IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\n
Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\n
After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\n
Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\n
\n\t
Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
\n\t
Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
\n\t
Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
\n\t
The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
\n
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\n
Note: Edited in October 2021
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These are preceded by Part I, where an extensive and complete review on speckle and adaptive filtering is provided, essential for the understanding of SAR images. Part II is dedicated to land cover mapping. Part III is devoted to the generation of Digital Elevation Models based on radargrammetry and on a wise fusion (by considering sensor characteristic and acquisition geometry) of interferometric and photogrammetric elevation data. Part IV provides a contribution to three applications related to land motion.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1589-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4233-1",doi:"10.5772/55833",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"land-applications-of-radar-remote-sensing",numberOfPages:320,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"26e11b6e4cce4e245e6e28b281563139",bookSignature:"Francesco Holecz, Paolo Pasquali, Nada Milisavljevic and Damien Closson",publishedDate:"June 11th 2014",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3727.jpg",numberOfDownloads:36049,numberOfWosCitations:52,numberOfCrossrefCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:57,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:137,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 14th 2013",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2013",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 30th 2013",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 24th 2013",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 4th 2014",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"13897",title:"Dr.",name:"Damien",middleName:null,surname:"Closson",slug:"damien-closson",fullName:"Damien Closson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13897/images/1645_n.jpg",biography:"Damien Closson graduated from the University of Liege, Belgium. In collaboration with the Royal Museum for Central Africa, he obtained a Degree in Geography in 1991 based on work done in neotectonics in Burundi. In 1992, he became Master in Cartography and remote sensing, Catholic University of Louvain. From 1995 onwards, he has been a researcher at the Department of Geography (Liege), the Space Centre of Liege, and since 2003 at the Signal and Image Centre, Royal Military Academy. During his PhD (2005), he developed a strong collaboration with Professor Najib Abou Karaki of the University of Jordan. Together, they co-signed ten peer review articles focussing on the salt karst dynamics affecting the coastal areas of the Dead Sea. Currently, they are working on an early warning system. Damien Closson is regularly consulted in geomorphology and hazards mapping for engineering enterprises (KEYOBS, Tractebel, Coyne & Bellier, Vinci Construction Grands Projets).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Royal Military Academy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"168830",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Holecz",slug:"francesco-holecz",fullName:"Francesco Holecz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/168830/images/system/168830.jpg",biography:"Francesco Holecz received the M.Sc (1985) and Ph.D. (1993) in geography and remote sensing respectively, Remote Sensing Laboratories, Institute of Geography, University of Zurich. Research Associate at the Jet Propulsion Laboratories (1994-1996). 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1. Introduction
A porous medium can be defined as a material composed of a solid matrix consisting of interconnected voids. This solid matrix is usually assumed to be rigid, but sometimes it may undergo limited deformations. The interconnected pores allow for a single type of fluid or more to flow through the material. There are many examples of these permeable materials available in nature such as sand beds, limestone, sponges, wood, and so on.
Porous media have become one of the most important materials used in insulating, transferring, storing, and dissipating thermal energy. The benefits these characteristics confer have led to porous materials being widely used in practical applications such as thermal insulation, geothermal applications, cooling systems, recuperative/regenerative heat exchangers, and solar energy collection systems, in addition to chemical and nuclear engineering. Thus, convective flows in porous materials have been investigated widely over recent decades and various aspects have been considered for different applications so far.
High-porosity metal foams are usually porous media with low density and novel structural and thermal properties. This sort of media is mainly formed from multi-struts interconnected to each other at joint nodes to shape pores and cells (see the SEM image in Figure 1) (Liu et al. [1]). They offer very high porosity (ε ≥ 0.89), light weight, high rigidity and strength, and a large surface area, which make them able to recycle energy efficiently. This capacity to transport a large amount of heat is attributed to their superior thermal conductivity compared to ordinary fluids and high surface-area density (surface area per a given volume of metal foam) as well as enhanced convective transport (flow mixing) due to the tortuous flow paths existing within them, as shown in Figure 1 (Zhao [2]). Also, their open-cell structure makes them even less resistant to the fluids flowing through them, and hence, the pressure drop across them is much less than it is in the case of fluid flow via packed beds or granular porous materials.
Figure 1.
Open-cell metal foams: SEM image of the structure (left); mechanism of flow mixing (right).
Open-cell metal foams were first invented by the ERG Materials and Aerospace Corp. in 1967, and since then, they have been continuously developed. This invention was patented to Walz [3], where the manufacturing processes were based on an organic preformation cast. However, this invention was originally intended for only classified military and aerospace applications. Accordingly, nonclassified applications had not made use of this technology until the mid of 1990s, when it has become generally available for industrial applications. Since then, other manufacturers have joined the global competition in this industry. To name a few, M-Pore GmbH in Germany, the French company Alveotec, and Constellium from Netherlands are currently making open-cell metal foams on a large scale for a wide range of applications.
The traditional way of casting open-cell metal foams is still adopted by ERG Materials and Aerospace [4] as well as M-Pore GmbH [5], where the foams are cast with an investment process based on polyurethane preformation. As the fabrication process is affected by gravity, the foams resulted will be shaped from oval rather than spherical cells, as illustrated in Figure 2 (De Schampheleire et al. [6]). Alveotec [7] and Constellium, on the other hand, use a different way called leachable bed casting, in which metal is cast over a stack of soluble spheres to shape out the interconnecting open-cells desired. The spheres used are usually made out of either salt or sand plus a polymer bonding agent. After metal solidification, the spheres are dissolved through washing them simply with water. Using this casting technique results in foams having more uniformly spherical-shaped cells unlike those formed by the investment casting, as shown in Figure 2 (De Schampheleire et al. [6]).
Figure 2.
Open-cell metal foams formed by: Investment casting (left); (b) leachable bed casting (right).
2. Potentials
Open-cell metal foams possess unique characteristics, making them a promising candidate for plenty of practical and engineering applications. Among these potentials are the following:
Very high porosity, ranges usually from 80% and up to 97.5%.
The open-core structure makes them attractive for applications where lightweight is a crucial requirement.
The open-cell nature makes them even less resistant to the fluids flowing through them, resulting in a significant saving in the pressure drop resulted.
Very high effective thermal conductivity.
High surface-area density, roughly from 1000 to 3000 m2/m3. Therefore, exceptional heat transfer area per a given volume of metal foam is offered. The surface area density can be further increased through compressing them in a particular direction, where the specific surface area of such a compressed metal foam can reach up to 8000 m2/m3 [2].
The tortuous flow paths existing within them considerably enhance the convective transport (flow mixing).
They are efficient sound-absorption materials [8].
They have the potential to be used for radiation shielding [9].
Good-impact energy absorption [10], where the structure of metal foam makes it possible to ensure a constant stress throughout the deformation.
Have attractive stiffness/strength properties and can be processed in large quantity at low cost via the metal sintering route.
3. Applications
Due to their uniquely promising potentials, high-porosity metal foams have been increasingly utilized in a variety of engineering and industrial applications. Such applications are diversely increasing day by day, making it quite hard to categorize them into particular groups. Thus, it is aimed herein to present an overview of their most recent applications without intensely going into details.
Their ability to meet the increasing daily demands to effectively transfer, exchange, or dissipate heat has attracted researchers and manufacturers to utilize them as a successful alternative to traditional heat transport media. For example, the experiments conducted by Boomsma et al. [11] showed that the thermal performance offered by the compressed open-cell aluminum foam heat exchangers is usually two to three times higher than that achieved through the commercially available heat exchangers, while they require comparable pumping power. Similarly, Mahjoob and Vafai [12] pointed out that despite the potential increase in pressure loss, utilizing metal foams in heat exchangers leads to a substantial enhancement in heat transfer, which can compensate the increase in pressure drop.
Therefore, metal foam heat exchangers have emerged recently in various practical sectors. Among them, metal foams were used as alternative to find extended surfaces utilized in removing heat from geothermal power plants, where metal foam heat exchangers offer superior thermal performance compared to conventional finned surfaces, at no extra cost resulting from the pressure drop and/or material weight [13]. In this regard, wrapping a thin layer of foam around the surfaces of tubes was proposed to enhance the heat transferred from/to them with little increase in the pressure drop produced [14–16]. Despite the higher pressure loss resulted from the increase in foam layer thickness, it was observed that the exterior convective resistance is reduced significantly, and hence, a considerable transfer enhancement is achieved. Also, the overall performance attained through using the foam-covered tubes was comparable to that achieved by the helically finned tubes at the low levels of inlet velocities and far superior at the higher velocities.
In the context of HVAC&R applications, metal foams have been presented as a promising candidate to replace the conventionally finned heat exchangers. Dai et al. [17] compared the heat transfer performance of a flat-tube, louvered-fin heat exchanger with that obtained using an identical foam heat exchanger. The analytical results revealed that for the same fan power and heat transfer performance, the metal foam heat exchanger is significantly more economical in both size and weight for a wide range of design requirements. In another comparison study [18], it was observed that the heat transfer rate offered by metal-foam heat exchangers is up to six times better than that in the case of the bare-tube bundle with no extra fan power. Also, it was found that if the dimensions of the foamed heat exchanger are not fixed, that is, the frontal area can be manipulated, metal-foam heat exchangers outperform the louvered-fin heat exchanger. In other words, a smaller metal-foam heat exchanger can be used for the same thermal duty, and hence, a smaller fan can perform what is required.
Employing high-porosity metal foams to improve the thermal effectiveness of counterflow double-pipe heat exchangers has been the subject of increasing interest recently. Xu et al. [19] pointed out that to achieve high thermal effectiveness, that is, greater than 0.8, porosity and pore density should be in the range of (ε < 0.9) and (ω > 10 PPI), respectively. Furthermore, Chen et al. [20] observed that despite the increase occurred in the pressure drop, using metal foams results in a remarkable heat transfer enhancement (by as much as 11 times), which leads to a considerable improvement in the comprehensive performance, that is, up to 700%. More recently, an innovative double-pipe heat exchanger was proposed [21, 22] through using rotating metal foam guiding vanes fixed obliquely to force fluid particles to flow over the conducting surface while rotation. Furthermore, the conducting surface itself was covered with a metal foam layer to improve the heat conductance across it. To optimize the performance achieved, an overall performance system factor, that is, OSP, was introduced as the ratio of the heat exchanged to the total pumping power required. Overall, the negligibly small pumping power required compared to the amount of heat exchanged makes the overall performance of such heat exchangers incomparable, that is, OSP = O(102) (Figure 3) (Alhusseny et al. [22]). It was also observed that while increasing the temperature difference from 30 to 300°C, the overall performance achieved can be improved up to 200–300% depending on the Re* value. This outcome indicates the promising prospects to utilize the proposed configuration as a recuperator in gas turbine systems.
Figure 3.
The change of the overall system performance OSP with the rotational speed Ω and characteristic temperature difference ΔT for ε = 0.9 and ω = 10 PPI.
Now, utilizing metal foam can offer as more as twice the cooling effectiveness obtained by the traditional finned heat exchangers. Thus, such a sort of heat exchangers is widely employed today in medical and medicinal products, defense systems, industrial power generation plants, semiconductor, manufacturing, and aerospace manned flight [4]. Similarly, they have been proposed as an effective way to enhance the heat dissipated from heavy-duty electrical generators through filling their rotating cooling passages either fully or partially with open-cell metal foams [23–25]. The value of the this proposal was inspected by introducing an enhancement factor as the ratio of heat transported to the pumping power required, that is, NuRepin−pe/ρuin2, and comparing it with the corresponding values from a previous work regarding turbulent flow in a rotating clear channel [26], as shown in Figure 4 [25], where it was confirmed that the proposed enhancement is practically justified and efficient.
Figure 4.
Influence of ΔT on the overall system performance; at S = 2, Ω = 500 rpm, and Tc1 = 20°C.
They have also been utilized effectively in electronic cooling, where various configurations of metal foam heat sinks have been suggested [27–33] as an effective alternative to the traditional heat sinks incorporated in electronic devices.
In similar context, utilizing metal foams to improve internal cooling of turbine blades is of increasing interest. Filling a radially rotating serpentine channel with open-cell aluminum foam is proposed as an effective way to improve the overall efficiency of the cooling process [34]. Recently, heat transport enhancement along a 180°. round channel was proposed through placing multiple aluminum foam blocks alternately along the flow path [35]. It was found that using discrete foam blocks increases the heat transported by 74–140% compared to what the empty channel yields. In addition, it was observed that staggering the foam blocks vertically is more desirable for improving the overall system performance.
Due to their capability to transport heat effectively, metal foams are shaped into rings placed between the combustor and the turbine section of a jet engine in order to homogenize the temperature profiles of the gases leaving the combustor and, hence, to improve the overall efficiency of turbojet engines [36]. To provide a stable isothermalized platform for the airborne laser communication systems, ERG Materials & Aerospace [4] have fabricated aluminum foam composite opticals having the ability to allow unprecedented heat transfer. In the experiments conducted by Williams et al. [37], a porous insert material (PIM) formed of high porosity foam was proposed to improve the swirl stabilization in LPM combustion systems. It was found that using a reticulated foam insert results in mitigating the thermoacoustic instability effectively as well as reducing the combustion noise over the entire frequency range for a wide range of the design parameters considered.
As most of the phase change materials (PCMs) used for latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES) possess poor thermal conductivity, the charging/discharging rate achieved will be quite modest. To overcome this deficit, high porosity metal foams have been suggested by Zhao et al. [38] as an effective means to improve the PCMs’ overall thermal conductivity, leading to enhance the heat transported and, hence, promote the PCM melting and solidification, as can be seen in Figure 5 (Alhusseny et al. [39]). This concept has been extensively investigated later to further improve the performance achieved, to name a few, the works presented for low-temperature [40–42] and high-temperature LHTES systems [43–45].
Figure 5.
Time development of charging process of paraffin-copper foam composite vs. pure paraffin.
Open-cell aluminum foams are considered as promising lightweight materials for γ-ray and thermal neutron shielding materials. The data collected experimentally by Xu et al. [46] reveal that filling the foam with water results in improving the mass attenuation coefficients compared to the nonfilled samples. Overall, following such a proposal to achieve high shielding performance is still in progress [47, 48] and requires further optimizations.
Overall, there is a variety of applications where high-porosity metal foam can be utilized successfully. For further applications, ERG Materials & Aerospace [4] lists diverse sorts of applications whether in daily life or military industries. For example, open-cell metal foams are commonly used as energy absorber in aerospace and military applications, air/oil separators in aircraft engine gearboxes, baffles to prevent sudden surges in liquids while being penetrated by solid frames, and breather plugs in applications requiring fast equalization of pressure changes. Also, they are utilized in electrodes, fuel cells, bone researches, micrometeorite shields, optics/mirrors, windscreens and so on. Manufacturers’ data and the open literature can be further dug for much more applications where high-porosity metal foams have outperformed and/or achieved considerable savings in the expenses required.
4. Formulations
Open-cell metal foams are classified as high-porosity materials that consist of irregularly shaped and tortuous flow passages. Pressure drop and heat transfer through such media are significantly affected by their geometrical characteristics, namely the foam porosity ε, fiber size df, pore diameter dp, pore density ω, and cell shape. Therefore, most aspects regarding granular porous media and packed beds need to be adjusted for metal foams [11].
4.1. Estimation of fiber and pore diameter
In practice, the ligament size, or in other words fiber diameter, is usually measured using a microscope. Alternatively, the mean pore diameter can be estimated by counting the number of pores that exist in a particular length of foam, which is usually provided by the manufacturer in terms of pore density (PPI), that is, number of pores per inch. Depending on the representative unit cell used (Figure 6), various models were proposed. Among them is the model proposed by Fourie and Du Plessis [49] for pore size estimation as a function of the width of a cubic representative unit cell and tortuosity (Eq. (1)). Another model was developed by Calmidi [50] to estimate the fiber- to pore-diameter ratio as a function of the porosity and shape function, G = 1 − e−(1 − ε)/0.04, for both the cubic unit cell (Eq. (2)) and the three-dimensional structure of a dodecahedron unit cell (Eq. (3)).
Figure 6.
Models used to represent microstructural unit cells in metal foams.
4.2. Models developed for predicting tortuosity of high-porosity metal foams
The tortuosity, defined as the total tortuous pore length within a linear length scale divided by the linear length scale in the porous medium [49], was modeled by Du Plessis et al. [51] as a function of porosity only (Eq. (4)). However, experiments conducted by Bhattacharya et al. [52] indicated that the accuracy of tortuosity model proposed by Du Plessis et al. [51] is limited for higher levels of pore density; hence, a tortuosity formulation that accurately covers a wider range of porosity and pore densities was established in terms of porosity and shape function G (Eq. (5)). Recently, an analytical model was proposed by Yang et al. [53] (Eq. (6)), as a simple function of both foam porosity and a pore shape factor. The shape factor β is defined as the ratio of the representative pore perimeter to the perimeter of a typical reference circle with an area equal to that of the representative pore.
4.3. Models developed for estimating pressure drop across open-cell metal foams
With regard to predicting the pressure drop produced in fluid flows across high-porosity metal foams, a variety of models have been developed, which can be classified into two main categories. The first encompasses those investigations interested in estimating the pressure drop by means of the foam friction factor. Among them is the model presented by Paek et al. [54] for the friction factor as a function of pore Reynolds number (Eq. (7)). Also, the empirical correlations established by Liu et al. [55] offer friction factor estimation for airflow via aluminum foams for a wide range of porosity and various flow regimes (Eq. (8)).
The other category of pressure drop models consists of those concerned with estimating the permeability and inertial coefficient according to Darcy-–Forchheimer’s equation:
dpdx=μKu+ρFKu2E9
Based on a cubic representative unit cell, a theoretical model for predicting permeability and inertial coefficient was derived by Du Plessis et al. [51] (Eqs. (10) and (11)), as functions of porosity, tortuosity, and the width of cubic representative unit cell. In the study conducted by Calmidi [50], mathematical models were developed for both permeability and inertial coefficient as functions of the fiber and pore diameters as well as the foam porosity (Eqs. (12) and (13)). A correlation was established by Bhattacharya et al. [52] for predicting the inertial coefficient (Eq. (14)), in terms of tortuosity, porosity, shape function, and form drag coefficient CD(ε). Based on Ergun’s law ∆pL=α1−ε2ε3d2μu+β1−εε3dρu2, Tadrist et al. [56] developed an empirical model for estimating permeability and inertial coefficient as functions of foam porosity and fiber size (Eqs. (15) and (16)). In the experiments conducted by Dukhan [57], the pressure drop resulting from airflow across aluminum foam was correlated into a model predicting the permeability and inertial coefficient as functions of porosity only (Eqs. (17) and (18)). Recently, an analytical model for estimating the permeability of metal foams (Eq. (19)) was established by Yang et al. [53] according to the cubic representative unit cell. This model offers the capability of estimating the permeability for a wide range of foam porosities ε = 0.55 ~ 0.98 and pore densities ω = 5 ~ 100 PPI.
4.4. Effective thermal conductivity models for high-porosity metal foams
Many investigations have been conducted to evaluate the effective thermal conductivity ke as a key factor in the thermal analysis of such systems. Among them is the model established by Paek et al. [54] based on one-dimensional heat conduction through a cubic unit cell (Eq. (20)). This model indicates that foam porosity has a direct impact on the overall thermal conductivity unlike the pore size, which was found to have a marginal influence.
The theoretical model derived by Calmidi and Mahajan [58] for the effective thermal conductivity as a function of the foam porosity (Eq. (21)) was found to match well with the experiments for both air and water as fluid phase. Similarly, Bhattacharya et al. [52] examined a two-dimensional unit cell shaped as a hexagonal honey comb to estimate the effective thermal conductivity, but taking into account circular nodes at each intersection joint rather than the square nodes considered earlier by Calmidi and Mahajan [58]. Although this model showed excellent agreement with the experimental data obtained and its formulations detailed in Eq. (22) look mathematically simpler than that derived by Calmidi and Mahajan [58], it is in fact more complicated because this model is valid only for a limited case when the intersection size R approaches zero, which implies that r → ∞.
A tetrakaidecahedron unit cell was adopted by Boomsma and Poulikakos [59] to estimate the effective thermal conductivity. Despite the fact that taking tetrakaidecahedron topology into account can provide a better estimation, it leads to more complex formulae, detailed in Eq. (23). Moreover, it was found that this model includes some aspects need to be adjusted as found by Dai et al. [60] (Eq. (24)). Based on the tetrakaidecahedron unit cell as well but with assuming one-dimensional heat conduction along the highly tortuous ligaments, a quite simplistic model (Eq. (25)) was recently derived by Yang et al. [61] for effective thermal conductivity of metal foams saturated with low conducting fluids, for example, air. However, this model is limited to highly conducting foams, where heat conduction is assumed to occur only along the tortuous ligaments ignoring the heat conduction through the fluid phase. More recently, the 3D tetrakaidecahedron unit cell was considered by Yao et al. [62] to establish a more realistic formulation for effective thermal conductivity (Eq. (26)) through taking into account the concavity and orientation of the tri-prism ligaments and for four pyramids nodes. In addition to including no empirical parameters, this model has outperformed, in terms of accuracy, what were reported earlier in the literature [62].
4.5. Solid–fluid interstitial thermal exchange within open-cell metal foams
The condition of local thermal equilibrium (LTE) often occurs between the fluid and solid phases when a fluid flows across a permeable medium formed of comparably thermally conductive material. This makes the temperature difference between the two phases negligibly small. However, when the solid thermal conductivity is much higher than the corresponding value for the fluid phase, for example, metal foams, the assumption of LTE is no longer valid and usually results in an overestimation of the heat transported between the two phases. Hence, taking into account the local thermal nonequilibrium (LTNE) between the two phases becomes indispensable in metal foams, where two energy equations are coupled together to predict heat transfer in each phase separately.
Three principal heat transfer modes take place when a low conductive fluid flows across the ligaments of highly conductive foam: convection between the solid and fluid phases besides conduction via each one of the two phases. Thus, the three key parameters required for applying the LTNE approach are the effective thermal conductivity of the fluid kfe and solid kse phases in addition to the interstitial specific heat transfer rate between the two phases (asf hsf), which depends on the foam structure and the flow regime across it.
The interstitial heat exchange rate depends on two individual quantities: the interfacial specific surface area asf and the solid-to-fluid interfacial heat transfer coefficient hsf. By utilizing the dodecahedral structure of open-cell foams and taking into account the noncircular fiber cross section, the solid-to-fluid interfacial specific surface area asf was modeled by Calmidi and Mahajan [63] for arrays of cylinders that intersect in three mutually perpendicular directions (Eq. (27)), while Fourie and Du Plessis [49] established another model based on the cubic unit-cell representation (Eq. (28)). However, Schampheleire et al. [6] observed that the asf values estimated using Eq. (27) by Calmidi and Mahajan [63] deviates seriously from those obtained experimentally through a µCT scan with differences up to 233%, while the model of Fourie and Du Plessis [49] performs much better with up to 22% deviation from the experimental data of the full µCT scan.
With regard to estimating the solid–fluid interfacial heat transfer coefficient in high-porosity metal foams, Calmidi and Mahajan [63] proposed a correlation for interfacial Nusselt number as a function of both the foam porosity and fiber diameter (Eq. (29)). Another model was established by Shih et al. [28] for Nusselt number as a function of the foam porosity and pore diameter (Eq. (30)), where a and b are constants depending on the geometrical characteristics of the foam samples used in the experiments conducted. The correlations developed by Zukauskas [64] for staggered cylinders are widely used as a model to predict the interfacial Nusselt number as a function of the foam porosity, fiber diameter, and the value of Reynolds number (Eq. (31)), which makes it more general than the one proposed by Calmidi and Mahajan [63] as it is valid for a limited range of Reynolds numbers (40–1000).
\n',keywords:"high porosity, open cell, metal foam, fluid flow, thermal transport",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/56922.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/56922.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56922",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56922",totalDownloads:1456,totalViews:480,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:89,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 10th 2017",dateReviewed:"July 21st 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"April 26th 2018",dateFinished:"September 14th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter is aimed as a concise review, but well-focused on the potentials of what is known as “High-porosity metal foams,” and hence, the practical applications where such promising media have been/can be employed successfully, particularly in the field of managing, recovering, dissipating, or enhancing heat transfer. Furthermore, an extensive comparison is conducted between the formulations presented so far for the geometrical and thermal characteristics concerning the heat and fluid flow in open-cell metal foams.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/56922",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/56922",book:{id:"6175",slug:"porosity-process-technologies-and-applications"},signatures:"Ahmed Niameh Mehdy Alhusseny, Adel Nasser and Nabeel\nM J Al-zurfi",authors:[{id:"208783",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"Niameh Mehdy",surname:"Alhusseny",fullName:"Ahmed Alhusseny",slug:"ahmed-alhusseny",email:"ahmed.alhusseny@manchester.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/208783/images/system/208783.png",institution:{name:"University of Manchester",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"208796",title:"Dr.",name:"Adel",middleName:"Gharib",surname:"Nasser",fullName:"Adel Nasser",slug:"adel-nasser",email:"a.g.nasser@manchester.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/208796/images/system/208796.jpg",institution:{name:"University of Manchester",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"217892",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabeel",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Zurfi",fullName:"Nabeel Al-Zurfi",slug:"nabeel-al-zurfi",email:"nabeel.al-zurfi@manchester.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217892/images/system/217892.png",institution:{name:"University of Manchester",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Potentials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Formulations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Estimation of fiber and pore diameter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Models developed for predicting tortuosity of high-porosity metal foams",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3. Models developed for estimating pressure drop across open-cell metal foams",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4. Effective thermal conductivity models for high-porosity metal foams",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5. Solid–fluid interstitial thermal exchange within open-cell metal foams",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Liu Z, Yao Y, Wu H. Numerical modeling for solid-liquid phase change phenomena in porous media: Shell-and-tube type latent heat thermal energy storage. Applied Energy. 2013;112:1222-1232'},{id:"B2",body:'Zhao CY. 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Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Kufa, Iraq
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, UK
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, UK
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nabeel M J Al-zurfi",address:null,affiliation:'
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Kufa, Iraq
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1. Introduction
With the increasing demand for herbal medicinal products, nutraceuticals, and natural products for primary healthcare worldwide, medicinal plant extract manufacturers and essential oil producers have started using the most appropriate extraction techniques. Different methods are used to produce extracts and essential oil of defined quality with the least variations.
Herbs and medicinal plants have been used for centuries as source of a wide variety of biologically active compounds. The plant crude material or its pure compounds are extensively used to treat diverse ailments by generations of indigenous practitioners [1, 2]. They are currently the subject of much research interest, but their extraction as part of phytochemical and biological investigations presents specific challenges that must be addressed throughout the solvent extraction [3]. Natural products provide unlimited opportunities for new drug discovery because of the unmatched availability of chemical diversity [4]. Thanks to two drugs derived from alkaloids of Madagascar’s rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), the likelihood of remission for a child who has leukemia increased by 85 percent between 1960 and 1997 [5, 6]. New compounds, such as one recently discovered in a plant in Madagascar, are likely to provide novel antibiotics and help to curb the epidemic of antibiotic-resistant diseases [7].
Natural products are currently of considerable significance due to their unique attributes as a significant source of therapeutic phytochemicals and their efficacy, safety, and minimal side effects [2, 8]. Bioactive compounds in plants include alkaloids, terpenoids, coumarins, flavonoids, nitrogen-containing compounds, organosulfur compounds, phenolics, etc. A wide spectrum of bioactivities is exhibited by these compounds such as anti-inflammatory, immunostimulatory, anticancer, antioxidant, antimicrobial, etc.
Research on medicinal plants is particularly important as that on conventional drugs due to the beneficial phytochemicals from plants and the shift towards natural products in pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries. Chemical structures of a few essential bioactive compounds isolated from plants are presented in Figure 1 [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
Figure 1.
Chemical structures of a few important bioactive compounds isolated from plants.
Extraction of the bioactive constituents from plants has always been challenging for researchers [15]. As the target compounds may be non-polar to polar and thermally labile, the suitability of the extraction methods must be considered. The study on medicinal plants starts with extraction procedures that play a critical role in the extraction outcomes and the consequent assays.
Hence, this chapter aims to provide an overview of the process of plant extraction, describe, and compare extraction methods based on their principle, the effect of solvent on extraction procedures, strength, limitations, and economic feasibility, with their advantages and disadvantages. This chapter shall also emphasize the common problems encountered and methods for reducing or eliminating these problems. Since millions of natural products derived from plants are known, only selected groups and compounds are presented.
2. Medicinal plants and herbs
The term “medicinal” as applied to a plant indicates that it contains a substance or substances which modulate beneficially the physiology of sick mammals, and man has used it for healthful purpose [16]. Medicinal plants were described by Farnsworth and Soejarto as: “all higher plants with medicinal effects that relate to health, or which are proven as drugs by Western standards, or which contain constituents that are defined as hits.” [17].
Medicinal plant (MP) refers to any plant which, in one or more of its organs, contains substances that can be used for therapeutic purposes or which are precursors of the synthesis of valuable drugs. A whole plant or plant parts may be medicinally active [18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. Medicinal plants (MPs) are becoming very important due to their uses mainly as a source of therapeutic compounds that may lead to novel drugs. MPs are plants that are used for healthcare purposes in both allopathic and traditional medicine systems. MPs cover various species used including condiments, food aromatic and cosmetics [23, 24, 25, 26].
Herbs may be defined as the dried leaves of aromatic plants used to impart flavor and odor to foods with, sometimes, the addition of color. The leaves are commonly traded separately from the plant stems and leaf stalks [27].
Herbal medicine is referred to as medicinal preparations comprising active ingredients obtained from the herbal plant. The product can be made from the whole plant or any part. Preparations from by-product herbal plants such as oil, gum, and other secretions are also considered herbal medicines [18, 19, 22].
3. Primary and secondary metabolites
Metabolites are intermediate processes in nature and are small molecules. Primary metabolites are known vital or essential compounds and are directly involved in the average growth, development, and reproduction of plants [28]. Primary metabolites include cell constituents (e.g. carbohydrates, polysaccharides, amino acids, sugars, proteins, and lipids) and fermentation products (ethanol, acetic acid, citric acid, and lactic acid), and are mainly used during their growth and development stages [19, 22, 29, 30].
Secondary metabolites are not directly involved in those processes and usually have a function but are not that important for the organism (e.g. phenolic, steroids, lignans, etc.). They are found only in specific organisms or groups of organisms, and express of the individuality of species [19, 30, 31]. They are not necessarily produced under all conditions, and most often, the function of these compounds and their benefit to the organism is not yet known. Some are undoubtedly made for readily appreciated reasons, e.g., as toxic material providing defense against predators, as volatile attractants towards the same or other species, but it is logical to assume that all do not play some vital role for the well-being of the producer [27, 30]. Secondary metabolites are produced after the growing stage and are used to increase the ability of plants to survive and overcome their local challenges. Bioactive compounds are classified as terpenoids, alkaloids, nitrogen-containing compounds, organosulfur compounds, and phenolic compounds [29].
Bioactive compounds are reported to possess diverse bioactivities such as antioxidant, anticancer, antimalarial, antiulcer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory activity [32, 33, 34, 35, 36].
4. Bioactive compounds
The definition of bioactive compounds remained ambiguous and unclear for a long time. Very few references describe the term “bioactive”. It is composed of two words bio- and -active. In etymology bio- is from the Greek (βίo-) “bios” that means life while -active is derived from the Latin word “activus” that refers to dynamic, full of energy, with energy, or involved in activity [37, 38, 39]. The term “bioactive” is an alternative term for “biologically active” [40]. Hence, a bioactive compound is simply a substance with biological activity [41, 42].
A plant extract is a substance or an active substance with desirable properties removed from the tissues of a plant, frequently by treating it with a solvent, to be used for a particular purpose. The term “bioactive compounds” is generally referred to as biologically significant chemicals but not established as essential nutrients [43]. Bioactive compounds are essential (e.g., vitamins) and non-essential (e.g., polyphenols, alkaloids, etc.) compounds that occur in nature, are part of the food chain, and can affect human health [44]. They are derived from various natural sources such as plants, animals, microorganisms (e.g., fungi) and marine organisms (e.g., lichens) [2]. The amount of bioactive natural products in natural sources is always fairly low [45, 46]. Plant active compounds are usually contained inside plant matrixes. Active compounds are synthesized in small quantities and different concentrations in all plant organs or parts such as leaves, roots, barks, tubers, woods, gums or oleoresin exudations, fruits, figs, flowers, rhizomes, berries, twigs, as well as the whole plant. Further processes may be required after extraction to purify or isolate the desired compounds.
5. Fresh or dried plant materials
Fresh and dried samples are used and are reported in the literature in the preparation of medicinal remedies. Ideally, fresh plant tissues should be used for phytochemical analysis, and the material should be plunged into boiling alcohol within minutes of its collection. Alternatively, plants may be dried before extraction [47]. In most reported cases, dried materials are preferred considering their long conservation time compared to fresh samples. Furthermore, fresh specimens are fragile and tend to deteriorate faster than dried ones. Phytoconstituents such as Essential Oils (EOs) are found in fewer dried samples than in fresh samples. In case of fresh plant material extraction using organic solvents such as methanol or ethanol, is required to deactivate enzymes present in the plant sample. The extractive might contain a substantial portion of water; hence it can be partitioned using specific immiscible organic solvents [3].
6. Drying procedures
Drying is the most common method to preserve the plant material from enzymatic degradation, such as hydrolysis of glucoside, etc. It should be dried as quickly as possible in the open room under primitive conditions at ambient room temperature with air circulation around the plant material to avoid heat and moisture [47]. However, they placed in shallow trays with good atmospheric air-up dryness either in the sunshine or in shade depending on nature of the indicated or identified constituents. However, direct sunlight is usually avoided to reduce the possibility of chemical reactions, responsible for forming of the artifact that may result from chemical transformations after exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Alternatively, plant materials should be dried under optimum temperature conditions between 40 and 50°C, or they can be dried in the oven if needed. Generally, plant material is dried at temperatures below 30°C to avoid the decomposition of thermolabile compounds [3]. Plants containing volatile or thermolabile components may be lyophilized (freeze-dried). In freeze-drying the frozen material is placed in an evacuated apparatus with a cold surface maintained at −60 to −80°C. Water vapors from the frozen material then pass rapidly to the cold surface to yield the dry material [8, 48].
7. Grinding or powdering plant materials
Lowering particle sizes increase surface contact between samples and extraction solvents and therefore, increase the yield rate and yield. Grinding resulted in coarse smaller samples, meanwhile, powdered samples gave a more homogenized and smaller particle, leading to better surface contact with solvents used for extraction. Before the extraction, pretreatments such as drying and grinding of plant materials are usually conducted to increase the extraction efficiency [48]. It is essential that the particles are of as uniform size as possible because larger particles take a longer time to complete the extraction process [49]. Usually, solvent molecules most contact the larger analytes, and particle size smaller than 05 mm is ideal for efficient extraction [8]. Conventional methods are usually used to reduce the particle size of dried plant samples viz. mortar and pestle or electric blenders and mills, etc.
8. Extraction techniques of actives compounds from plants and herbs
Extraction is separating the medicinally active mixture of many naturally active compounds usually contained inside plant materials (tissues) using selective solvents through the standard procedure [50]. It can also be defined as the treatment of the plant material with solvent, whereby the medicinally active constituents are dissolved and most of the inert matter remains undissolved. Thus, the purpose of all extraction is to separate the soluble plant metabolites, leaving behind the insoluble cellular marc known as residue [8]. The obtained product is a relatively complex mixture of metabolites, in liquid or semisolid state or (after removing water) in dried powder form, and are intended for oral and/or external uses. Extraction is based on the difference in solubility between the solute, other compounds in the matrix, and the solvent used to stabilize [29].
In general, there are three common type of extractions: liquid/solid, liquid/liquid and acid/base [51]. The extraction of these active compounds needs appropriate extraction methods that consider the plant parts used as starting material, the solvent used, extraction time, particle size and the stirring during extraction [52, 53]. Extraction methods include solvent extraction, distillation method, pressing, and sublimation according to the extraction principle. Solvent extraction is the most widely used method [47].
The solvent used, the plant part used as starting material and the extraction procedure are three basic parameters reported that influence the quality of an extract [15]. Proper extraction procure is the first step towards isolating and identifying the specific compounds in crude herbal material. It plays a significant and crucial role in the outcome. Successful extraction begins with careful selection and preparation of plant sample and thorough review of the appropriate literature for indications of which protocols are suitable for a particular class of compounds or plant species [3]. For instance, if the components are volatile or prone to degradation, they can first be frozen and homogenized with liquid nitrogen [29]. The extraction, in most cases, involves soaking the plant material in solvent for some specific time. Reported properties on an excellent extraction solvent include low toxicity, preservative action, ease of evaporation at low heat, promotion of rapid physiologic absorption of the extract, and inability to cause the extract to be complex or dissociate.
The principle of solid–liquid extraction is that when a solid material comes in contact with the solvent, the soluble components in the solid material are dissolved in, and move to the solvent. In solvent extraction, the mass transfer of soluble ingredients to the solvent takes place in a concentration gradient. The mass transfer rate depends on the concentration of ingredients, until equilibrium is reached. After that, there will no longer be a mass transfer from plant material to the solvent. In addition, heating the solvent can also enhance the mass transfer because of better solubility.
Moreover, the concentration gradient changes if fresh solvent replace the solvent equilibrium with the plant material [50]. Properties required for an excellent extracting solvent (or a mixture of solvents) include removal, inert, non-toxic, free from plasticizers, not easily inflammable, and no or less chemical interaction [53]. The selection of solvent is therefore crucial for solvent extraction. Solubility, selectivity, cost, and safety should be taken into account in selecting solvent [47]. The factors affecting the choice of solvent are quality of phytochemicals to be extracted, rate of extraction, diversity of metabolites extracted, the toxicity of the solvent in the bioassay process, and the potential health hazard of the extractants and ease of subsequent handling of the extract. Obtaining maximum yield and the highest quality of the targeted compounds is the central goal of the extraction process [29]. Extraction methods are usually chosen per the properties of targeted active compounds, the water content of the plant material, and the objectives of extraction. Initially, natural bioactive compounds are extracted using various extraction techniques, and their bioactivities are identified using in vitro and in vivo testing [45, 47]. A successful determination of biologically active compounds from plant material is largely dependent on the type of solvent used in the extraction. Since the extract will contain traces of residual solvent, the solvent should not interfere with the bioassay [15].
Various conventional (classical) and non-conventional (innovative) methods can extract plant materials. Variation in extraction procedures usually depends on key factors as extraction time, the temperature used, the particle size of tissues, the solvent-to-sample ratio, the pH of the solvent.
8.1 Classical and/or conventional techniques
The commonly employed extraction methods (long been used) are primarily based on liquid–solid extraction. They are ordinarily easy to operate and are based on heat and/or solvents with different polarities.
8.1.1 Maceration
This process is conducted by soaking the plant materials (coarse or powered) in a closed stoppered container in a solvent allowed to stand at room temperature for 2–3 days with frequent stirring to obtain plant extracts. A sealed extractor is used to avoid solvent evaporation at atmospheric pressure. The process is intended to soften and break the plant’s cell walls to release the soluble phytoconstituents. The mixture is then pressed or strained by filtration or decantation after a specific time [8, 54]. Maceration is the simplest and still widely used procedure. The extraction procedure in this stationary process works on principle of molecular diffusion, which is a time-consuming process. Maceration ensures dispersal of the concentrated solution accumulation around the particles’ surface and brings fresh solvent to the surface of particles for further extraction [46].
8.1.2 Digestion
This is a kind of maceration in which gentle heat is applied during the maceration extraction process. The temperature does not alter the active ingredients of plant material, so there is greater efficiency in the use of menstruum (solvent or mixture of solvent used for extraction). It is used when the moderately elevated temperature is not objectionable and the solvent efficiency of the menstruum is increased thereby [15]. The most used temperatures are between 35 and 40°C, although it can rise to no higher than 50°C. The plant part to be extracted is placed in a container with the pre-heated liquid to the indicated temperatures, is maintained for a period that may vary between half an hour to 24 hours, shaking the container regularly. This process is used for the herbal material or plant parts that contain poorly soluble substances or polyphenolic compounds [49].
8.1.3 Infusion
Infusion is a simple chemical process used to extract plant material that is volatile and dissolves readily or release its active ingredients easily in organic solvents [49]. Infusion and decoction use the same principle as maceration; both involve soaking the plant material in boiled or cold water which is then allowed to steep in the liquid. The maceration time for infusion is, however shorter. The liquid may then be separated and concentrated under a vacuum using a rotary evaporator.
Infusion finds its application in tea preparation and consumption prescribed in psychophysical asthenia, diarrhea, bronchitis, asthma, etc. In Tropical Africa, the infusion of the bark of Prunus africana (pygeum) is taken orally to increase the ease of urination and reduce inflammation and cholesterol deposits [30].
8.1.4 Lixiviation (elution)
The word “lixiviation” (comes from the Latin lixivium, “lessive”.) The extraction is carried out with cold or boiled, fresh and new solvent, always. Extraction of components is done using water as solvent.
8.1.5 Decoction
The current process involves boiling the plant material in water to obtain plant extracts. Heat is transferred through convection and conduction, and the choice of solvents will determine the type of compound extracted from the plant material [8]. The sample is boiled in a specified volume of water for a defined time (15 to 60 minutes.) It is then cooled, strained, filtered, and added enough water through the drug to obtain the desired volume. This method is suitable for extracting thermostable (that does not modify with temperature) and water soluble compounds, hard plant materials and commonly resulted in more oil-soluble compounds than maceration.
8.1.6 Tincture
It is the extraction of plant material in alcohol. Usually, the plant material (fresh) and ethyl alcohol are taken at the ratio of 1:5. Because of the alcohol content, the tinctures can be stored at room temperatures without decomposing [55].
8.1.7 Percolation
It is conducted by passing the boiled solvent through the plant material at a controlled and moderate rate (e.g. 5–7 drops per min) until the extraction is complete before evaporation. The concentrated plant extracts are commonly collected at the bottom of the vessel. To obtain a significant amount of extract, successive percolations can be performed by refilling the percolator with fresh solvent and pooling all extracts together. This procedure is mostly used to extract active compounds in the preparation of tinctures and fluid extracts. Its major disadvantage is that large volumes of solvents are required, and the procedure can be time-consuming and may require skilled persons [49].
8.1.8 Steam distillation and hydrodistillation
Steam and hydrodistillation methods are usually used to extract volatile compounds, including essential oil, insoluble in water, from various aromatic and medicinal plants. This is conducted by boiling the plant materials in water to obtain EOs after vapor condensation. Steam distillation occurs at a temperature lower than the boiling point of the ingredients. The method is useful for thermos-sensitive bioactive compounds e.g., natural aromatic compounds. The heat leads to breakage in the sample’s pores and then enables the release of the target compound from a matrix. As Raoult’s law states that while mixing two immiscible liquids, the boiling point will be reduced. Therefore, in the mixture of volatile compounds having a boiling point between 150 and 300°C and water having a boiling point at about 100°C (at atmospheric pressure), the mixture evaporation will be getting closer to that of the water [29, 56].
There are similarities between the hydrodistillation and the steam distillation principles. In brief, plant material is immersed in water or a proper solvent followed by heating to boiling under atmospheric pressure in the alembic. In a condenser, EOs vapors and water undergo a liquefaction process, and EOS are then separates from water/solvent after collection of the condensate in the decanter. The principle of extraction is based on isotropic distillation. Hydrodistillation with water immersion, direct vapor injection, and water immersion and vapor injection are the three main types of hydrodistillation. The distillation time depends on the plant material being processed [56].
8.1.9 Hot continuous extraction or Sohxlet extraction, soxhletation
In this method, finely ground sample is placed in a porous bag or “thimble” made from a strong filter paper or cellulose, set in the thimble chamber of the Soxhlet apparatus. The first Soxhlet apparatus was developed in 1879 by Franz von Soxhlet (Figure 2) [58]. Extraction solvents are heated in a round bottom flask, vaporized into the sample thimble, condensed in the condenser, and dripped back. When the liquid content reaches the siphon arm, the liquid content is emptied into the bottom flask again, and the process is continued [8]. The disadvantages include no possibility of stirring, and a large amount of solvent is required. This method is unsuitable for thermolabile compounds as prolonged exposure (long extraction time) to heat may lead to their degradation. It constitutes an official classical method used to determine different foods’ fat content [15, 29, 57].
Figure 2.
Experimental Soxhlet extraction apparatus [57].
Exposure to hazardous and flammable liquid organic solvents are the most noticed disadvantages in this method, and the high purity of extraction solvents needed may add to the cost. Also, shaking or stirring cannot be provided in the Soxhlet device to accelerate the process [57].
However, it requires a smaller quantity of solvent as compared to maceration. Besides, instead of many portions of warm solvent passing through the sample, just one batch of solvent is recycled. Other advantages of this technique include its simple operational mode, its applicability to a higher temperature that increases the kinetics process, its low capital cost, the absence of filtration, and the continuous contact of the solvent and the sample. It maintains a relatively high extraction temperature with heat from the distillation flask [29, 57, 59].
8.1.10 Serial exhaustive extraction
It is a standard extraction procedure that involves successive extraction with various solvents of increasing polarity from non-polar to polar ones. The aim is to ensure that a broad polarity range of compounds could be extracted [15].
Some medicinal preparations adopt the technique of fermentation for extracting the active principles. The extraction procedure involves soaking the crude drug, either a powder or a decoction, for a specified period. Alcohol is generating in situ after fermentation occur; this eases the extraction of the active components contained within the plant material. The alcohol hence generated additionally serves as preservative. Water should be boiled first, if the fermentation is to be performed in an earthen vessel. Wooden vats, porcelain jars, or metal vessels are used in place of earthen vessels in large-scale manufacturing. This method is not yet standardized [50].
Hydrodistillation and steam distillation, hydrolytic maceration followed by distillation, expression and effleurage (cold fat extraction) may be employed for aromatic plants. Some of the latest extraction methods for aromatic plants include headspace trapping, solid phase micro extraction, protoplast extraction, micro distillation [15].
These techniques are the easiest and simplest methods. Despite the establishment of advanced extraction methods, the potential of conventional solid–liquid extractions is still being used to obtain active compounds from plants. These methods are criticized due to large solvent consumption and long extraction times that can destroy some metabolites. Solvents used in these techniques for soaking play a critical role. Many other advanced extraction methods that incorporate various technologies have been developed [8, 48].
8.2 Innovative (non-conventional) techniques
There is steady progress in the development of extraction technology in recent years. They are also known as advanced techniques with the most recently developed.
8.2.1 Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE)
Microwaves are part of the electromagnetic spectrum of light with a range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz, and wavelengths of these waves range from 1 cm−1 to 1 m−1 [60]. These waves are made up of two perpendicular oscillating fields which are used as energy and information carriers.
In this extraction process, the use of microwave energy results in faster heating. Due to the exposure of each molecule to the microwave field, its direct effects include, thermal gradients reduction, volume generation due to heat, equipment size reduction, because of the higher process rates, and thus increase in productivity, through better usage of the same equipment process volume [61]. MAE is a feasible green solvent extraction procedure as it uses water or alcohol at elevated temperature and controlled pressure conditions (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Schematic representation of microwave-assisted extraction equipment [62].
This procedure has demonstrated various benefits like ease to handle and understand steadiness. Many studies reported that MAE has higher yields and is significantly faster than conventional methods for extracting active substances from plant materials [48, 54, 62]. MAE can be presented as a potential alternative to the traditional soli-liquid extraction techniques. A few of the potential advantages are as follow:
a lesser amount of solvent is required (few milliliters of solvent can be used);
shorter extraction time, from few seconds to few minutes (15–20 min);
improved extraction yield;
favorable for thermolabile constituents;
heavy metals and pesticides residue which is present in the trace can be extracted from a few milligrams of plant sample;
during extraction, it provides a stirring, by which the mass transfer phenomenon is improved [54, 60, 62, 63].
MAE intensification needs special equipment to be functional, and electricity produces waves, leading to higher investments and higher operating costs than conventional methods [64]. Banar and collaborators extracted the bioactive compounds from Urtica dioica grown in Lebanon using conventional methods (maceration, reflux, Soxhlet, hydrodistillation, Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) and Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)) with different solvents. Their results revealed that MAE was the most effective technique. The extraction time was reduced, the lesser solvent was used and the amount of extracted compounds was increased [65].
8.2.2 Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) or sonication extraction
This extraction method involves using ultrasound with frequencies ranging from 20 to 2000 KHz; this increases the permeability of cell walls and produce cavitation. Although the process is helpful in some cases, its large-scale application is limited due to its high cost. The most noticeable disadvantage of the procedure is the occasional but known deleterious effect of ultrasound energy on the active components of the medicinal plants through the formation of free radicals and consequently undesirable changes on the drug molecules [50]. The schematic representation of the equipment is given below (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Schematic representation of an ultrasound-assisted extraction equipment.
Factors that affect the efficiency of UAE are extraction time, power, solvent, Liquid/Solid (L/S) ratio, plant material, frequency, amplitude, and intensity. UAE more advantageous than other advanced extraction methods and provided the best mass and heat transfer efficiency, lowest energy consumption and carbon emission. It was reported to yield high total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, or specific active compounds [62, 66].
8.2.3 Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) or accelerated solvent extraction (ASE)
Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) also known as pressurized fluid extraction (PFE), accelerated solvent extraction (ASE), and pressurized solvent extraction (PSE), or as enhanced solvent extraction system (ESE) [67].
Dionex Corporation introduced PLE in 1995 as an alternative to maceration, percolation, sonication, Soxhlet extraction, etc. It is an automated technique for extracting solid samples with liquid solvents (either aqueous or organic, single or mixtures) above their boiling point, combine high pressures (4–12 MPa) and moderate to high temperatures (50–300°C) [68]. When water is the extraction solvent, different terms are used to define the method, that includes hot water extraction (HWE), subcritical water extraction (SWE), high-temperature water extraction (HTWE), hot water extract pressurized (PHWE), liquid water extraction or superheated water extraction [67]. Sample size, solvent, pressure, temperature, pH, flow rate, extraction time are the standard parameters influencing the PLE process, with temperature and solvent type being the most significant ones [69, 70, 71].
In this process, for a short period of time (5–10 min), a cartridge in which the ample has been placed is filled with an extracting solvent and used to statically extract the sample under elevated temperature and pressure. To purge the sample extract from the extraction cell into a collector flask pressurized gas is used (Figure 5) [68].
Figure 5.
Scheme of pressurized liquid extraction equipment [68].
To increase the efficiency of this extraction process, environmentally friendly liquid solvents are used at moderate to elevated temperature and pressure [72]. The increased temperature causes dramatic changes in the physical–chemical properties of water, enhances the analytes’ solubility, breaks matrix-analyte interactions achieving a higher diffusion rate, and accelerates the extraction process by increasing the diffusivity of the solvent. The increased pressure in contrast, keeps the solvent in a liquid state without boiling and forces the solvent to penetrate the matrix pores [55, 73, 74, 75].
The main advantages of this technique are: (i) faster extraction from 15 to 50 min, (ii) low quantity of solvents (15–40 mL), and no filtration is required. However, costly equipment and the need for a throughout optimization of variables to avoid a matrix-dependent efficiency are the main demerits [72, 73, 74].
8.2.4 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)
SFE is used for separating components from the matrix with the application of supercritical fluids as the extracting solvent (Figure 6) [30].
Figure 6.
Schematic diagram of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) set-up [76].
Using CO2 as the extracting fluid has many advantages. Besides, its lower boiling point (31°C) and its critical pressure (74 bar). Moreover, carbon dioxide is abundant in nature, safe and inexpensive. But while carbon dioxide is the preferred fluid for SFE, it possesses several polarity limitations. When extracting polar solutes and when strong analyte-matrix interactions are present solvent polarity is crucial. Carbon dioxide fluid is usually mixed with organic solvents to alleviate the polarity limitations (Figure 7) [2].
Figure 7.
Schematic representation of a supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) system [62].
The SFE extraction procedure possesses distinct advantages:
the extraction of constituents is carried out at a low temperature, strictly avoiding damage from heat and some organic solvents. SFE offers gentle treatment for heat-sensitive material;
fragrances and aroma remain unchanged;
CO2 is an inexpensive solvent;
No solvent residues are left behind;
possibility of direct coupling with analytical chromatographic techniques such as gas chromatography (GC) or supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC);
environmentally friendly extraction procedure. CO2 as the solvent does not cause environmental problems and is physiologically harmless, germicidal, and non-flammable.
Some specific disadvantages of this method are:
high investment cost;
the use of high pressures leads to capital costs for the plant, and operating costs may also be high, so the number of commercial processes utilizing supercritical fluid extraction is relatively small, due mainly to the existence of more economical methods;
high polar substances (sugars, amino acids, inorganic salts, proteins, etc.) are soluble;
phase equilibrium of the solvent/solute system is complex and making design of extraction conditions is difficult.
SFE finds extensive application in extracting pesticides, environmental samples, foods and fragrances, essential oils, polymers, and natural products [50, 77]. Conde-Hernández and collaborators extracted the essential oil of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) by S-CO2 extraction, hydro distillation and steam distillation. They found that both yields of essential oil and antioxidant activity of SFC extract were higher than those from the other two methods [78, 79].
8.2.5 Pulsed electric field (PEF) extraction
Pulsed electric field extraction is a technique based on the exposure of vegetable matrix to an electrical potential. A transformer generates an electric pulse, increasing voltages from 140 or 220 V to 1000 V, or even greater than that (25000 V). A capacitor transforms this high voltage in a closed chamber with metallic electrodes. The general scheme of PEF equipment is presented in Figure 8 [80].
Figure 8.
General scheme of a PEF equipment process.
This “cold” extraction assisted by PEF prevent the degradation of the cell and the extraction of components from the intracellular vacuoles [81]. It considerably increases the yield and decreases the time because it can increase mass transfer by destroying membrane structures during the extraction process.
Specific energy input, treatment temperature and field strength are considered among parameters that can influence the treatment efficacy of the PEF extraction. It is known as a non-thermal method which reduces the decomposition of the thermolabile components [47].
8.2.6 Enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE)
The EAE is an enzymatic pre-treatment that is carried out by the addition of specific hydrolyzing enzymes during the extraction step. In the cell membrane and cell wall structure, micelles are formed by macromolecules such as polysaccharides and protein. The coagulation and denaturation of proteins at high temperatures during extraction are the main barriers to extracting natural products. EAE enhance the extraction efficiency due to the hydrolytic action of the enzymes on the components of the cell wall and membrane and the macromolecules inside the cell, which facilitate the release of the natural products. Cellulose, α-amylase, and pectinase are hydrolyzing enzymes usually employed in EAE [47, 82]. This procedure is suitable for extracting various bioactive substances from plant matrices, but after filtration the obtained fraction is rich in small water-soluble molecules that include polyphenols and flavonoids [82].
8.2.7 Turbo-distillation extraction or turbo-extraction (turbolysis)
Turbo-distillation was patented in 1983 by Martel, and has been used in several companies as an industrial purpose for extracting EOs from hard matrixes (such as wood, bark, and seeds) [83]. The extraction process is similar to hydrodistillation with slight modifications [84]. The turbo-extraction or turbolysis is based on extraction with stirring and simultaneous reduction of particle size. Due to of high shearing force, cells disruption leads to rapid dissolution of the active constituents. It results in an extraction time of the order of minutes and the plant content is almost completely depleted [85]. Compare to hydrodistillation, turbo-distillation minimize extraction time and energy consumption and prevents the degradation of volatile constituents (Figure 9) [84].
Figure 9.
Laboratory turbo-Clevenger: (a) schematic, (b) bench apparatus. The vessel (1); the rotor (2); the turbo shredder (3); the thermometer (4); the distillation column (5); the condenser (6); the receiver-cum separator (7) [46, 84].
In 2017, Martins and collaborators studied the turbo-extraction of stevioside and rebaudosideo A from Stevia rebaudiana dried and powdered leaves. The extraction is carried out by applying a fractional factorial design that allowed the evaluation of the main effects of drug powder size, solvent to drug ratio by weight, temperature, stirring and time on the yield of these glycosides. Their work demonstrated that turbo-extraction was promising for Stevia rebaudiana glycosides extraction. It stimulated new research on the purification of these extracts, which became an exciting source of income for developing countries such as India and Brazil [86]. Perino and collaborators showed that the essential oil extracted by turbodistillation in 30 minutes were quantitatively (yield and kinetics profile) and qualitatively (aromatic profile) similar to those obtained using conventional hydrodistillation in 3 hours. They concluded that this process, which gave a reduced extraction time, was perfectly adapted to the extraction of hard matrixes [84]. It can be advantageous over dynamic maceration.
8.2.8 Counter-current extraction (CCE)
In this procedure, the wet raw material is pulverized to produce a fine slurry. The target material is moved in one direction (usually as a fine slurry) within a cylindrical extractor where it comes in contact with extracting solvent. Further, the starting material moves making more concentrated extract. Thus, complete extraction is possible when the amounts of material and the flow rate of solvent are optimized the complete extraction is possible. The process is extremely efficient, takes little time and poses no danger when high temperature is applied. Lastly, the extracts come out sufficiently concentrated at one end of the extractor, while the residue falls on the other end [50]. This extraction procedure has great advantages:
compared to other methods such as maceration, decoction, percolation a unit amount of the plant material cab be extracted with a much smaller volume of solvent;
CCE is usually performed at room temperature, which avoids the thermolabile constituents from being exposed to heat which is used in most other techniques;
Since the drug is pulverized under wet conditions, the heat generated during comminution is neutralized by water. This once more avoids the thermal degradation of components from heat exposure;
Compare to continuous hot extraction, CCE is rated to be more efficient and effective.
8.2.9 Solid-phase extraction (SPE)
Solid-phase extraction (SPE) is a sample preparation technology using chromatographic packing material, solid particle, commonly found in a cartridge-type device, to chemically separate the different components. Samples are almost constantly in the liquid state (although special applications can be run with some samples in the gas phase). In this method, the dissolved or suspended compounds in a liquid mixture are separated from other compounds depending on their physical and chemical properties. The technically correct name for this technology is “Liquid–Solid Phase Extraction”, since the chromatographic particles are solid and the sample is in the liquid state [87].
SPE has many benefits, but four significant benefits deserve special attention:
simplification of complex sample matrix along with compound purification;
reduce ion suppression or enhancement in MS applications;
capability to fractionate sample matrix to analyze compounds by class;
trace concentration (enrichment) of very low-level compounds.
This rapid, economical and sensitive technique uses different types of cartridges and disks, with various sorbents, where the solute molecules are preferentially attached over the stationary phase.
8.2.10 High-voltage-assisted extraction
The principle of this equipment is similar to PEF, with the difference that electrical discharge is made through a small point. For this, a needle electrode is used from which the release is made in a plate ground electrode.
These methods are known as greener methods, are often better than conventional ones in terms of high yields, high selectivity, lower solvent consumption and shorter extraction time. They are also found to be environmentally ecofriendly since energy, and organic solvent consumption are reduced. The combination of extraction methods to obtain high purity extracts or high overall yields are described in the literature [40, 88, 89, 90]. Its main advantage is the operability in continuous mode, which is very important from an industrial and economic point of view [80].
8.2.11 Phytonics process
A new solvent-based on hydrofluorocarbon-134a and a new technology to optimize its remarkable properties in the extraction of plant material offer significant environmental advantages and health and safety benefits over traditional processes to produce advanced quality natural fragrant oil, flavors and biological extracts.
The technology known as “phytonics process” was developed and patented by Advanced Phytonics Limited (Manchester, UK). Fragrant components of EOs and biological or phytopharmacological extracts that can be used straightly without additional chemical or physical treatment are the products frequently extracted by this process. The properties of the new generation of fluorocarbon solvents have been applied to the extraction of plant material. The core of the solvent is 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane, better known as hydrofluorocarbon-134a (HFC-134a) with a boiling point of – 25°C; a vapor pressure of 5.6 bar at ambient temperature. It is flammable and non-toxic. This product was developed as a replacement for chlorofluorocarbons and more importantly, it does not deplete the ozone layer. By most standards this is a poor solvent that is unable to break up (dissolve) plant waste.
The process is advantageous because the solvents can be customized: by using modified solvents with HFC-134a, the process can be made highly selective in extracting a specific class of phytoconstituents. Likewise, to withdraw a broader spectrum of constituents other modified solvents can be employed. The biological products obtained by this process contain extremely low residual solvent. Residuals are constantly below the levels of detection and are fewer than 20 parts per billion. Therefore, selected solvents have minimal potential reaction effects on the botanical material, and are neither acidic nor alkaline. At the end of each production cycle, the processing plant is sealed so that solvents are constantly recycled and totally recovered. Electricity is the unique utility required to perform these systems and, even then, they consume little energy. There is no scope for the escape of the solvents, and even if some solvents come to escape, they pose no threat to the ozone layer because they do not contain chlorine. The waste product (biomass) from these plants is dry and “ecofriendly” to handle.
As the benefits of this procedure, we have the following:
the phytonic process is soft and its products are never damaged by exposure to temperatures over ambient because relatively low temperatures are employed;
vacuum stripping is necessary which, in other processes, leads to the loss of precious volatiles;
the process is performed completely at neutral pH, and in without oxygen, the products never suffer acid hydrolysis damage or oxidation;
the procedure is extremely selective, and offer a choice of operating conditions end products;
it requires a minimum amount of electrical energy;
it is less threatening to the environment;
no harmful emission in the atmosphere and the subsequent waste products (spent biomass) are inoffensive and pose no effluent disposal problems;
the solvents employed are neither toxic, nor flammable, or ozone-depleting;
the solvents are entirely recycled within the system.
In biotechnology, the utilization of the phytonics process is frequently employed to extract (e.g., for the production of antibiotics), herbal drug, food, EOs and flavor industries, and pharmacologically active products. It is particularly used to produce top-quality pharmaceutical-grade extracts, pharmacologically active intermediates, antibiotic extracts, and phytopharmaceuticals. However, the fact that it is used in all these areas prevents its use in other areas. The technique is being used to extract high-quality essential oils, oleoresins, natural food colors, flavors and aromatic oils from all types of plant material. The technique is also used in refining crude products obtained from other extraction processes. It provides extraction without wax or other contaminants. It helps in the removal of many biocides from contaminated biomass [50].
8.3 Liquid–Liquid extraction (partitioning)
Upon extraction of the solids and release of desired organics into the extraction solvent, the most common next step is a liquid–liquid extraction, taking advantage of mixing two (or sometimes three or even more that can establish two phases) non miscible solvents, for example, water and ether. The standard rule of thumb is that polar compounds go into polar solvents (e.g., amino acids, sugars, and proteins remain in water). To the contrary, the nonpolar components usually remain in the organic phase (e.g., steroids, terpenoids, waxes, and carotenoids are typically extracted into a solvent such as ethyl acetate).
It is important to minimize interference from compounds that may coextract with the target compounds during the extraction of plant material by conventional or by advanced methods. It is also needed to avoid contamination of the extract and to prevent decomposition of important metabolites or artifact formation as a result of extraction conditions or solvent impurities [3]. Regardless of the extracting procedure employed, the resulting solution should be filtered to withdraw whatever particulate matter. Due to the accompanying increased risk of formation of artifact and decomposition or isomerization of extract components plant extract should not be stored in the solvent for a long time at room temperature or in sunlight because [3].
9. Extraction of specific metabolites
The chemical investigation profile of a plant extract, fractionation of a crude extract is suitable to isolate the major classes of compounds from each other before further chromatographic analysis. One procedure based on varying polarity that might be used on an alkaloids-containing plant is indicated in Figure 10. The type and quantity of components to be separate into different fractions will, vary from plant to plant. Such procedure can be modified when labile substances are investigated [47].
Figure 10.
A general procedure for extracting fresh plant tissues and fractionating into different classes according to polarity.
9.1 Extraction of essential oils (EOs)
Essential oils (EOs) are concentrated aromatic hydrophobic oily volatile liquids characterized by a strong odor and produced by all plant organs [91]. They are obtained from raw material by several extraction techniques such as water or steam distillation, hydrodiffusion, solvent extraction, Soxhlet extraction, expression under pressure or cold pressing method, also known as scarification method, microwave-assisted extraction, microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity, supercritical fluid or subcritical water extractions. The best extraction method to use depends on the ease of evaporating (volatility) and the hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity (polarity) of the desired components [92, 93, 94, 95, 96]. However, the three most commonly applied techniques to extract EOs are Soxhlet, hydrodistillation, and SFE [97]. The extraction method chosen significantly affects the chemical composition of EOs [91]. Benmoussa and collaborators have recently found that the microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity (MHG) appeared like a rapid process, a green technology, and a desirable alternative protocol to enhance both the quality and the quantity of the EOs extracted from medicinal and aromatic plants [92].
9.2 Extraction of fats and oils
Lipids contain a broad category of non-polar molecules that are barely soluble or completely insoluble in water, but soluble in an organic solvent such as n-hexane, diethyl ether, chloroform, and alcohol [98]. Fats are triglycerides that are solid or semi-solid at room temperature, while oil is also triglycerides that are liquid or clear liquid at room temperature, however, their chemistry is determined by the degree of solubility. Fats and oil may be of vegetable, animal, and marine origin [99]. Oilseeds and fats production requires several units-operations, starting with a pre-treatment stage. It is often necessary to dry the sample before oil extraction using solvents because many organic solvents are not miscible with water and cannot easily penetrate the matrix and extraction would be inefficient [100]. The processing methods used are usually neither specific to lipids, nor insure 100% recovery of the lipid material because of the nature of the matrix. Diethyl ether and petroleum ether stands as favorite solvents in the case of crude fat because they are relatively non polar, hence extract most non-polar components [98].
Extraction process of edible oils may have negative effects on taste, stability, appearance or nutritional value, preserve tocopherols, and prevent chemical changes in the triacylglycerol. Fats and oil can be extracted from plants using conventional and advanced techniques that include hot water extraction, cold pressing, solvent extraction, high-pressure solvent extraction, microwave –assisted extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction [99]. Extraction of oil involves several mechanisms for removing a liquid from a solid such as leaching, washing, diffusion and dialysis [98]. In the case of palm oil (seeds of Elaeis oleifera), crude oil is obtained after a digestion step followed by a pressing stage. Digestion helps the rupture or breaking down the oil-bearing cells, thus releasing the palm oil in the fruit [101, 102, 103]. Enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE) is an efficient method to improve lipid extraction from several different biomasses such as soybean, sunflower, and microalgae [104, 105].
The main side reactions reported during oil processing are (i) trans fatty acid formation, (ii) cis-trans isomerization, (iii) and physical loss [99]. Before oilseeds processing, moisture must not exceed a certain limit to prevent growth of fungi and the occurring lipase formation, resulting in a free fatty acid increase [98].
9.3 Volatile organic compounds
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are odorant compounds emitted from plant tissues. Plants can produce a high diversity of VOCs. They are responsible for the distinct aroma of certain dried plants, including the tea, Camellia sinensis. VOCs can therefore be used as an indicator of tea quality [106, 107]. Several VOCs are emitted as a natural defense mechanism against arthropods and pathogen attacks [108, 109].
Hydro-distillation (HD), steam distillation (SD), simultaneous distillation solvent extraction (SDE), microwave-assisted hydro-distillation (MWHD), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), purge and trap, and solid phase microextraction (SPME), are used to extract VOCs [110].
Verde and collaborators conducted a work to optimize the MAE of the volatile oil terpenes from Pterodon emarginatus fruits and characterize the volatile compounds. According to their study, MAE proved to be feasible with a particular interest in avoiding the need of organic solvents in volatile oil extraction from plants. They proved that a minimum amount of water could be enough to bring result in extraction. That green methodology appears to be an excellent alternative to extract terpenes from aromatic plants [111].
9.4 Alkaloids
The alkaloids are low molecular weight nitrogen-containing compounds found mainly in plants and a lesser extent in microorganisms and animals. They contain one or more nitrogen atoms, typically as primary, secondary, or tertiary amines, which usually confers basicity on the alkaloids. If the free electron pair on the nitrogen atom is not involve in mesomerism, the salt formation can occur mineral acids. This fundamental property of alkaloids is used in their extraction and further clan-up. According to the nature of the nitrogen-containing structure, alkaloids are classified as pyrrolidine, piperidine, quinoline, isoquinoline, indole, etc. [27].
Two methods may be used for alkaloids extraction. One is to basify the plant material using diethylamine or ammonia and extract with an organic solvent [112, 113]. Alkaloids are substances with a basic character and their solubility is a function of pH. They are soluble in low polar organic solvents in basic medium, while in acidic medium, they are soluble in water.
Alkaloids containing basic amines can be selectively extracted using a modified version of the classical “acid–base shake-out” method (Figure 11).
Figure 11.
General procedure to obtain alkaloidal extracts from crude plant material [114].
As recommendations, mineral acids and strong bases should be avoided in extracting alkaloids (and plant material in general) because of the risk of artifact formation [3, 114, 115].
9.4.1 Extraction of caffeine
Caffeine is a natural product found in Coffee, cocoa beans, kola nuts, and tea leaves in a substantial amount. Its efficient extraction from Coffee relies heavily on the properties of caffeine and other components present in Coffee. One of the most popular species of the genus whose seeds contains caffeine is Coffea arabica (Figure 12). Several methods can be used to extract caffeine, including Ultrasonic extraction, Heat Reflux extraction, and Soxhlet extraction. Heat Reflux extraction is commonly used methods to extract caffeine from Coffee [116]. The initial solvent used in the extraction of caffeine is water. Caffeine is sparingly soluble in water at ambient temperature (2 g/100 mL) but increasing when mixed in boiled water (100°C) with a yield of 66 g/ 100 mL. Meanwhile, the solubility of caffeine in chloroform, toluene, acetone and ethyl acetate is relatively high at ambient temperature [116, 117]. Caffeine is a weakly basic, white colorless powder in its anhydrous state.
Figure 12.
Chemical structure and a few data of caffeine.
There are several ways to remove caffeine from coffee. Here are few reported procedures:
9.4.1.1 Extraction procedure I: solvent extraction using dichloromethane (DCM)
Coffee seeds are firstly grounded and refluxed in an aqueous sodium carbonate solution for about 20 minutes under constant stirring. After filtration of the resulted mixture to filtrate is allowed for cooling at room temperature. The DCM is use to perform the partition of the aqueous filtrate. The process is repeated several times to extract more caffeine. The DCM fractions are then mixed with anhydrous sodium sulfate to remove water traces, the DCM-caffeine solution is filtered through reverse-phase filter paper, which will trap any water and residual matter. The DCM solution is allowed to evaporate and the white amorphous powder of caffeine is obtained [118].
The addition of sodium carbonate converts the protonated form of caffeine, which is naturally present in coffee, to its free caffeine form. During the extraction of caffeine, tannins being soluble in water and organic solvents can interfere with extraction. A weak base such as calcium carbonate or sodium sulphate can be added to break down tannins esters bonds into glucose and calcium or sodium salts of gallic acid, both of which will not be extracted into the organic solvent.
Some benefits are reported when using this method: caffeine is easily extracted from the final product after avoiding the use of flammable and toxic solvents. In this process, caffeine diffuses into supercritical CO2 with water. Coffee beans are introduced at the top while fresh CO2 is introducing at the bottom of an extractor vessel in a continuous extraction to remove caffeine. The recovery is accomplished in a separate absorption chamber containing water. Higher temperature and pressure are mandatory to obtain great yields. A pretreatment step is needed in this process. The addition of polar cosolvents affects cosolvent solute specific chemical or physical interactions. The extraction rate is accelerated by the solvent–cosolvent interaction and makes the extraction easier. The material is humidified with ultrapure water for prewetting, this will destroy the hydrogen bonds that link the caffeine to its natural matrix. Cell membrane swelling enhances solute diffusion. Subsequently, the quality of caffeine extracted can reach a purity >94%, which is generally the standard criteria for use in the soft drink and drug companies [119].
There are some benefits to use charcoal: it is cheaper, “green,” and ease to regenerate by heat and steam. The choice of active charcoal with the appropriate number of micropores and a specific area up to 1000 m2/gram is mandatory for good absorption performance.
Cleaned green coffee beans are firstly soak in water, and the caffeine and other soluble content transferred to the aqueous phase. During the filtration through the activated charcoal, solely caffeine will continue to migrate in water. The recovered and dried coffee beans are now decaffeinated [30].
9.4.2 Extraction of morphine
The poppy straw (Papaver somniferum capsules) produces a white sticky latex known as opium. Usually, two weeks after the petals fall from the bud farmers harvest and collect opium. To allow the viscous latex to ooze out slowly farmers generally use sharp blade to do two to five incisions into the pod’s skin. 24-hours after incisions of the pod, opium is then collected. This gummy latex, or opium (poppy tears), is a complex mixture containing at least 50 different alkaloids (Figure 11). Morphine is the major alkaloid, making up to 8–17% of the dry weight of opium. The chemical structure of morphine was established in 1925 despite de fact it has been used for centuries. Even if the immense majority of morphine continues to be harvested from the opium poppy, there are at least three classical processes (all old) for the extraction of morphine from simple starting material [120].
9.4.2.1 Extraction by Merck process
Cold water is used to treat the opium and the obtained aqueous solution concentrated until syrupy consistence. Powered sodium carbonate is added to precipitate hot and heated as long as ammonia given off; it is recommended that the solution remain alkaline to phenolphthalein and left aside four 24 hours at room temperature. After standing, the precipitate is filtered and cold water is use to wash several times until the wash-water become colorless. The precipitate is dissolved in alcohol at 85°C and the alcoholic solution is allowed for evaporation until dryness, and the residue is exhausted after neutralization with little amount of acetic acid. Decolorizing charcoal is used to treat the acidic solution and afterward precipitated with ammonia, avoiding excess is important. After filtration, the precipitate is washed and purified by crystallization in alcohol; concentration of the alcoholic mother-liquor yields a further quantity of morphine. This procedure was reported to be impossible to be consider for industrial scale because of the slight solubility of morphine is alcohol [120].
9.4.2.2 The Thiboumery and Mohr process
The gummy opium in divide into thin slices and treated with hot water thrice of its weight until obtain a homogeneous paste. After filtration the residue is pressed and treated again with thrice its weight in water. The resulted solutions are combined and allowed to evaporation until half their volume and poured into boiling milk of lime. One part of lime in ten parts of water should be used for four parts of opium; it is then filtered off again. The lime solutions are united and concentrated to a quantity twice the weight of the opium used. The solution is filtered, heated to boiling, and morphine is precipitated by adding ammonium chloride. The solution is filtrated after cooling at room temperature, and the precipitate is washed, then purified by solution in hydrochloric acid and crystallization of the morphine hydrochloride. It is an attractive process since there are no technical difficulties and the morphine is well separated from the secondary alkaloids. The morphine solutions are relatively clean; however, the yield might be bad. The contributory factors may be the oxidation of morphine in alkaline solution, and the fact that the lime always retains morphine [120].
9.4.2.3 The Roberson-Gregory process
Five to ten times its weight of cold distilled water is used to completely exhaust the opium. The resultant solution is evaporated to the consistency of a soft extract. The process is repeated with cold distilled water. This aqueous re-extraction causes impurities to precipitate, they are filtered off and the solution obtained is evaporated until its density is 10° Baumé. For each kilogram of opium, one hundred and twenty grams of calcium chloride are added to the boiling liquor, which is further diluted with an amount of cold water equal to its volume. A mixture of a precipitate of meconate and sulfate of calcium is thus formed and is filtered off. After filtration, the filtrate is once more concentrated to produce a new deposit which consist almost entirely of calcium meconate. After removal of the residue by filtration, the filtrate is left to stand for few days until it becomes a crystalline mass called “Gregory’s salt”. It is a mixture of hydrochloride and codeine hydrochloride. The crystals obtained are drained and then placed in a cloth and squeezed out in the presser. Successive crystallization is employed and each time animal charcoal is used to decolorize the solutions. To separate morphine to codeine, sufficiently pure crystals are dissolve in water and ammonia is therefore added to precipitate morphine while codeine remains in aqueous solution.
The first disadvantage of this procedure is that 20 to 25% of the morphine is left with the secondary alkaloids in the brown and viscous mother-liquids after filtration of the Gregory’s salt. The second drawback is that the hydrochloride of morphine and codeine crystallize in furry needles retains the mother-liquids in which the crystallization occurred. Several successive crystallization and subsequent recoveries are required for purification, which is a time-consuming process [120].
Later in 1957, an efficient method of extraction of morphine from poppy straw was developed by Mehltretter and Weakley. Water-saturated isobutanol containing 0.23% ammonia was used to extract morphine. Almost all the alkaloid was absorbed by passing off the raw opium through a cation exchange ions resin bed. Quantitative elution of morphine from the bed was achieved with dilute aqueous alkali. After neutralization and concentration, the crude morphine is obtained, and the eluate can be converted to hydrochloride pharmaceutical grade without difficulty. The general recovery of morphine was 90% [121].
Cooper and Nicola have reported recently a straightforward process for extraction of morphine with a good overall yield (Figures 11 and 13). Morphine and related alkaloids can be purified from opium resin and crude extracts by extraction in the following manner: first, soaking the resin with diluted sulfuric acid, which releases the alkaloids into solution. Either ammonium hydroxide or sodium carbonate then precipitates the alkaloids. The last step separates morphine from other opium alkaloids. Today, morphine is isolated from opium in relatively large quantities: over 1000 tons per year (Figure 14) [30].
Figure 13.
Extraction of raw opium from poppy straw.
Figure 14.
Extraction protocol of morphine from raw opium by Cooper and Nicola [30].
Till date, morphine is used as a powerful painkiller to alleviate severe pain by acting straightaway on the brain. It also possesses euphoric and hallucinatory effects. Morphine can also be chemically converted by an acetylation reaction using acetic anhydride and pyridine to create a much more potent form of the narcotic drug known as heroin [30].
9.5 Glycosides
Glycosides are relatively polar, and their polarity depends on both the number and type of sugar moieties attached to the aglycone. Cardiac glycosides have bulky steroidal aglycone, which are soluble in chloroform. However, most glycosides are extracted using polar solvents like acetone, methanol, ethanol, water or mixtures of these solvents. When extraction in done using water as solvent, enzymatic breakdown can happen. This will be avoid by using boiling water or add important proportions of alcohol or ammonium sulfate to the extract. In some cases, it may be the hydrolytic separation of the aglycone and sugar before or after extraction [122, 123].
9.6 Total phenolic and total flavonoids content
Phenolic compounds are well-known phytochemicals found in almost all plants. They can be simple phenols, benzoic and cinnamic acid derivatives, coumarins, tannins, lignins, lignans, and flavonoids [124]. Flavonoids are a group of plant constituents, the most common phenolic compound produce by plants as secondary metabolites in response to diverse biotic and abiotic factors [63, 82, 124]. They are responsible for the characteristics of flavor, color and pharmacological activities [67, 80, 125]. Because of their positive effects on human and animal health, and medical application for disease therapy and chemoprevention, interest in flavonoids increases [126, 127]. Complete extraction of phenolics is the next critical step after the sample preparation. The most common procedures of extraction of phenolics employ solvents, either organic or inorganic. Different parameters may influence the extraction yield, that includes temperature, the solvent used, time, solvent-to-sample ratio, as well as the number of repeated extractions of the plant material [124].
There is no universal extraction method and each optimized procedure is unique [82]. Due to the complex nature of the sample matrix and diverse chemical characteristics of flavonoids, it is consensual among scholars that there is no single or/and standard method to be used for every material or flavonoids to be extracted at present [67]. Maceration, water infusion, and Soxhlet extractions are generally used in research laboratories and/or in small manufacturing companies. The choice of solvent for extraction such as water, acetone, ethyl acetate, alcohols (methanol, ethanol, and propanol), and their mixtures will influence phenolics’ extraction [124, 128]. The extraction of flavonoids-containing sample material are still performed by simple direct solvent extraction. It can also be extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus, first with n-hexane or diethyl ether to remove fats, and then with ethyl acetate or ethanol to obtain total phenols. This procedure is unsuitable for thermolabile components. A commodious and frequently used technique is sequential solvent extraction. Dichloromethane is used in the first step to remove flavonoid aglycones and non-polar components. A subsequent step using alcohol or alcohol-water mixtures will therefore extract flavonoid glycosides and other polar constituents. Cowan indicated that acetone was the most selective solvent for extracting flavonoids [129]. Anokwuru and collaborators discovered that acetone and N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) were highly influential for removing antioxidants [130]. In most cases, flavonoids and polyphenols are coextracted [82]. Furthermore, several promising methods (Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), Enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE), Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), Matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD), and Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) are nowadays used with increased yields and lower cost as main advantages [8, 82].
Due to the multiplicity of hydroxyl functions, phenols tend to be relatively polar and dissolve in aqueous alcohols. They may also be extracted or partitioned into aqueous alkali as phenolate salts as they are weak acids. A problem encountered with phenolic compounds is that they can undergo extensive polymerization reaction by polyphenol oxidation. This reaction is responsible for developing brown coloration in damaged plant material when exposed to the air and in certain extracts. The polymerization reaction is catalyzed by acid [131].
9.7 Total mixture of crude saponins
The procedure for isolating mixtures of crude saponins (i.e., steroidal or triterpene glycosides) is shown in Figure 15. Fats are removed from the plant material by treating with n-hexane and after extraction with methanol. The resultant methanol extract is evaporated under vacuum and suspended in deionized water (presaturated with n-butanol), and partitioned with n-butanol. Diethyl ether is added to the butanol solution to precipitate the saponins [3, 132]. Selective extraction and fractionation of plant sterols (including sapogenins, bufadienolides, and cardiac glycosides) using manipulations and liquid/liquid partitioning have been described [3, 133]. Partitioning between the aqueous phthalic anhydride and organic solvent can be used to separate alcohols from non-alcohols. The alcohols partition into the aqueous layer as half-phthalates and can be regenerated by treatment with sodium methoxide in methanol. Sterols with ketone functional groups can be set-apart from non-ketones by liquid/liquid partition between organic and aqueous layers using Girard’s hydrazide reagents (H.CH2.NR3+Cl−), and generate ketones by acid hydrolysis [3, 133].
Figure 15.
General fractionation procedure to obtain a precipitate of crude saponin from plants, adapted from the literature [132].
10. Conclusion
There is a clear and growing interest in the extraction procedure of natural products and their isolation, identification, and applications. Research innovation and safe extraction processes are of primary importance in modern analytical processes, which are economically viable and environmental friendly. In the process of plant extracting plant material, it is peremptory to reduce interference of components that may be co-extracted with the target compounds, and to bypass contamination of the extract, moreover to prevent degradation of necessary metabolites or the formation of artifact as a result of extraction conditions or solvent impurities. Regardless of the extraction procedure, the resulting solution should be filtered to remove any particulate matter. Plant extracts should be stored for short time at room temperature or in sunlight to avoid increasing risks associated with the production of artifact making and additionally degradation or isomerization of extract components. The most suitable extraction procedure depends on the matrix of the plants and the type of compost, and should follow clear selection criteria.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript or in the decision to publish the results.
\n',keywords:"Herbs, Medicinal plants, Plants extracts, Extraction, Bioactive ingredients, Phytoconstituents, Secondary metabolites, Phytochemicals",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77433.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77433.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77433",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77433",totalDownloads:1041,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"April 5th 2021",dateReviewed:"May 27th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 27th 2021",datePublished:"May 11th 2022",dateFinished:"July 6th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Human beings have relied on herbs and medicinal plants as sources of food and remedy from time immemorial. Bioactive compounds from plants are currently the subject of much research interest, but their extraction as part of phytochemical and/or biological investigations present specific challenges. Herbalists or scientists have developed many protocols of extraction of bioactive ingredients to ensure the effectiveness and the efficacy of crude drugs that were used to get relief from sickness. With the advent of new leads from plants such as morphine, quinine, taxol, artemisinin, and alkaloids from Voacanga species, a lot of attention is paid to the mode of extraction of active phytochemicals to limit the cost linked to the synthesis and isolation. Thus, the extraction of active compounds from plants needs appropriate extraction methods and techniques that provide bioactive ingredients-rich extracts and fractions. The extraction procedures, therefore, play a critical role in the yield, the nature of phytochemical content, etc. This chapter aims to present, describe, and compare extraction procedures of bioactive compounds from herbs and medicinal plants.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77433",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77433",signatures:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane, Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules, Gaber El-Saber Batiha, Iftikhar Ali and Lenta Ndjakou Bruno",book:{id:"10356",type:"book",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Natural Medicinal Plants",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-276-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-275-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-277-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"224515",title:"Dr.",name:"Fongang Fotsing",middleName:null,surname:"Yannick Stéphane",fullName:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane",slug:"fongang-fotsing-yannick-stephane",email:"fongangfys@yahoo.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"227816",title:"Dr.",name:"Bankeu Kezetas",middleName:null,surname:"Jean Jules",fullName:"Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules",slug:"bankeu-kezetas-jean-jules",email:"bk_jeanjules@yahoo.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"227817",title:"Prof.",name:"Lenta Ndjakou",middleName:null,surname:"Bruno",fullName:"Lenta Ndjakou Bruno",slug:"lenta-ndjakou-bruno",email:"lentabruno@yahoo.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"349790",title:"Prof.",name:"Gaber",middleName:null,surname:"El-Saber Batiha",fullName:"Gaber El-Saber Batiha",slug:"gaber-el-saber-batiha",email:"gaberbatiha@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"357350",title:"Dr.",name:"Iftikhar",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",fullName:"Iftikhar Ali",slug:"iftikhar-ali",email:"iftikharpcr@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Medicinal plants and herbs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Primary and secondary metabolites",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Bioactive compounds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Fresh or dried plant materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Drying procedures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Grinding or powdering plant materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Extraction techniques of actives compounds from plants and herbs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"8.1 Classical and/or conventional techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"8.1.1 Maceration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"8.1.2 Digestion",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"8.1.3 Infusion",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"8.1.4 Lixiviation (elution)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"8.1.5 Decoction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"8.1.6 Tincture",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"8.1.7 Percolation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"8.1.8 Steam distillation and hydrodistillation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"8.1.9 Hot continuous extraction or Sohxlet extraction, soxhletation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"8.1.10 Serial exhaustive extraction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"8.1.11 Fermentation (aqueous-alcoholic extraction)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"8.2 Innovative (non-conventional) techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"8.2.1 Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"8.2.2 Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) or sonication extraction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"8.2.3 Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) or accelerated solvent extraction (ASE)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"8.2.4 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"8.2.5 Pulsed electric field (PEF) extraction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"8.2.6 Enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"8.2.7 Turbo-distillation extraction or turbo-extraction (turbolysis)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27_3",title:"8.2.8 Counter-current extraction (CCE)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"8.2.9 Solid-phase extraction (SPE)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"8.2.10 High-voltage-assisted extraction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"8.2.11 Phytonics process",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"8.3 Liquid–Liquid extraction (partitioning)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_34",title:"9. Extraction of specific metabolites",level:"1"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"9.1 Extraction of essential oils (EOs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35_2",title:"9.2 Extraction of fats and oils",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36_2",title:"9.3 Volatile organic compounds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_37_2",title:"9.4 Alkaloids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_37_3",title:"9.4.1 Extraction of caffeine",level:"3"},{id:"sec_37_4",title:"9.4.1.1 Extraction procedure I: solvent extraction using dichloromethane (DCM)",level:"4"},{id:"sec_38_4",title:"9.4.1.2 Extraction procedure II: supercritical carbon dioxide extraction",level:"4"},{id:"sec_39_4",title:"9.4.1.3 Extraction procedure III: activated charcoal",level:"4"},{id:"sec_41_3",title:"9.4.2 Extraction of morphine",level:"3"},{id:"sec_41_4",title:"9.4.2.1 Extraction by Merck process",level:"4"},{id:"sec_42_4",title:"9.4.2.2 The Thiboumery and Mohr process",level:"4"},{id:"sec_43_4",title:"9.4.2.3 The Roberson-Gregory process",level:"4"},{id:"sec_46_2",title:"9.5 Glycosides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_47_2",title:"9.6 Total phenolic and total flavonoids content",level:"2"},{id:"sec_48_2",title:"9.7 Total mixture of crude saponins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_50",title:"10. 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Extyraction of morphine fron Poppy capsules and its recovery by ion exchange. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (Scientific ed.) 1957; 46(3):193-196'},{id:"B122",body:'Kalia AN. Textbook of industrial pharmacognosy, 1st edition. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd; Noida, India: 2005'},{id:"B123",body:'Mohammed A. Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 1st edition. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd; Noida, India: 2008'},{id:"B124",body:'Khoddami A, Wilkes MA, Roberts TH. Techniques for analysis of plant phenolic compounds. Molecules 2013; 18: 2328-2375. Doi:10.3390/molecules18022328'},{id:"B125",body:'Qing-Wen Z, Li-Gen L, Wen-Cai Y. Techniques for extraction and isolation of natural products: a comprehensive review. Chinese Medecine 2018; 13(20): 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13020-018-0177-x'},{id:"B126",body:'Panche AN, Diwan AD, Chandra SR. Flavonoids: An overview. J. Nutr. Sci. 2016; 5: e47'},{id:"B127",body:'Rana AC and Gulliya B. 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The Chemistry of the Steroids. Wiley, New York, 1957'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane",address:"fongangfys@yahoo.fr",affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Higher Teachers Training College, University of Maroua, Cameroon
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Bamenda, Cameroon
Department of Chemistry, Higher Teacher Training College, University of Yaoundé I, Cameroon
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Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
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CSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
The Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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Corresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
The University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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Corresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
The University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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Corresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
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\\n\\t
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\n
CSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
Corresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
The Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\n
Corresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
The University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\n
Corresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
The University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\n
Corresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\n
\n\t
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Important: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 9th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfPublishedChapters:86,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},subseries:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",annualVolume:11418,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",annualVolume:11419,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",annualVolume:11420,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"Neves",fullName:"Antonio Neves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"220565",title:"Dr.",name:"Jucheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Jucheng Yang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220565/images/5988_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tianjin University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"29299",title:"Prof.",name:"Serestina",middleName:null,surname:"Viriri",fullName:"Serestina Viriri",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOalQAG/Profile_Picture_1620817405517",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of KwaZulu-Natal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315933",title:"Dr.",name:"Yalın",middleName:null,surname:"Baştanlar",fullName:"Yalın Baştanlar",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002qpr7hQAA/Profile_Picture_1621430127547",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",annualVolume:11421,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",fullName:"Elmer Dadios",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111683/images/system/111683.jpg",institutionString:"De La Salle University",institution:{name:"De La Salle University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Philippines"}}},{id:"106873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongwei",middleName:null,surname:"Ge",fullName:"Hongwei Ge",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"171056",title:"Dr.",name:"Sotirios",middleName:null,surname:"Goudos",fullName:"Sotirios Goudos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9IuQAK/Profile_Picture_1622623673666",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"15895",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuremoto",fullName:"Takashi Kuremoto",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLrqQAG/Profile_Picture_1625656196038",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"125844",title:"Prof.",name:"Wellington",middleName:"Pinheiro Dos",surname:"Santos",fullName:"Wellington Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125844/images/4878_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",annualVolume:11422,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. 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The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",annualVolume:11423,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/216284",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"216284"},fullPath:"/profiles/216284",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()