that the author carried out on occupational health and safety standards of the population of foreign seasonal farm workers using a multi-method data collection: a scoping review of existing standards, policies and practices and personal interviews with seasonal agricultural workers and their employers. This chapter provides a critical analysis of data from multiple sources and from multiple jurisdictions to uncover gaps and malpractices of existing occupational health and safety practice standards for illness and injury prevention of foreign seasonal farm workers.",signatures:"Swarna Weerasinghe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73571",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73571",authors:[{id:"323596",title:"Prof.",name:"Swarna",surname:"Weerasinghe",slug:"swarna-weerasinghe",fullName:"Swarna Weerasinghe"}],corrections:null},{id:"77325",title:"A Review of Ergonomic Evaluation of Occupational Hazard of Indian Agriculture Farm and Allied Activities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98705",slug:"a-review-of-ergonomic-evaluation-of-occupational-hazard-of-indian-agriculture-farm-and-allied-activi",totalDownloads:168,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Women in India are the major workforce in agriculture and perform almost all the agricultural activities. Women constitute 25.51% of the total work force in the country. The rural women play a vital role in agriculture and other agro based processing activities. They spent more time on post-harvest activities than those pre-harvest activities. Environmental and occupational health issues among agricultural workers expressed high levels of concern about working in hot weather, agricultural injuries, pesticides, awkward posture and drudgery prone activities. User Eco-friendly tools can increase the working efficiency and reduce the working load health hazards on farm activities during agricultural activities.",signatures:"Surendra Prasad Tripathi, Surya Pratap Singh Somvanshi, Shyam Ranjan Kumar Singh and Anupam Mishra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77325",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77325",authors:[{id:"324682",title:"Dr.",name:"Surya Pratap Singh",surname:"Somvanshi",slug:"surya-pratap-singh-somvanshi",fullName:"Surya Pratap Singh Somvanshi"},{id:"348199",title:"Dr.",name:"Surendra Prasad",surname:"Tripathi",slug:"surendra-prasad-tripathi",fullName:"Surendra Prasad Tripathi"},{id:"348201",title:"Dr.",name:"Srk",surname:"Singh",slug:"srk-singh",fullName:"Srk Singh"},{id:"348202",title:"Dr.",name:"Anupam",surname:"Mishra",slug:"anupam-mishra",fullName:"Anupam Mishra"}],corrections:null},{id:"77390",title:"Ergonomic Evaluation of Thermal Stress in a Tunisian Steel Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98697",slug:"ergonomic-evaluation-of-thermal-stress-in-a-tunisian-steel-industry",totalDownloads:143,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This work aims to assess thermal stress based on the various measurable thermal stress parameters (wet bulb temperature, air speed, radiation temperature, black globe temperature…). A cross-sectional study was carried in a steel company. The evaluation of thermal stress was made by physical parameters measurment (air temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, globe temperature, clothing insulation, metabolism of work) and analyzed according to the International Standard Organization (ISO) 7933 “Analytical determination and interpretation of heat stress using calculation of the predicted heat strain”. Eighty male workers were mean ageed of 37.9 ± 9.25 years. The climatic conditions category was three (meaning a Long-term stress) in 68.18% of the workers and four (Short-term stress meaning the occurrence of health problems within 30 to 120 minutes of exposure) in 30.3% of workers. The long and short-term thermal stress identified in this study spearhead a prevention strategy (automation of manufacturing processes, improvement of the organization of tasks, and the strengthening of medical surveillance of workers).",signatures:"Amira Omrane, Taoufik Khalfallah and Lamia Bouzgarrou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77390",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77390",authors:[{id:"299581",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",surname:"Omrane",slug:"amira-omrane",fullName:"Amira Omrane"},{id:"344167",title:"Dr.",name:"Taoufik",surname:"Khalfallah",slug:"taoufik-khalfallah",fullName:"Taoufik Khalfallah"},{id:"344169",title:"Dr.",name:"Lamia",surname:"Bouzgarrou",slug:"lamia-bouzgarrou",fullName:"Lamia Bouzgarrou"}],corrections:null},{id:"74432",title:"Responsiveness of Occupational Health Risk and Preventive Measures Practice by the Workers Employed in Tannery Occupation in Kanpur, India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95110",slug:"responsiveness-of-occupational-health-risk-and-preventive-measures-practice-by-the-workers-employed-",totalDownloads:317,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Occupational health covers all aspects of health and safety in the workplace and has a strong focus on primary prevention of hazards. The objective of the study was to understand the extent of awareness about occupational health risks involved in tannery occupation and adopted preventive measures by the tannery workers of Kanpur, India. Information for the present research was strained from a cross-sectional household study of tannery workers in the Jajmau area of Kanpur. The survey was piloted through the period January–June 2015, and 284 samples were collected. The prevalence of awareness of tannery work is very hazardous in nature varies from 73–93% among the tannery workers. Tannery workers having a middle-school level of education were 3.01 times more likely to be aware of the hazards as compared to the illiterate workers. Tannery workers aged 36 and above were less likely to aware of a hazardous work environment. Further, tannery workers who belong to the younger cohort (16–24 years) reported a higher awareness of respiratory problems (38%), skin complaints (59%), and gastrointestinal issues (21%) than those aged 36 years and above. About one-third of Beam house workers (33%) and over a quarter (26%) of the wet finishing had moderate to high dermal contact with the chemicals. The study’s outcomes give a clear indication of the effect of the workstation environment on the health status of workers and require the use of adequate measures to improve the facilities and thereby the health status of tannery workers.",signatures:"Gyan Chandra Kashyap, Praveen Chokhandre and Shri Kant Singh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74432",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74432",authors:[{id:"323648",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Gyan",surname:"Kashyap",slug:"gyan-kashyap",fullName:"Gyan Kashyap"},{id:"323652",title:"Dr.",name:"Praveen",surname:"Chokhandre",slug:"praveen-chokhandre",fullName:"Praveen Chokhandre"},{id:"323653",title:"Prof.",name:"Shri Kant",surname:"Singh",slug:"shri-kant-singh",fullName:"Shri Kant Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"73566",title:"Muscle Health: The Gateway to Population Health Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94058",slug:"muscle-health-the-gateway-to-population-health-management",totalDownloads:492,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The muscle on your frame is a prime indicator of health and longevity. Dr. Paul Terpeluk with the Cleveland Clinic has stated that muscular strength is the new vital sign of workplace health and safety. Research studies focusing on Type II diabetes, cardiovascular disease, musculo-skeletal injuries, certain cancers and the delay of dementia have shown a strong correlation between disease prevention and muscular strength. IPCS’ database of over 500,000 strength tests have shown a workers’ absolute strength today is at least 14% weaker than the worker 15 years ago and weighs about 8 pounds more. Over the last 10 years, there has been a significant shift by 52% with an increase in the number of workers with a BMI of 35 or greater. The Cleveland Clinic implemented a new hire muscular strength assessment to place new hire applicants into jobs that match their physical capability in 2011. The outcomes show a statistically significant reduction in number of employee health, pharmacy and workers’ compensation claims and costs with overall savings near $25 million. Musculo-skeletal health of the worker can be improved. When a worker maintains good muscular strength, the worker is more productive, has fewer medical claims and workers’ compensation claims.",signatures:"Thomas Gilliam and Paul Terpeluk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73566",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73566",authors:[{id:"324388",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Gilliam",slug:"thomas-gilliam",fullName:"Thomas Gilliam"},{id:"330502",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",surname:"Terpeluk",slug:"paul-terpeluk",fullName:"Paul Terpeluk"}],corrections:null},{id:"73442",title:"Physiological Stress Responses Associated with High-Risk Occupational Duties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93943",slug:"physiological-stress-responses-associated-with-high-risk-occupational-duties",totalDownloads:445,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Occupational stress is a pervasive problem that is relevant across the world. Stress, in combination with occupational hazards, may pose additive risks for health and wellbeing. This chapter discusses the influence of physical and psychosocial stressors on basal cortisol regulation as associated with higher-risk occupational duties among two subspecialties of police officers (frontline and special tactical unit officers). Results reveal significant differences in dysregulated cortisol awakening response associated with the higher risk duties among special tactical unit officers. In contrast, frontline officers with a lower objective occupational risk profiles report higher subjective stress levels. Dysregulated or maladaptive cortisol levels are associated with increased health risk. Thus, individuals working in high stress occupations with elevated cortisol profiles may be at increased risk of chronic health conditions. Results suggest that considering both objective physiological markers and subjective reports of stress are dually important aspects in designing interventions for police officers of differing subspecialties.",signatures:"Jennifer F. Chan and Judith P. Andersen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73442",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73442",authors:[{id:"325297",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Judith",surname:"Andersen",slug:"judith-andersen",fullName:"Judith Andersen"},{id:"325684",title:"MSc.",name:"Jennifer F.",surname:"Chan",slug:"jennifer-f.-chan",fullName:"Jennifer F. Chan"}],corrections:null},{id:"73286",title:"Modeling the Factors That Affect Work Accidents with Binary Logistic Regression: Evidence from Turkey",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93872",slug:"modeling-the-factors-that-affect-work-accidents-with-binary-logistic-regression-evidence-from-turkey",totalDownloads:464,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Work accidents remain important worldwide. Work accidents and diseases influence the whole country economically, socially, and psychologically. The aim of this study was to determine the socio-demographic and economic factors that were influential for individuals in Turkey who experienced work accidents resulting in injuries. In this study, the Turkey Health Survey microdata set conducted by the Turkish Statistical Institute was employed including data from 35,019 employees who participated in the survey between 2008 and 2016. The factors affecting individuals’ work accidents were determined by binary logistic regression analysis. According to analysis results, it was determined that the variables of gender, age, education, occupation, health, psycho-social support/being depressed, and use of alcohol have an impact on individuals having work accidents. Methods such as young employees receiving a good education, individuals completing their education before starting working, early intervention in diseases by regular employee check-ups, the reduction of stress in employees’ working life, reduction of the negative effects of the job environment on employees, preservation of a healthy work-life balance, and supporting employees in their attempt to give up various bad habits such as smoking through rehabilitation can play significant roles in reducing work accidents.",signatures:"Ömer Alkan and Sena Gültekin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73286",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73286",authors:[{id:"323586",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ömer",surname:"Alkan",slug:"omer-alkan",fullName:"Ömer Alkan"},{id:"329805",title:"Ms.",name:"Sena",surname:"Gültekin",slug:"sena-gultekin",fullName:"Sena Gültekin"}],corrections:null},{id:"73377",title:"Occupational Heat Stress: A Technical Scan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93900",slug:"occupational-heat-stress-a-technical-scan",totalDownloads:296,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The trouble for every person is to competently interact with his/her environmental variables. India being a tropical country will have a huge impact on individuals’ health as a result of this global warming. Workers who are working in a hot environment pose an extra risk as they are exposed to additional heat in the workplace. The diversity in Indian climatic systems necessitates scientific study in different regions of the country. Methods to quantify the heat strain vary in different countries & different professional groups. Most of the previous studies on assessing the health effects have been conducted on simulation settings rather than actual field settings. Research in occupational heat stress is much needed to find out the health impacts and suitable intervention to protect workers health which subsequently reduces the morbidity.",signatures:"Krishnan Srinivasan, Smisha Mohan and Jeneth Berlin Raj T",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73377",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73377",authors:[{id:"298510",title:"Dr.",name:"Krishnan",surname:"Srinivasan",slug:"krishnan-srinivasan",fullName:"Krishnan Srinivasan"},{id:"324751",title:"Dr.",name:"Smisha",surname:"Mohan",slug:"smisha-mohan",fullName:"Smisha Mohan"},{id:"331118",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeneth Berlin Raj",surname:"T",slug:"jeneth-berlin-raj-t",fullName:"Jeneth Berlin Raj T"}],corrections:null},{id:"76856",title:"Managing Inter-Organizational Knowledge Sharing: Integrating Macro, Meso and Micro Level Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97830",slug:"managing-inter-organizational-knowledge-sharing-integrating-macro-meso-and-micro-level-analysis",totalDownloads:155,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Numerous studies focus on the increasing role that cooperation plays on knowledge creation and the importance of knowledge diversity. However, in dealing with different background, culture, process, and knowledge throughout collaborative project, organizations must improve their practices to access, share and create knowledge. This paper aims at highlighting the complexity of interfirm collaborative projects while analyzing how different factors bolster knowledge sharing between partners depend on project phases. This work supports literature on interactionist approaches and project management to analyze these concepts of collaboration and knowledge sharing. Based on case study of an aerospace cluster, the findings highlight the factors that may enhances the effectiveness of knowledge sharing depend on project phases. We conclude by identifying further conceptual research and implication for research and practice.",signatures:"Chiraz Guedda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76856",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76856",authors:[{id:"329855",title:"Dr.",name:"Chiraz",surname:"Guedda",slug:"chiraz-guedda",fullName:"Chiraz Guedda"}],corrections:null},{id:"74570",title:"Quality of Life in Employee with Workaholism",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95353",slug:"quality-of-life-in-employee-with-workaholism",totalDownloads:479,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Workaholism has been a growing issue among the labour force worldwide. However, there is no consensus between scholars about its definition yet. It might be described as “being overly concerned about work, driven by a strong and uncontrollable desire to work, and spending so much energy and effort on work that it impairs private relationships, personal hobbies/activities, and/or health”. Generally, people with specific personality traits may have an increased chance of developing workaholism. In addition, there are other factors, such as sociocultural characteristics, relationships with colleagues and significant others, and organizational culture might also play an important influence on developing workaholism. It causes many physical and psychological health problems, such as high blood pressure, anxiety, depression, and family and lifestyle dissatisfaction, and a reduction in job satisfaction, presenteeism, and motivation. Putting all of this together, it is clear that workaholism has a negative influence on employees’ quality of life and overall well-being. Therefore, this study aimed at examining a variety of approaches to define “workaholism” in related literature, defining its etiology, related factors, outcomes, prevention, and treatment. The PubMed/Medline database was also used for related studies that were published in English. “Workaholism”, “obsessive–compulsive behavior”, and “quality of health” were used as keywords. It is crucial to take action to prevent people from becoming workaholics. 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A vehicular noise is the resultant of the vibrating body of the vehicle plus its engine operating sound [2]. Noise has different types including impulsive noise, continuous noise, intermittent noise and low frequency noise. All above mentioned types of noise are dangerous to human and animals if their limits are exceeded [3]. Noise affects people so badly that at some places policy makers were compelled to said that there should be restrictions on noisy vehicles for reducing noise pollution as in New Delhi, India [4] and Guangzhou district, China [5]. Noise is a common problem in urban areas as compared to the villages because of the mechanization and more vehicles on the road [6, 7]. All types of noise altogether affect the same irrespective of the sources and cause headache to the high blood pressure and other heart diseases [8]. Some noise types like aircraft and train noise also has the negative effects on property prices [9, 10]. The noises from cracks in a refrigerator, fan and air conditioner affects evenly as a loud noise of train or aircraft because of its continuity. These results were obtained by a study that the noises in household appliances operations are one of the main sources of noise [11]. It is one of the big problems in industrial areas. It is produced from mechanical operations, transportation vehicles and different sirens within the industry [12]. Noise also disturbs mining worker and their operations [13]. Due to this noise, workers face different health issues including hearing loss, dizziness, headaches, high blood pressure and anxiety [14, 15]. It is a fact that noise in the vicinity of airports is a public health issue and its exposure affect sleep quality, restlessness and headache [16]. This noise also increases vascular and cerebral oxidative stress and triggers vascular dysfunction [17, 18]. In addition to the above, cargo ships are also the source of nuisance and sleep disturbance. However, these are usually not sources of noise as they affect only small communities living in harbors [19]. Low frequency noise is also included in the noise types and effects humans by annoyance and sleep disturbances [20]. Migraines, tinnitus, nausea, sleep disorders, insomnia, quality of life and minor stress strokes are the result of low frequency noise [21]. Household and community noise is also a health issue. As we live in houses for the major part of the day and we are exposed continuously to different noise types like lawn mower noise, dogs barking, kitchen grinder operation and sound systems/television which seems dangerous. It is given in the documented form that there is an association with several diseases and the growing number of exposed persons all over the world with this type of noise. The effects are ranged from cardiovascular diseases to metabolic disorders [22, 23]. It also has impacts on animals including frogs to the whales and elephants by affecting their reproduction, communication within and with environmental factors, habitat loss and even death [24], and plays important role in geographical distribution of these animals [25].
From all above discussion, it can be clearly seen that health effects of the noise are common as hypertension, myocardial infarction, stroke, mortality, dizziness, high blood pressure and cognitive diseases, irrespective of the noise sources, suggesting the control of all the noise sources [26]. To control the noise, different methods and equipment are made to control or minimize noise from different places like hospitals, educational institutions and workplaces [27]. Adaptive noise control, [28], active noise control, [29], shelter belts [30], equipment and home insulations [31] and active vibration noise control devices are made for this purpose and to reduce the risks of noise [32].
Noise pollution has many sources of which the traffic noise could be a major source. Other types include community noise, household, industrial, aircraft and ships noise [33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41].
Traffic noise, as depicted by the name, is the noise originated from the traffic vehicles specially the old vehicles with no maintenance and those vehicles which have not been physically cleared to be driven on the roads. Heavy traffic vehicles also contribute in noise generation due to their heavy engines and load [42, 43]. Traffic noise represents the important environmental risk factors in mechanized areas [44] and it is one of the fastest growing and most ubiquitous types of environmental pollution [1]. It is associated with high blood pressure, but the long-term impact may lead to hospitalization and rare chances of death. In a study among London’s 8.6 million residents, traffic noise was associated with cardiovascular defects in all adults (≥25 years) and the elderly (≥75 years). It shows that long-term exposure to road traffic noise increases the risk of death and the risk of cardiovascular disease in the population [45].
Different commercial activities like transportation of goods from one place to other using ships and heavy trucks create considerable noise in the respective areas. Ocean noise levels are increasing as a result of major growth in global trading activities which shows that if this activity continued to grow, which is by 1.9% each year, the contribution of commercial shipping to ambient ocean noise levels will be expected to intensely increase [46]. In addition to the ships, commercial aircrafts are also contributors in commercial and industrial noise. The main source of noise in aircrafts is the engine which generates more noise if the load on it is more [47, 48]. It is a well-known fact that all the machines produce noise and it is called as industrial noise. Different industries have different machinery like textile industry, wood industry and steel mills [49].
To assess the industrial noise effects on workers, all the workers of an industry in Jordan were included in a study. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data. Results revealed that out of total 191 workers, 145 (exposed to higher noise levels) had the issues of hypertension compared to those exposed to noise level lower than the permissible limit indicating that exposure to high level of noise is associated with elevated health risks [50].
Community noise comprised of the noise during a match in the ground, traffic vehicle noise during waste collection, children playing in the streets, dogs barking, and noise during parties [51]. Musical instruments being played can also be a source of noise for someone not interested in music [52, 53]. One study assessed the noise and noise sensitivity of 364 adults living in the South African community and compared them with similar studies conducted in Switzerland. Compared to Swiss research, the proportion of people with high levels of noise sensitivity is higher (women: 35.1% vs. 26.9%, men: 25% vs. 20.5%), people are very angry about road traffic noise (women: 20, 5% compared to 12.4%; male: 17.9% vs. 11.1% were observed in South Africa). Although women in South Africa are more averse to community noise than Switzerland (21.1% vs. 9.4%), this is not the case for men (7.1% vs. 7.8%), suggesting that the noise pollution can seriously affect the inhabitants of the population noise [54].
Airplanes such as army, navy and commercial aircraft are noise sources [55]. Airplanes, including army, naval and commercial aircraft, have become one of the most important environmental factors in terms of noise, and industry has identified much of their efforts and concerns. Noise abatement is the focus of modern research and development. Too much noise obviously damages our physical and mental health, so it makes sense to make a technical assessment of the noisy technology. Conflicts of interest in connection with aircraft noise are known. Propeller aircraft are the dominant noise. Many factors that contribute to the sound field in the propeller aircraft lead to extensive research to identify and improve the internal noise reduction techniques as noise sources [56].
Anthropogenic noise is now considered a global problem, and recent research has shown that many animals have a multitude of negative effects. Marine underwater noise is increasingly considered an important and omnipresent pollutant that can affect marine ecosystems globally [57]. Ships and sea vessels are the source of this noise. Noise exposure varies markedly between the sites according to the number of the ships and sea vessels [58]. Due to the shipping noise, marine mammals and other marine life is vulnerable to be at risk as they require relatively quiet place to live but shipping noise could have substantial impacts on them and cause migration [59] (Figure 1).
Different noise sources.
Noise has different types according to the intensity, duration and frequency as continuous noise, intermittent noise, impulsive noise and low frequency noise.
Continuous noise means the same noise frequency, intensity and quantity which is supplied to people and workers for longer periods of time like machinery operation in textile industry has the same amount, frequency and intensity for 6–8 hours of a working shift [60]. It is the noise which affects the industrial workers health badly by causing headaches to high blood pressure and other heart problems [61].
Noise which can occur at regular or irregular intervals is intermittent. This type of noise includes all the traffic vehicles noise and community noise as these are not the regular and continuously produced and varies with source [62, 63, 64, 65].
This type of noise is produced instantly and reduced in the same way. Its types include ticking of clock, striking of hammer on something, water drops falling from height, and all the other noises in impulse forms. This type of noise also disturbs communication between people, induces stress, and anxiety in experimental population [66]. Mitigation of impulsive noise is extensively studied in wireline, wireless radio, and powerline communication systems [3, 67, 68].
Low frequency noise is common with background noise in urban environments and comes from road vehicles, aircraft, industrial machinery, artillery and mining explosions, wind turbines, compressors and ventilation or air conditioning systems. The effects of low-frequency noise are worrying because they are universal (effective propagation) compared to many structures, and many structures (home, wall and hearing protection) are less effective at attenuating low-frequency noise than other sounds. Intense low-frequency sounds seem to produce obvious symptoms, including respiratory disorders and hearing pain. Although it is difficult to determine the effect of low-frequency noise for methodological reasons, there are indications that some of the adverse effects of noise are usually due to low-frequency noise: loudness ratings and disturbing responses are sometimes given for equal sound pressure levels. Low frequency noises are greater than other noises, hum or vibration caused by low frequency noise amplify problems, and speech intelligibility can be reduced by low frequency noise more than other sounds, except for noise in the frequency range of the speech itself due to the upward propagation of the masking [69, 70, 71, 72] (Table 1).
No. | Category/Area | In 1st July 2010 | From 1st July 2013 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Limits in (dB) | |||||
Day time | Night time | Day time | Night time | ||
1 | Residential area | 65 | 50 | 55 | 45 |
2 | Commercial area | 70 | 60 | 65 | 55 |
3 | Industrial area | 80 | 75 | 75 | 65 |
4 | Silence zone | 55 | 45 | 50 | 45 |
Noise level limits in different categorized areas of the city (Pakistan).
In light of the in-depth studies presented in Table 2, it can be concluded that traffic accounts for 80% of the environmental impact of noise [73]. It is generally believed that deafness, high blood pressure, ischemic heart disease, discomfort and insomnia, as well as effects on the immune system, are the cause of the noise pollution. In addition to the above diseases, headaches, dizziness, sleeplessness, high blood pressure and hypertension are the common diseases caused by noise.
Traffic noise emissions consist of complex components, including horns, engine noise and tire friction. It is estimated that the noise pollution is affected by traffic noise [74], learning disabilities, loss of communication and lack of attention [75, 76]. Epidemiological studies have shown that traffic noise increases the frequency of arterial diseases, hypertension and strokes as well as vascular dysfunctions [77]. Non-hearing effects such as activity, sleep and communication disorders can trigger a range of emotional reactions, including nuisance and subsequent stress, increased blood pressure and dyslipidemia, increased blood viscosity and blood sugar, and activation of the blood coagulation factor [78, 79]. Due to noise pollution, also higher memory disturbances and oxidative stress were observed [80].
Occupational noise exposure to workers have adverse effects on workers’ health by increasing hypertension, sleep disturbance [81], cardiovascular diseases, blood pressure, hypertension [82, 83], exhaustion and overworking, mistakes performed in various operations due to noise disturbance [84], memory impairment [85], increased pulse rate [86], hearing loss and diabetes [87, 88].
Technology, modernization and residential complexes usually occur near the population, so that the resulting increase in noise is recorded. The environmental impact of noise is closely related to health consequences, including discomfort, sleep disorders and cardiovascular disease [89, 90]. In addition, noise can seriously damage communication, memory function and hearing [91].
Noise levels are steadily increasing worldwide and may potentially affect many animal species. Short-term exposure can affect the behavior and physiology of birds, reproductive system as birds avoid reproduction in noisy places [92]. Animals also suffer human like disabilities like hearing loss, loss in responsiveness, dizziness and disturbance [93]. Traffic noise reduced foraging efficiency in most bats [94]. Monkeys also live in noise free areas as exhibited by a study in which continuous noise was supplied in the habitat of the monkeys in Brazil, monkeys moved from that area to noise free area indicating that they also do not like noise [95]. Noise effects on wildlife have also been widely studied and results indicated that they also prefer to live away from noise like bears, wolves, ants, lions and larger animals like elephants and whales [96] (Table 2).
Sr. no. | Human health effects | Effects on animals | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Effects | References | Effects | References | |
1 | Headache | [97, 98] | Hearing loss | [99] |
2 | Dizziness | [100] | Increased heart rate | [101] |
3 | Annoyance | [102] | Increased risk of death | [103] |
4 | High blood pressure | [104] | Habitat loss | [105] |
5 | Hypertension | [106] | Trouble in finding prey | [107] |
6 | Hearing loss | [108] | Trouble in finding mates as in frogs | [109] |
7 | Depression | [110] | Impaired reproduction in marine mammals | [111] |
8 | Sleeplessness | [112] | Affects balance system of squid | [113] |
9 | Physiological Stress | [114] | ||
10 | Irritation | [115] | ||
11 | Difficulty in communication | [116] | ||
12 | Nervousness | [117] |
Noise induced health effects on humans and plants.
As it is widely discussed that noise has different negative effects on almost all the inhabitants of the planet, it is also one of the priorities that noise should be minimized to avoid the negative health impacts on the humans and animals. Due to its different sources, same technology cannot be used to address all types of noise. So, different technologies are adopted worldwide to overcome the noise impacts. Some of them are discussed below.
The incorporation of sustainable industrial planning and development cannot be achieved without proper addressing of the noise pollution. Despite the proven impacts of noise pollution on the worker’s health, there remains a lack of systematic methods to reduce the impacts of noise within the industries [118, 119]. One of the major advances have been recently demonstrated for the long-term noise minimizing technology from the Department of Defense, Australia to reduce the workplace exposure from military and industrial noise sources [120]. Application of personal protective equipment like ear plugs and ear mufflers are the general safety measures which are taken by the employer and workers themselves [121]. Sealing of the machinery by using rubber is also used to minimize the vibrations and noise of the machinery in some industries [122]. Glass industry is among the loudest noise producing industries and the workers in these industries are advised to use hearing protection equipment like ear plug or mufflers [123].
A recent technology called operating room technology is set up to address the occupational noise effects in which all the workers of the operating team are issued headsets with microphones. The headsets filter out background noise and the microphones enable interactive communication among and between [124].
Noise in residential areas is produced by traffic, celebration parties, loud music and playgrounds. Although the noise is a non-market good, the attempts of its evaluation have been increasing, usually by estimating the economic costs arising from exposure to noise, lost prices of property and medical expenses. It is estimated that plots located in the zone with noise exceedance the limits are 57% cheaper than those located in silent zone [125, 126]. The noise in the residential areas can be minimized by shifting to silent zones, using porous materials for house building or porous filters and planting hedges. In addition to this, some suggestion are also given by the authorities like exclusion of the traffic and train horn in or near residential areas, inclusion of noise barriers and removal of the railway tracks [127, 128, 129].
There is an urgent need to reduce commercial noise being increased day by day due to increased commercial activities [130, 131]. Noise in these areas can be controlled or minimized by limiting transportation activities in markets in daytime, limiting commercial aircraft flights or changing the flight time to night [132].
Problems related to environmental noise are not confined outside the hospitals, but it became a major issue in the hospitals too. It needs to be solved because silence and peace in hospitals is a major contributor in healing of the patients [133]. Noise pollution in the operating rooms is one of the remaining challenges. Both patients and physicians are exposed to different sound levels during the operative cases, many of which can last for hours. For noise monitoring and control, sound sensors can be installed in patient bed spaces, hallways, and common areas to measure the noise levels and its control accordingly [134, 135]. Reactive noise barriers can also be installed in hospital facilities [136]. As we know that noise is produced from vibration, friction, collision and shocks, so by avoiding these phenomena’s, we can avoid noise by using rubber and proper lubrication in machinery [137].
The learning environment dramatically affects the learning outcomes of students. Noise is a major factor which can distract students [138], induce attention loss and concentration difficulties, anxiety and headache [139]. To address these problem in educational institutions, traffic noise should be regulated, and traffic can be banned accordingly if found exceeding. School and college bus-stands should be away from the school and colleges. Educational institutions should not be established near the railway tracks, stations and airports [140, 141, 142].
There is a little difference between noise and a sound. A sound can be a noise when it is loud and intensive. Categorization of a sound and noise is also depending upon the choice of the listener and the circumstances. For example, rock music can be pleasurable sound to one person and could be an annoying noise to another person. Likewise, dog’s barking is not a noise, but when it becomes continuous and disturbs people, it can be regarded as noise.
Noise has different sources and it can cause hearing loss, dizziness, heat diseases, headaches, high blood pressure, hypertension and nausea based upon the its intensity. To control environmental noise, different techniques and equipment are used according to the situation and requirement. In industries, ear plugs, and mufflers are used, rubber sealing and noise sensors are used in hospitals and shelter belts are used in residential areas for protection against adverse effects of noise. For future, it is necessary to work on reducing the vehicular sources of environmental noise by developing low noise producing automobile vehicles, aircrafts and ships.
The authors are highly acknowledged to Mr. Junaid Latif and Mr. Waqas Mohy Ud Din for their precious time given to review this manuscript.
The authors declared no conflict of interest for this chapter’s publishing.
Physical exercise is recognized as a highly effective non-pharmaceutical intervention for a range of health conditions in humans. In the first instance, systematic review evidence (comprising millions of participants) has indicated that engagement in regular physical exercise is associated with a reduced risk for all-cause mortality, and in a dose-response manner [1]. Furthermore, it also has important benefits in the prevention and treatment of a range of chronic metabolic conditions [1], such as cardiovascular disease [2], diabetes [3], and cancer [4]. The benefits of regular physical exercise are not restricted solely to metabolic diseases, however. The whole-body homeostatic perturbations brought about by exercise-induced stress also encompass the central nervous system, skeletal muscle, skin, oxygen transport processes, and hepatic function [5]. An important observation is that the relationships between physical activity and health outcomes tend to be curvilinear, in that clinically relevant health benefits can be obtained from relatively little amounts of physical activity [1].
Despite its wide-ranging, multifaceted, and complex health benefits, almost one third of the global population over 15 years of age fails to meet the minimum prescription of physical exercise to obtain worthwhile health benefits [6]. In the United States, 8.3% (95% confidence interval: 6.4–10.2) of deaths have been attributed to inadequate levels of physical activity [7], a sobering statistic when considering the modifiable nature of this risk factor [8]. Yet more worrisome is the growing trend towards increasing sedentary behaviors (i.e., sitting time, computer use) over the previous decade [9, 10]; a fact made all the more severe by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and its associated government-mandated lockdown measures to protect public health [11]. Despite the seemingly global trend towards increased sedentariness and inadequate physical activity, impracticalities exist with regards to mandating an entire community, country, and/or global population to optimize their exercise habits [12]. It must also be noted that certain populations may not be able to engage in physical exercise due to injury, disease, or age-associated frailty, and thus would benefit from alternative solutions [13].
The potent effects of regular physical exercise on numerous important domains of human health have given rise to the notion of pharmacological compounds that mimic, or enhance, these effects. Such ‘exercise mimetics’ or ‘exercise pills’ have been touted as a potential, but not entirely probable, therapeutic solution [12, 14] for an otherwise challenging and ongoing public health problem. Although exercise brings about a range of physiological benefits to human health, compliance is often low and in certain groups may not be possible [15]. In recent decades, our understanding of the molecular determinants and physiological processes involved in exercise has improved at an alarming rate. This work has led to the emergence of chemical interventions that can induce the beneficial aspects of exercise, without necessitating actual skeletal muscle activity [15]. Such pharmacologic interventions may represent a viable strategy for addressing metabolic diseases associated with physical inactivity [16] or serve as an intermediary treatment for the morbidly obese or people recovering from serious injury [17]. The mechanistic basis for this supposition, and the opportunities and difficulties associated with such a strategy are the focal considerations of this chapter.
Skeletal muscle is the most abundant tissue in the human body, accounting for around 40% of total body weight, and is the most robustly activated organ in response to physical exercise [13]. In recent years, the effects of physical exercise on several molecular pathways and cellular targets in skeletal muscle have received significant attention. This investigative work has yielded numerous potential factors with relevance for ‘exercise mimetic’ applications in human health.
The repeated muscular contractions brought about during physical exercise activate numerous signaling pathways in skeletal muscle, one of which is the AMPK-SIRT1-PGC1α axis that plays a key role in skeletal muscle energy metabolism and mitochondrial biogenesis [13].
AMPK, or AMP-activated protein kinase, is a master regulator of energy homeostasis and metabolism within the cell. It is a heterotrimeric protein complex that comprises a catalytic subunit (α) and two regulatory subunits (β and γ) of which numerous isoforms exist [18]. AMPK integrates important signals from metabolic pathways and balances nutrient availability with energy demand. During exercise, muscle contractions deplete adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which reduces the ATP:AMP and ATP:ADP ratios within the cell, subsequently activating AMPK [19]. In skeletal muscle, the activation of AMPK induces a switch from anabolic cellular metabolism to a catabolic state of metabolism, blocking energy-consuming activities and promoting the synthesis of ATP from fatty acid oxidation, glycosylation, and glucose uptake [13]. These effects are mediated acutely by direct phosphorylation of metabolic targets, whereas a more chronic effect is brought about by gene transcription [13]. Inactivation of AMPK in skeletal muscle leads to the loss of oxidative fibers, suppressed fat metabolism, and impaired mitochondrial biogenesis [20].
Exercise is perhaps the most prominent physiological activator of AMPK in skeletal muscle. Acutely, exercise intensities above 60% of maximal aerobic capacity can induce AMPK activation, as can lower intensities of a prolonged duration [21]. Given its ‘global’ role as a regulator of cellular energy stress in response to environmental factors such as caloric restriction, physical exercise, and metabolic disease [22], AMPK has garnered substantial attention. It continues to represent a promising potential target for pharmaceutical intervention, particularly when considering its interactions with other effectors.
Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) is a central regulator of metabolic processes in response to energy availability, and is primarily localized in the nucleus [23]. It is responsive to NAD+ to NADH concentrations, and thus cellular energy availability, through its activation by AMPK [20], and it also senses changes in intracellular redox state [13, 23]. The activation of SIRT1 deacetylates and activates peroxisome proliferator-activated gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC1-α), upregulating its specific activity as a transcription factor on genes related to mitochondrial respiration and fatty acid metabolism [13, 24]. In conditions of overexpression or knock-out however, there is evidence to suggest that SIRT1 can also serve as a PGC1-α inhibitor, thus reducing mitochondrial activity [13]. In addition, during low nutrient availability, SIRT1 induces a shift in cellular metabolism towards fatty acid oxidation due to the scarcity of glucose [23]. SIRT1 helps to support cellular energy balance by inducing catabolic processes while inhibiting anabolic processes, thus maintaining energy homeostasis [23].
Physical exercise, specifically high-intensity interval training, has been shown to elevate SIRT1 activity in human skeletal muscle, and this was also associated with mitochondrial biogenesis [25]. Moreover, chronic exercise results in systemic adaptations that increase the levels of SIRT1 expression in the kidney, liver and brain in patients with neurodegenerative diseases, normalizing cellular processes and decreasing disease severity [26]. Defects in the pathways mediated in part by SIRT1 are known to lead to numerous metabolic disorders. Therefore, given the potential benefits of exercise-associated activation of SIRT1 for health and disease, the pharmacological manipulation of this target might elicit multiple benefits, and as such remains an area of focused attention.
PGC1-α plays an integral role in cellular metabolism, serving as a co-activator of a vast range of downstream transcriptional factors and effectors involved in fatty acid oxidation and mitochondrial biogenesis [13]. In skeletal muscle, PGC1-α is activated by endurance exercise-mediated stimulation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) [13], subsequently enhancing mitochondrial biogenesis. Importantly, both acute and chronic physical exercise robustly increase the mRNA expression of PGC1-α in rodent muscle, therefore underscoring its importance in exercise training adaptations [20]. PGC1-α mediates the remodeling of skeletal muscle towards a more metabolically oxidative and less glycolytic fiber-type composition [27]. In muscle-specific PGC1-α knock-out models, impaired endurance, abnormal fiber composition, and inconsistent mitochondrial gene regulation have been documented [13], thus reinforcing the indispensable role of PGC1-α in exercise-mediated adaptations. It has also been posited that PGC1-α is a key factor in metabolic disorders, such as diabetes, obesity, and cardiomyopathy. These notions, allied to its regulatory action in lipid metabolism, make PGC1-α a potentially attractive target for pharmacological intervention [27].
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) is a nuclear hormone receptor that transcriptionally regulates over 100 genes, playing a vital role in many biological processes [13], particularly those relating to energy balance [28] and fatty acid oxidation [29]. Although expressed abundantly in a range of metabolically active tissues, in skeletal muscle PPARδ is predominantly expressed in oxidative slow-twitch as opposed to glycolytic fast-twitch fibers. This expression is further induced by endurance-type exercise activity known to trigger an oxidative and/or slow-twitch phenotype [20]. Its role in skeletal muscle includes the regulation of slow/fast-twitch fibers, lipid metabolism, oxidative processes, mitochondrial biogenesis, weight reduction, impairment of liver gluconeogenesis, and management of inflammatory processes [13, 20]. In rodent models, muscle-specific activation of PPARδ has demonstrated ‘exercise-like’ effects, such as increasing running endurance and guarding against diet-induced obesity and type II diabetes [30]. Furthermore, ablation of PPARδ in skeletal muscle induces an age-dependent loss of oxidative muscle fibers, running endurance, and insulin sensitivity [31], thus further reinforcing the role of PPARδ in fiber type remodeling. The weight of this evidence has led to the assumption that PPARδ is a central transcriptional regulator of oxidative metabolism the slow-twitch phenotype [20] thus representing a major ‘exercise mimetic’ target of interest.
Estrogen-related receptors (ERRs) are key nuclear regulators in mitochondrial energy metabolism [29], with their transcriptional activity determined by co-factors such as PGC-1α. ERRα is expressed in a range of tissues with high energy turnover, including skeletal muscle. ERRγ has a similar expression pattern but is selectively expressed in tissues with high rates of oxidation such as brain, heart, and muscle [29]. When PGC-1α is induced, ERRα plays a major role in controlling the mitochondrial biogenic gene network; in its absence, the ability of PGC-1α to enhance the expression of mitochondrial genes is drastically reduced [29].
In skeletal muscle, ERRα is expressed in oxidative and glycolytic fibers, whereas ERRγ is expressed in oxidative fibers only [29, 32]. Notably, ERRγ regulates oxidative metabolism not just in skeletal muscle, but in other tissues as well [33], and is a key determinant of the oxidative muscle fiber phenotype [15]. As such, it is highly expressed in type I skeletal muscle fibers. In rodent models, when ERRγ is transgenically expressed in type II fibers, it induces metabolic and vascular adaptations, in the absence of exercise [32]. These adaptations include prominent vascularization, the secretion of proangiogenic factors, and an alarming increase in endurance performance of 100% [32]. Given these characteristics, ERRγ is a prominent target for exercise mimetics because of its direct regulation of genes associated with mitochondrial oxidation, however there is a paucity of research on the topic [12]. When applied ectopically in glycolytic fibers, ERRγ instigates a shift in fiber type from glycolytic to oxidative, inducing mitochondrial biogenesis and bring about increased vascularization [29].
The nuclear receptor REV-ERBα (also known as nuclear receptor subfamily 1 group D member 1 (NR1D1), is highly conserved across species and plays important roles in circadian rhythm and metabolism [33]. In skeletal muscle, REV-ERBα are prominently involved in the regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis, mitophagy, the promotion of an oxidative fiber type, and the processes underpinning a higher endurance capacity [34]. In rodents, muscle-specific ablation of REV-ERBα was shown to blunt the AMPK-SIRT1-PGC-1α signaling pathway, decrease mitochondrial density, reduce oxidative phosphorylation activity, and downregulate genes associated with fatty acid metabolism [34]. Conversely, overexpression of REV-ERBα in C2C12 cells activated these regulators of training adaptations, increased mitochondrial biogenesis and induced fatty acid metabolism genes [35]. REV-ERBα also appears to play a role in modulating muscle mass, with its deficiency leading to increased expression of atrophy genes, and overexpression leading to diminished atrophy genes and increased fiber size [36]. Therefore, REV-ERBα has been identified as a promising pharmacological target for exercise mimetic applications.
The attractive properties of physical exercise for human health have garnered fervent interest from the pharmaceutical industry in recent years, likely due to the large and untapped market of sedentary individuals that, for varying reasons, do not engage in sufficient physical exercise [37]. Chiefly, the development of novel therapeutic approaches to replicate an exercise-training phenotype [38] by activating selected molecular targets—so-called ‘exercise pills’ [15] or ‘exercise mimetics’—remains an area of substantial investment and effort. In using natural or synthetic compounds, it is possible to induce exercise-mimicking effects even in sedentary test animals [12], by activating molecular targets and genomic regulators such as those previously described. The foremost of these therapeutic approaches will now be discussed.
AICAR, or 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-D-ribofuranoside, is at the forefront of several ‘exercise-mimetic’ compounds developed to target AMPK, a master regulator of cellular and organismal metabolism [39]. It is a well-known adenosine analog that is intracellularly converted into ZMP, which directly associates with and allosterically stimulates AMPK [12, 22] in a time- and dose-dependent manner [40]. Acutely, AICAR activates AMPK to bring about an increase in fatty acid oxidation, whereas chronic AICAR treatment promotes skeletal muscle fiber type transition from fast- to slow-twitch, and increases the expression of enzymes associated with aerobic respiration [20]. This fiber type reorganization, in concert with mitochondrial biogenesis, has been shown to significantly increase exercise performance (by an unexpected 44%) in sedentary mice following AICAR administration alone [39]. AICAR also induces skeletal muscle glucose uptake by effecting the translocation of the GLUT4 receptor to the sarcolemma [22]. These findings highlight the potential of AICAR as a potential agent to address the insulin resistance seen in type II diabetes.
Metformin is a drug of the biguanide class known to function in an AMPK-dependent manner, and is one of the most broadly available antidiabetic agents presently available [22]. It represents a first line medication used to treat type II diabetes, and activates AMPK in the liver through inhibition of mitochondrial complex I, which concomitantly reduces cellular ATP generation [12]. The glucose-lowering action of metformin is at least partly mediated by the activation of AMPK [38]. Although the mode of activation is different, metformin activates AMPK in a similar manner to AICAR, and they both have similar roles in hepatic glucose production [13]. In diabetic patients, metformin can reduce blood pressure and also improve multiple cardiovascular risk factors in obese individuals [13]. It may also possess anti-inflammatory properties, the specifics of which are still being explored.
Resveratrol, a naturally occurring plant-derived polyphenol, is recognized as an activator of SIRT1 and AMPK [13, 22], but has multiple biological targets [20]. In yeast it has been shown to promote longevity, whereas in rodents this capacity is uncertain [33]. Although abundant in the human diet, resveratrol is perhaps most notably consumed in the seeds and skin of grapes [13]. It is highly lipophilic but has scarce bioavailability; nevertheless it is capable of extracellular, intracellular, and nuclear interactions [13]. Its role on the SIRT1-AMPK axis, as well as PGC1-α [38, 41], has received interest as a potential metabolism-regulating, ‘exercise mimetic’ compound. However, evidence in rodents is conflicting and it has been postulated that resveratrol might actually improve performance when used in synergy with exercise, rather than as a substitute [13]. In human clinical trials, resveratrol was shown to induce the expression of SIRT1 and AMPK in skeletal muscle, albeit in obese type II diabetic males [42]. From the perspective of exercise performance, resveratrol administration suppressed exercise-dependent improvements in aerobic respiration in aged inactive males, thus blunting the beneficial effects of training [43]. Therefore, further research is needed to cogently understand the mechanisms of action and optimal dose before it can be recommended in ‘exercise mimetic’ applications. It should also be noted that novel, more potent synthetic activators of SIRT1, such as SRT1720, have been developed that might represent promising candidates for application in a clinical setting [33], although research on these compounds is still in its infancy.
The compound GW501516 is a selective agonist of PPARδ, and was initially developed for possible beneficial applications in metabolic and cardiovascular diseases [13]. However, pre-clinical work in animals highlighted its carcinogenic effects in multiple organs and the compound was subsequently abandoned [44]. Nevertheless, numerous studies from the past decade have linked this drug with potential ‘exercise mimetic’ effects [39]. For instance, a metabolomic study in mice showed that GW501516 treatment enhanced exhaustive running endurance in both trained and untrained animals, by increasing the specific consumption of fatty acids and sparing blood glucose [45]. The expression of genes regulated by PPARδ, including PGC1-α and pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (PDK4) were also significantly increased following treatment, as were other markers of fatty acid metabolism in skeletal muscle. Importantly, in untrained mice the administration of GW501516 alone was sufficient to increase running endurance, even following just 1 week of provision. Similar findings have been previously reported, albeit without any benefits to endurance capacity, demonstrating that GW501516 establishes an endurance gene signature, sharing 50% of the gene expression pattern with exercise [39]. Elsewhere, GW501516 administration improved endurance function in a mouse model of myocardial infarction when compared to placebo, and preserved oxidative capacity and fatty acid metabolism [46]. Collectively, these findings suggest that the activation of PPARδ at least partially mimics the effects of exercise.
GSK4716 is a synthetic ERRγ agonist that can activate the receptor with a similar potency to that of its ligand PGC-1α [15, 47]. It robustly activates genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis, fatty acid oxidation, and the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) when used to treat primary muscle cells [12], and promotes an endurance-trained phenotype in mice [32]. However, there is a discrepancy between acute and chronic activation of ERRγ in ligand-treated primary muscle cells and transgenic animals, respectively [33]. Although GSK4716 has been heralded as a candidate ‘exercise pill’ [15], the aforementioned ‘exercise-mimicking’ effects have not been established
The synthetic REV-ERBα agonist SR9009 was developed at the Scripps Research Institute in 2012 and has been identified as an ‘exercise pill’ of promise [15]. A single injection of SR9009 brought about ‘exercise-like’ effects in rodents, such as enhanced mitochondrial activity and the induction of genes associated with fatty acid metabolism [34]. After 12 days, energy consumption was enhanced without changing the respiratory exchange ratio, and after 30 days mouse running performance was significantly prolonged. Despite these positive findings, REV-ERB independent effects on cell proliferation, metabolism and gene expression have been found in a double-ablation model [48]. Therefore, positive outcomes with respect to the physiological and molecular effects of exercise should be interpreted with a degree of caution. More importantly, SR9009 has not been approved for human use at the time of writing, however tests have been devised against its surreptitious use [49].
A pharmacological method of replicating the multifaceted and complex effects of physical exercise would no doubt be of value to populations that for whatever reason cannot engage in physical activity, such as people with disabilities, disease, frailty, or injury. For example, it might serve as an avenue towards reengaging with physical exercise after a severe injury, or a ‘stepping stone’ for individuals that are morbidly obese. However, there are several important considerations that need to be addressed.
There are inherent dangers in a ‘reductionist’ approach to exercise mimetics, as rodent knockout models have shown that no single ‘exercise gene’ or signaling pathway exists [37]. Even though PGC-1α has, for example, been described as the ‘master regulator’ of endurance exercise adaptations, evidence suggests that it may not be a prerequisite for exercise training-induced mitochondrial adaptations [37]. The biological responses to acute and chronic physical exercise in humans are characterized by a high degree of physiological redundancy at the molecular, cellular, organ-system, and whole-body levels [50]. Furthermore, the exercise-induced skeletal muscle phenotype is independent of a chosen few genes, proteins, and signaling pathways [51, 52]. Therefore, irrespective of the promising research findings discussed above, it is extremely unlikely that the emergence of a single pharmaceutical compound will be able to deliver the myriad and complex physiological, metabolic, and homeostatic disruptions brought about by exercise [5]. The multiplicity of responses, at a macro, ‘system-wide’ level [37], have been described as too diverse for a single pharmaceutical approach to address, and therefore a ‘one size fits all’ panacea is unlikely to come forward. It appears then that there is no true replacement for actual exercise, at least at present, due to the distinct and multifaceted metabolic responses that take place, especially in skeletal muscle. Despite these reservations, ‘exercise mimetics’ might represent an avenue to obtain at least some of the important benefits in those unable to achieve adequate amounts of physical exercise [12]. However, it could be argued that improving adherence to existing evidence-based exercise guidelines and pharmaceutical strategies (e.g., statins for cardiovascular disease) would be a more fruitful and productive objective for the promotion of human health.
From the perspective of performance sport, ‘exercise mimetics’ raise important and challenging questions. PPARδ agonists were added to the WADA Prohibited List that became effective in 2009, with AICAR also banned in the same year. In 2012, both GW501516 and AICAR were moved to class S4 (hormone and metabolic modulators) [53], and at the time of writing, this is still the case. Both of these compounds have received significant media attention over the last decade. For example, in 2012 members of the Spanish cycling team, including the team doctor, were arrested in connection with an international network supplying AICAR, due to its effectiveness on performance [12]. Despite this, it must be emphasized that AICAR is not approved for therapeutic use anywhere in the world, given its status as an experimental compound. In a separate instance, Russian race walker Elena Lashmanova tested positive for GW501516 in 2014 and was subsequently sanctioned. A very stable drug, GW501516 possesses a long half-life and is therefore easily detected in blood and urine samples [12], which poses major consequences for athletes seeking to obtain this compound for performance enhancement. By way of comparison, resveratrol is a natural, albeit weak, compound that has been shown to improve endurance performance in animals, yet it is not a prohibited substance. This is likely due to its low bioavailability and lack of consistently beneficial effects in humans [12]. Therefore, due care and attention must be observed when selecting compounds in pursuit of performance enhancement to ensure compliance with the WADA Prohibited List and mitigate the risk of compromising one’s career.
The constant activation of metabolic pathways by pharmaceutical means, so-called ‘metabolic overdrive’, could have undesirable health effects [37, 54]. For example, the chronic activation of AMPK (i.e., via AICAR) and concomitant inhibition of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR; a central regulator of protein synthesis and anabolism) could bring about a state of chronic catabolism, or breakdown [37]. This problem would be exacerbated if multiple exercise mimetics or pills, targeting diverse pathways, were consumed. More specifically, and with relevance to the exercise mimetics discussed above, GW501516 demonstrated serious toxicity and multi-organ carcinogenicity in rodent studies, whereas human clinical trials reported no adverse effects, likely due to the short duration and low dose administered [53]. Even the naturally occurring compound resveratrol has been associated with side effects in humans, albeit to a lesser extent than the synthetic compounds previously discussed. In
There do exist non-pharmacological alternatives to ‘exercise pills’ that can potentially be applied to mimic the characteristics of exercise training. For example, neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) has been used to induce involuntary muscle contractions and support the maintenance of muscle mass in injured athletes [57]. This can potentially serve as a surrogate for physical activity, as it has been shown to stimulate muscle protein synthesis rates in older men, and can ameliorate the muscle atrophy associated with limb immobilization to a certain extent [57]. In contrast to the pharmacological methods described above, NMES can maintain muscle mass without safety concerns or appreciable side effects [58], thus representing a potential strategy for mimicking, at least in part, the metabolic effects of physical exercise. These findings may have the most utility in clinical populations observing periods of bed rest or immobilization, by reintroducing a degree of muscle contraction. This activity can enhance muscle protein synthesis in the fasted and fed states, which might support muscle health during short-term periods of disuse in a clinical setting [59].
Acute passive heating has demonstrated some exercise mimetic properties in humans, namely type II diabetics, when implemented in proximity to an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) [60]. One-hour of passive heating in water at 40°C either 30 min before or 30 min after commencing an OGTT increased extracellular heat shock protein 70 in the blood and increased heart rate and total energy expenditure (via increased fat oxidation) [60]. However, passive heating did not affect blood glucose concentrations or insulin sensitivity compared with a control group. In skeletal muscle, there is preliminary evidence that chronic passive heating can promote hypertrophy in animal and human models, alongside augmented voluntary and involuntary strength [61]. With further study, passive heating might be a worthwhile non-pharmacologic and exercise mimetic strategy for people that are unable to complete sufficient exercise.
Exercise mimetics remains an area of considerable effort and inquiry but is not without its challenges and controversies. Although early clinical research has identified numerous promising molecular targets for pharmaceutical intervention, there is a lack of human clinical data to support their implementation. This, allied to the multifaceted nature of the human physiological response to exercise, and the redundancy inherent in such a response, suggests that a ‘one size fits all’ approach will be unlikely to manifest. As such, efforts should be focused on increasing adherence to existing evidence-based exercise guidelines and pharmaceutical interventions for the promotion of human health. Notwithstanding, it is possible that multiple pharmaceutical approaches could emerge in the future that target specific molecular pathways for cumulative benefit. These strategies may offer substantial value for populations unable, or unwilling, to engage in actual physical exercise. Nonetheless, the implications of exercise pills for doping in elite sport, and the potential side effects associated with the administration of these compounds for human health, are areas of cautious consideration for the next decade and beyond.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). 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