Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Acknowledging current socio-economic and environmental challenges, quality standards ought to be dynamic and flexible so as to cater for different markets and requirements. This book portrays a collection of international papers addressing current research and practice within the areas of engineering and technology, health and education. Amidst striving for "zero defects", "cost-effectiveness" and "tight financial budgets", quality management systems ought to embrace the creator of them all: humans; as the ancient Greek Sophist Protagoras said, "Of all money, Man is the measure" «Πάντων χρημάτων Μέτρον Άνθρωπος» (Plato, Theaetetus 166d).',isbn:"978-953-51-3920-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3919-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4067-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68758",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"quality-management-systems-a-selective-presentation-of-case-studies-showcasing-its-evolution",numberOfPages:206,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a7bb324cdb11307c932cb6a7966a1e00",bookSignature:"Leo D. Kounis",publishedDate:"March 21st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6235.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11613,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:16,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:31,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 6th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 27th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 24th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 21st 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"111582",title:"Dr.",name:"Leo",middleName:"Dimitrios",surname:"Kounis",slug:"leo-kounis",fullName:"Leo Kounis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111582/images/system/111582.jpg",biography:"Leo D. Kounis is the Head of the Department of Communication and Informatics Battalion at the Hellenic Ministry of Defense, Hellenic National Defense General Staff. He obtained his BEng (Hons) degree in Manufacturing Systems Engineering, his MSc in Quality Engineering, and his PhD in Systems Reliability from the University of Hertfordshire, UK. Dr. Kounis has worked as a senior quality engineer in a number of private companies in Greece, and has acted as a part-time lecturer and scientific advisor in academia. His research interests are focused in the area of quality, transportation, and sustainable energy. He has published a number of scientific papers.",institutionString:"Hellenic National Defense General Staff",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"473",title:"Quality Control",slug:"quality-control"}],chapters:[{id:"57697",title:"Integrated Management Systems and Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71468",slug:"integrated-management-systems-and-sustainable-development",totalDownloads:1741,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Management system standards, optional for organizations, have started to be considered as a strategic tool for organizations seeking institutional success and adopting innovative approaches. Establishing and managing these standards independently for the same organization yield some difficulties for organizations. It would rather be a more rational solution to provide a holistic view to all standards, which is to integrate them all. As integrated management systems can be shaped according to the needs of the organization, they involve different management system standards. Therefore, there is no common model defined for said integrated standards. These systems offer organizations a management philosophy for the processes to be successfully managed and to achieve desired results. When the emerging management philosophy is internalized by management and employees, a corporate culture is formed. The effects of integrated management systems on the sustainable development of the organization can be categorized as management, people, market, production, environmental and occupational health and safety totaling in six categories. Integrated management systems provide organizations with a management philosophy that enables processes to be successfully managed and to achieve desired results. Despite the advantages of integrated management systems for organizations, they may also have some drawbacks.",signatures:"Burhan Başaran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57697",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57697",authors:[{id:"208659",title:"Mr.",name:"Burhan",surname:"Başaran",slug:"burhan-basaran",fullName:"Burhan Başaran"}],corrections:null},{id:"58341",title:"Quality Management Systems in Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71431",slug:"quality-management-systems-in-education",totalDownloads:2102,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter stretches the characterisation of quality management systems and models that is abundant in literature by assessing the capability of the most common of the systems and models. Multiple data gathering and processing techniques were used within the context of a constant comparative approach in which data, theories and cases were plugged into each other. Based on the performed research, obtained outcomes suggest the presence of numerous opportunities and benefits in using quality management systems. Based on the findings, further work needs to be done to create the conceptual, managerial and behavioural competences that should facilitate the embedment of the quality management models into the daily lives of education institutions. A critique of quality management through the lenses of the disciplines of team learning, systems thinking, shared vision and mental modelling and of the Six Sigma, roadmaps should engender a new approach to improving quality in education. It should be of interest to explore the potentials of hybridising quality management models in education.",signatures:"Douglas Matorera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58341",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58341",authors:[{id:"210105",title:"Dr.",name:"Douglas",surname:"Matorera",slug:"douglas-matorera",fullName:"Douglas Matorera"}],corrections:null},{id:"59251",title:"Heidegger and Althusser on Quality Management Systems in Open and Distance Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72914",slug:"heidegger-and-althusser-on-quality-management-systems-in-open-and-distance-learning",totalDownloads:1036,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The quality management system (QMS), as an intricate of interacting elements, is a fundamental property of higher education and is fluid and very complex in nature. With this in mind, this chapter explores the symbiotic relationship between the notions of QMS and open and distance learning (ODL). Our thesis is that the notion of QMS is not value-free. Yet, it is a fundamental pillar of higher education institutions and commercial organizations. Among other things, it shall be argued that (1) constructs of Being and Becoming are the hidden epistemological and ontological dimensions of QMS and (2) QMS is a carrier of ideology. And to borrow from Michel Foucault, it shall be postulated that QMS perpetuates docile bodies. As such, this work shall draw on the works of Martin Heidegger and Louis Althusser.",signatures:"Victor J. Pitsoe and Moeketsi Letseka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59251",authors:[{id:"187812",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"Pitsoe",slug:"victor-pitsoe",fullName:"Victor Pitsoe"},{id:"210131",title:"Dr.",name:"Moeketsi",surname:"Letseka",slug:"moeketsi-letseka",fullName:"Moeketsi Letseka"}],corrections:null},{id:"57011",title:"TQM Is Alive but Not as We Know It: The Use of a Novel TQM Model in a Private Healthcare Company",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70754",slug:"tqm-is-alive-but-not-as-we-know-it-the-use-of-a-novel-tqm-model-in-a-private-healthcare-company",totalDownloads:826,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"UK healthcare has been facing an unprecedented quality crisis in recent times. In this context, the author setout to develop and evaluate the use of a novel total quality management (TQM) model in a private healthcare firm with the aim of improving patient care. By integrating contemporary organizational theories with TQM, an innovative model called EALIM—ethical, adaptive, learning and improvement model—was devised. Using an action research study, qualitative data were gathered in three research cycles, (1) pre-implementation, (2) implementation, and (3) post-implementation. Initial results showed EALIM’s adoption generated a moral organizational perception among employees, increased organizational commitment, emergence of a learning culture, and improvements in patient self-advocacy and independence. However, other findings indicated poor leadership produced variability in service quality. Although outcomes from this study clearly indicated that EALIM generated organizational improvement, commitment from all internal stakeholders is required to achieve sustainable quality patient care.",signatures:"James D. Sideras",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57011",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57011",authors:[{id:"208604",title:"Dr.",name:"James",surname:"Sideras",slug:"james-sideras",fullName:"James Sideras"}],corrections:null},{id:"57522",title:"Use of IT in ISO 9001 Systems for Better Process Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71372",slug:"use-of-it-in-iso-9001-systems-for-better-process-management",totalDownloads:1630,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This book chapter focuses on process management as one of the key requirements of ISO 9001. This research highlights an issue of raising the effectiveness and efficiency of process management in implemented ISO 9001 Quality Management Systems (QMS) by its integration with information technology (IT) support. Performed research reveals this to be an area of further scientific work. This is just a preliminary study to prepare the background for practical implications and further empirical research. The latter research includes literature review, ISO 9001 requirement analysis and a case study on practiced process management in South-East Europe countries as identified from external audit reports. The new standard ISO 9001:2015 is less formal regarding the documentation than the previous ones, while being more focused on effective running and improvement of the company processes. Actually, ISO 9001 requires basic elements and activities of Business Process Management (BPM). However, there are no obstacles to provide the required evidence of the defined, running and improved processes through the business IT support. Indeed, IT support to the ISO 9001 process management is not generally practiced nor encouraged enough.",signatures:"Milena Alič",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57522",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57522",authors:[{id:"216751",title:"Dr.",name:"Milena",surname:"Alic",slug:"milena-alic",fullName:"Milena Alic"}],corrections:null},{id:"57847",title:"Quality Management in Spice Paprika Production: From Cultivation to End Product",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71227",slug:"quality-management-in-spice-paprika-production-from-cultivation-to-end-product",totalDownloads:1243,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There is ample historical and scientifically proven information regarding the health benefits of spice paprika, including favourable physiological effects, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Nonetheless, even though it is consumed in small portions, spice paprika has occasionally been reported for chemical/microbiological contamination, as well as fraud or food adulteration. Quality management can guarantee effective reduction of such contamination cases. Different production stages within cultivation and production are subject to different contamination types. Cultivation is a common source of pesticide residues, and unfavourable harvest conditions may give rise to mycotoxins by pathogenic fungi. Storage and post-ripening prior to processing is attributed with microbial contamination and possible increase in mycotoxin content may significantly affect quality features. Technology steps, for example, washing, separation, drying may worsen microbial contamination or quality, but normally do not lead to increase in mycotoxins; nonetheless, decontamination technology is a prerequisite for microbial safety of the product. Upon effective decontamination, finishing steps in the processing technology, for example, grinding, packaging and end product handling do not affect the microbial status, but other, occasionally deliberate contamination due to mixing and adulteration may occur at this stage.",signatures:"Szandra Klátyik, Helga Molnár, Miklós Pék, Ildikó Bata-Vidács, Nóra\nAdányi and András Székács",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57847",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57847",authors:[{id:"209975",title:"Prof.",name:"Andras",surname:"Szekacs",slug:"andras-szekacs",fullName:"Andras Szekacs"},{id:"220594",title:"MSc.",name:"Szandra",surname:"Klátyik",slug:"szandra-klatyik",fullName:"Szandra Klátyik"},{id:"220595",title:"MSc.",name:"Helga",surname:"Molnár",slug:"helga-molnar",fullName:"Helga Molnár"},{id:"220596",title:"MSc.",name:"Miklós",surname:"Pék",slug:"miklos-pek",fullName:"Miklós Pék"},{id:"220597",title:"Dr.",name:"Nóra",surname:"Adányi",slug:"nora-adanyi",fullName:"Nóra Adányi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57420",title:"Adaptive CUSUM for Steady State Normal Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70752",slug:"adaptive-cusum-for-steady-state-normal-data",totalDownloads:1018,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter deals with monitoring plans that exploit temporal predictable trends by adjusting the cumulative sum (CUSUM) plan to be efficient for their early detection. The adjustment involves changing the amount of memory the chart retains to detect persistent changes in location early. The focus is on steady-state situations when either the shift size is known in advance or when it is unknown. Several options are explored using simulation studies, and an example of application is considered.",signatures:"Ross Sparks",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57420",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57420",authors:[{id:"86371",title:"Dr.",name:"Ross",surname:"Sparks",slug:"ross-sparks",fullName:"Ross Sparks"}],corrections:null},{id:"59335",title:"Control Charts to Enhance Quality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73237",slug:"control-charts-to-enhance-quality",totalDownloads:2020,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Control charts are important tools of statistical quality control to enhance quality. Quality improvement methods have been applied in the last few 10 years to fulfill the needs of consumers. The product has to retain the desired properties with the least possible defects, while maximizing profit. There are natural variations in production, but there are also assignable causes which do not form part of chance. Control charts are used to monitor production; in particular, their application may serve as an “early warning” index regarding potential “out-of-control” processes. In order to keep production under control, different control charts which are prepared for dissimilar cases are established incorporating upper and lower control limits. There are a number of control charts in use and are grouped mainly as control charts for variables and control charts for attributes. Points plotted on the charts may reveal certain patterns, which in turn allows the user to obtain specific information. Patterns showing deviations from normal behavior are raw material, machine setting or measuring method, human, and environmental factors, inadvertently affecting the quality of product. The information obtained from control charts assists the user to take corrective actions, hence opting for specified nominal values enhancing as such quality.",signatures:"Nefise Gönül Şengöz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59335",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59335",authors:[{id:"208754",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Nefise",surname:"Gönül Şengöz",slug:"nefise-gonul-sengoz",fullName:"Nefise Gönül Şengöz"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5486",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",subtitle:"An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"549fefebffcb2f610fb669f6eb86c785",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",bookSignature:"Leo D. 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1. Introduction
The increasing use of power electronic devices in power systems has been producing significant harmonic distortions, what can cause problems to computers and microprocessor based devices, thermal stresses to electric equipments, harmonic resonances, as well as aging and derating to electrical machines and power transformers [1–3]. The most important problems that have been reported in the literature concerns to the difficulty of the frequency control within the micro-grids and the increase of the total harmonic distortion. These two factors may negatively impact on the protection system, power quality analysis and intelligent electronic devices (IEDs), in which digital algorithms assume that the fundamental frequency is constant. Based on this fact, there has been an increasing interest in signal processing techniques for detecting and estimating harmonic components of time-varying frequencies. Their correct estimation has become an important issue in measurement equipment and compensating devices. Although many methods have been proposed in the literature, it still remains difficult to detect and estimate harmonics of time-varying frequencies [4, 5]. The harmonic components (voltage or current) can change its frequencies due to continuous changes in the system configuration and load conditions, to the rapid proliferation of distributed resources, and to possibilities of new operational scenarios (e.g., islanded microgrids). Also the need for massive monitoring of networks is unquestionable within the concept of smart grids. An important line of research in the smart grids context is to identify and estimate time-varying harmonics that may appear in the current and voltage signals, and from this information, correct and adjust the digital algorithms that are part of protection equipments, power quality monitors and IEDs.
The concept of time-varying harmonics came recently to the vocabulary of power systems engineers, because more and more nonlinear loads, with dynamic behavior, are being connected to power systems and the fundamental frequency is experiencing a large range of variation. These factors have putting in check the traditional stationary spectral analysis methods, and many techniques for improving harmonics measurement have been proposed in recent years. Parametric and nonparametric methods that commonly have been used by the community of signal processing have been applied to power system harmonic estimation. These methods have in common that they need to estimate the fundamental frequency to adjust some internal parameters, like filter coefficients. The challenge is producing a harmonic estimator with high convergence ratio, high accuracy, low computational burden and immunity to the presence of interharmonic: conditions that are not ease to simultaneously deal with. The most used technique for harmonics estimation is based on the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) [8, 10]. The DFT algorithm is attractive because of its low computational complexity and its simple structure. However, DFT does not perform well if power system frequency varies around the nominal value. Several other techniques have been proposed in the literature for harmonic estimation. However, the DFT still appear to be the preferred algorithm mainly due to its simplicity.
2. Power quality and smart grid
The term “smart grid” has different definitions in the literature. Regardless of the precise definition, the term smart grid can be seen as a new paradigm, covering from conception to operation of the power systems, that makes intensive use of information and communication technologies, decentralized control approaches, powerful signal processing and computational intelligence techniques, renewable and distributed generation and storage energy facilities, self-generation, etc [11] to offer flexibility, robustness, and efficiency regarding generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption of electrical energy.
One of the promises of the smart grid is to improve the power quality. Therefore, the reliability or continuity of service is one of the consequences that will result from the implementation of the self-healing aspects of the Smart Grid. However power quality issues should not form an unnecessary barrier against the development of smart grids or the introduction of renewable sources of energy. The smart properties of future grids should rather be a challenge for new approaches in an efficient management of power quality [11].
An adequate power quality should guarantees electromagnetic compatibility between all equipment connected to the grid. Then, an important issue for the successful and efficient operation of smart grids is the introduction of advanced, flexible, robust, and cooperative set of signal processing and computational intelligent techniques for power quality analysis. With this set of techniques, an effective and extensive smart monitoring system can be devised and deployed. Such a monitoring system have to allow for the monitoring of such as voltage, current, bidirectional energy consumption at distribution transformers, substations transformers, smart meters, distribution feeders, distribution switching devices, and strategically installed power quality monitors in the power systems.
3. Harmonic estimation techniques: Before and after smart grid
Consider the monitored power line signal, after processed by the analog anti-aliasing filter, be expressed by
x(t)=∑m=1NhAm(t)cos[mΩ0t+ϕm(t)]+η(t),E1
where Am(t) and ϕm(t) are, respectively, the amplitude and phase of the m-th harmonic, Nh is the maximum harmonic order, η(t) is the additive noise and Ω0 denotes the angular fundamental synchronous frequency. Based on the definition of instantaneous frequency deviation [6, 7], the frequency of the m-th harmonic can be defined as
ψm(t)=d[mΩ0t+ϕm(t)]dt=mΩ0+dϕm(t)dt.E2
Assuming Ω0 constant, note that any variation in ψm(t) can be expressed by the term dϕm(t)dt. As ψm(t)=mψ1(t) (the frequency of the m-th harmonic is equal to m times the fundamental frequency), from (2) we have
mΩ0+dϕm(t)dt=m[Ω0+dϕ1(t)dt]
∴dϕm(t)dt=mdϕ1(t)dt.E3
The goal of harmonic estimation techniques is to provide estimates of the parameters Am(t) and ϕm(t) using the discrete version x[n] of the signal x(t). Some of the existing techniques estimate these parameters considering that the fundamental angular frequency ψ1(t) is constant and nominal (steady) and some estimate the same parameters considering ψm(t) time-varying.
Basically, we can say that before smart grids, the most used techniques for harmonic estimation assumed that ψ1(t) was constant and nominal. This is the reason that DFT is the standard algorithm adopted in international standards and implemented in the majority of equipments. It can be explained because, generally, in interconnected power systems the power frequency is high controlled and very near the nominal value. Thus, powerful harmonic estimation methods are not needed, except in especial applications. However, with the inclusion of new power generation technologies such as renewable energy source generation and distributed generation energy, the fundamental frequency of micro grids and isolated systems will suffer significant variations (this fact is already noted in actual power systems). In this new scenarios, very common in smart grids, new harmonic estimation techniques will be very needed and essential.
4. Methods for estimating steady-state harmonics
Methods for estimating steady-state harmonics are more simple than time-varying ones, and its algorithms do not use information of the fundamental frequency of the signal under estimation. In what follows, we describe four algorithms.
4.1. Discrete fourier transform
The most common and the most used technique for steady-state harmonic estimation is the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) [8-10]. The DFT method is simple and easy to be implemented in monitoring systems, but its application for time-varying harmonics is not recommended.
Given the discrete signal x[n], the amplitude and phase of the k-th harmonic component can be straightforwardly estimated by the recursive equations:
A^k[n]=2Yck2[n](t)+Ysk2[n]E4
and
ϕ^k[n]=−arctan(Ysk[n]Yck[n]),E5
respectively, where,
Yck[n]=Yck[n−1]+(x[n]−x[n−N])cos(kw0)E6
and
Ysk[n]=Ysk[n−1]+(x[n]−x[n−N])sin(kw0),E7
in which w0=Ω0/fs is the discrete synchronous angular frequency, fs is the sampling rate and N is the number of samples within a integer number of cycles of the fundamental power signal.
The DFT algorithm is very simple and its implementation is easy for real-time application. However, if the fundamental frequency is not nominal and constant, then the estimates can carry significant errors.
4.2. Demodulation
The demodulation technique presented in [15] can be used to estimate the parameters of harmonics as point out in [16]. In similar way to the DFT technique the demodulation technique can give erroneous results if its filter is fixed.
The k-th harmonic parameters can be estimated by
A^k[n]=2Yck2[n](t)+Ysk2[n]E8
and
ϕ^k[n]=−arctan(Ysk[n]Yck[n]),E9
in which Yck[n] and Ysk[n] are evaluated by
Yck[n]=(x[n]cos(kw0))*h[n]E10
and
Ysk[n]=(x[n]sin(kw0))*h[n],E11
respectively, where h[n] is the impulse response of a low-pass filter and ∗ denotes the linear convolution operator.
4.3. Goertzel
The Goertzel technique uses a second-order infinite impulse response filter to estimate the parameters of the k-th harmonic [17]. The Goertzel algorithm is more efficient than the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) when the number of harmonics to be calculated is low.
The amplitude and phase of the k-th harmonic is estimated, respectively, by
A^k[n]=2Yck2[n](t)+Ysk2[n]E12
and
ϕ^k[n]=−arctan(Ysk[n]Yck[n]),E13
in which Yck[n] and Ysk[n] are evaluated by
Yck[n]=ℜ(X[k])E14
and
Ysk[n]=ℑ(X[k]),E15
where
X[k]=exp(2πk)s[N−1]−s[N−2],E16
s[n]=x[n]+2cos(2πk/N)s[n−1]−s[n−2].E17
4.4. Linear least squares
The linear least squares (LS) algorithm estimates several harmonics in one evaluation instead of a unique estimate [18]. Its advantage is the acquisition of several harmonics in only one evaluation. However the computational burden is high.
Basically, the LS algorithm has as a result the vector given by
v[m]=[a1[m]a2[m]...aNh[m]b1[m]b2[m]...bNh[m]]TE18
Thus, the amplitude and phase of the k-th harmonic (k ∈ [1, 2,...,Nh]) are given by
In this kind of technique, the number of harmonic has to be known a priori. Otherwise, the performance can be considered reduced, also, the computational complexity is higher due to the matrix operations.
5. Methods for estimating time-varying harmonics
Methods for estimating time-varying harmonics consider that not only the amplitudes and phases of harmonics change, but also the fundamental frequency, and consequently, the harmonics frequencies. Thus, the frequency estimation is generally required to improve the algorithms.
5.1. Discrete fourier transform with sampling frequency control
The main weakness of the DFT is to estimate the harmonics when the sampling frequency is not synchronous with the fundamental frequency. In order to guarantee this synchronism we can control the sampling frequency as shown in Fig. 1. This method reduces and can also eliminate the errors caused by the mismatch between the fundamental frequency and the sampling frequency, however, it requires a robust and controllable ADC converter and a frequency estimation algorithm. As a result, its use is not recommended.
Figure 1.
DFT with control of the ADC sampling frequency
5.2. Discrete fourier transform with signal resample
An alternative to the problem of synchronization of the sampling frequency when the sampling frequency is constant and not controllable is resampling the original signal before the harmonic estimation with the DFT. The drawback of this approach is the high computation complexity required by the resample process. Also, a frequency estimation technique is required to control the resampling process. Fig. 2 shows the block diagram of this strategy.
Figure 2.
DFT with signal resample
5.3. Discrete fourier with window
An interesting way of improving the DFT algorithm is using a window in each block of data before the evaluation of the DFT. The windowing of the data can deal with the spectral leakage of the DFT caused by the frequency deviation by adding some computational burden to the algorithm. Some windows generally used are the triangular and Hanning. The coefficients of a Hanning window are computed from the following equation:
w[n]=0.5cos(1−cos(2πnN+1)).E26
The triangular window has its coefficient given by
w[n]={2nN, if 1≤n≤N2;2(N−n)N, if N2≤n≤N−1;E27
for N even, and
w[n]={2nN−1, if 1≤n≤N2;2(N−n)N−1, if N+12≤n≤N−1;E28
for N odd.
5.4. Demodulation
An interesting method based on demodulation technique for estimating time-varying harmonics is presented in [16]. This technique can provide very accurate estimates with a reasonable computational complexity.
The block diagram of the demodulation technique is depicted in Fig. 3. The LP blocks implement identical low-pass filters and the blocks COS and SIN implement the demodulation signals expressed by
dck[n]=cos(kw0n+φk[n])E29
and
dsk[n]=sin(kw0n+φk[n]),E30
respectively. The term φk[n] control the instantaneous frequency of the demodulation signals (29)-(30). It is evaluated by
φk[n]=φk[n−1]+kfs(ψ1[n]−Ω0),E31
where ψ1[n] is the estimated fundamental frequency in rad.
The blocks AMP and PHAS implement, respectively, the expressions
A^k[n]=2ycck2[n]+yssk2[n]E32
and
ϕ^k[n]=−arctan(yssk[n]ycck[n]),E33
respectively, where dck[n] is the output of the low-pass filter at the top and dsk[n] is the output of the low-pass filter at the bottom in Fig. 3.
In this technique, it is applied a approach to control the demodulation signals (blocks COS and SIN) and the frequency response of the low-pass filters (blocks LP) by the power frequency estimate, which is implemented by the block FREQ. The low pass filters are finite impulse response (FIR) filters which are controlled by a frequency estimator.
Figure 3.
Block diagram of the demodulation technique for time-varying harmonic estimation.
5.5. Non linear least squares
The nonlinear least squares (NLS) uses the same expressions of the linear least squares for evaluate the harmonics [18]. The advantage of this approach is the improving of the estimates related to the linear version, however, the additional searching of the optimal frequency introduces additional delay in the technique and computational burden.
The NLS algorithm test several values of w0 near its nominal value in order to minimize the euclidian norm of the following vector:
e[m]=(I−H(HT[m]H[m])−1HT[m])y[m]E34
Thus, with the optimal w0, the harmonic parameters are evaluates as presented in section 4.4.
6. Performance analysis
In order to analyze the performance of the described techniques the following signal is considered:
where v[n]~N(0,σ2) is a white zero-mean Gaussian noise so that the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) between the fundamental component and the additive noise is 60 dB (it should be noted that the SNR of the signal obtained from a power system usually ranges between 50 and 70 dB [19]).
Fig. 4 shows time estimations of the amplitude of the 3rd harmonic considering a 50% drop in the amplitude of signal when the fundamental frequency is equal to 60 Hz. Estimation delays of 2 cycles of the fundamental component are noted because the twocycles version of each technique was considered. However, when the fundamental frequency is set to 60.5 Hz such techniques exhibit significant errors in the estimates (time variations), as can be seen in Fig. 5. Otherwise, the time-varying techniques significantly improve the estimates. These results are depicted in Fig. 6. Table 1 shows the maximum of the absolute instantaneous error of all techniques after convergence of the algorithms (after the 50% drop in the amplitude of signal).
The best results are achieved with the demodulation and NLS techniques. Considering only these last two techniques, the errors were evaluated when the fundamental frequency varies between 59.5 Hz to 60.5 Hz for the 25th harmonic (See Fig. 7). Also, it is important to note that the improvement achieved by the DFT with hanning and triangular windows is significant compared with the standard DFT method as can be seen by Figs. 5 and 6. In order to better show this improvement, the errors, considering the DFT, DFT with triangular window and DFT with hanning window, were evaluated when the fundamental frequency varies between 59.5 Hz and 60.5 Hz for the 25th harmonic (Fig. 8).
Figure 4.
Estimation performance for the signal given by equation (35) in the case of a 50% drop in its amplitude for the 3rd harmonic when the fundamental frequency is set to be 60 Hz considering the steady-state methods.
Figure 5.
Estimation performance for the signal given by equation (35) in the case of a 50% drop in its amplitude for the 3rd harmonic when the fundamental frequency is set to be 60.5 Hz considering the steady-state methods.
Figure 6.
Estimation performance for the signal given by equation (35) in the case of a 50% drop in its amplitude for the 3rd harmonic when the fundamental frequency is set tobe 60.5 Hz considering the time-varying methods.
Figure 7.
Maximum of the absolute instantaneous amplitude for the 25th harmonic when the fundamental frequency varies between 59.5 Hz to 60.5 Hz considering the NLS and Demodulaton method.
Figure 8.
Maximum of the absolute instantaneous amplitude for the 25th harmonic when the fundamental frequency varies between 59.5 Hz to 60.5 Hz considering the DFT, DFT with triangular window and DFT with hanning window.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTechnique\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMaximum Instantaneous Error\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
DFT
\n\t\t\t
4.7655
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Goertzel
\n\t\t\t
4.7655
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
LS
\n\t\t\t
4.7655
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Demodulation (steady-state)
\n\t\t\t
4.7655
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
DFT with hanning window
\n\t\t\t
0.7479
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
DFT with triangular window
\n\t\t\t
0.2296
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
NLS
\n\t\t\t
0.0842
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Demodulation (time-varying)
\n\t\t\t
0.0660
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Maximum of the absolute instantaneous error of all techniques after convergence of the algorithms.
7. What is next and needed?
Most existing end-user equipment (computer, television, lamps, etc) emit almost exclusively at the lower odd integer harmonics, but there are indications that modern devices including certain types of distributed generators emit a broadband spectrum [11–14]. The measurement of these low levels of harmonics at higher frequencies will be more difficult than for the existing situation with higher levels and lower frequencies. This might require the development of new measurement techniques including a closer look at the frequency response of existing instrument transformers. Consequently, harmonic estimation of higher order harmonics will be very important and needed. In this case the sampling frequency should be increased to satisfy the Nyquist criterion and faster analog to digital converter (ADC) must be used to deal with this requirement.
Power electronic based photovoltaic solar and wind energy equipment may emit disturbances causing voltage fluctuations and unbalance. These types of electric sources will have large presence in the future grids very large. In order to deal with this new scenario, the harmonic estimation algorithms must be immune to higher voltage fluctuations and interharmonics.
An important issue associated with smart grid in regarding to harmonic estimation is the real time estimation of several harmonics instantaneously, including higher-order harmonics. Higher-order harmonics will be more and more important to estimate due its influence in sensitive electronics devices. Also, the dynamic and diversity of smart grid will demand different set of techniques to analyze the behavior of the time-varying harmonics. For deal with these issues, the use of reconfigurable hardware that allow the exchange of features between existing monitoring devices is of ultimate importance.
8. Concluding remarks
Several methods and techniques were developed so far for estimating steady-state and timevarying harmonics. Although several techniques can deal with time-varying harmonics, the implementation of them is incipient. However, the needs and demands related to smart\n\t\t\t\tgrids is pushing forward the development of new techniques as well as discussion of new measurement standards for time-varying harmonics.
Although smart grids offers the opportunity to improve the quality, efficiency and reliability for power systems, the increase of disturbances levels is inevitable. Thus, new challenges related to the power quality will be introduced.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/41979.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/41979.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/41979",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/41979",totalDownloads:2221,totalViews:187,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:10,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 14th 2012",dateReviewed:"September 26th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 17th 2013",dateFinished:"January 14th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/41979",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/41979",book:{id:"3073",slug:"power-quality-issues"},signatures:"Cristiano A. G. Marques, Moisés V. Ribeiro, Carlos A. Duque and Eduardo A. B. da Silva",authors:[{id:"20666",title:"Prof.",name:"Moisés",middleName:"Vidal",surname:"Ribeiro",fullName:"Moisés Ribeiro",slug:"moises-ribeiro",email:"mribeiro@ieee.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Power quality and smart grid",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Harmonic estimation techniques: Before and after smart grid",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Methods for estimating steady-state harmonics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Discrete fourier transform",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Demodulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3. Goertzel",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4. Linear least squares",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Methods for estimating time-varying harmonics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.1. Discrete fourier transform with sampling frequency control",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.2. Discrete fourier transform with signal resample",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.3. Discrete fourier with window",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.4. Demodulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.5. Non linear least squares",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Performance analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. What is next and needed?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"8. Concluding remarks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'HAkagiNew trends in active filters for power conditioning, IIEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., 32613121322November 1996'},{id:"B2",body:'N. RWatsonand JArrigalaHarmonics in large systems, Electric Power System\n\t\t\t\t\tResearch, 6615292003'},{id:"B3",body:'M. A. SMasoumand P. SMosesand A. SMasoumDerating of Asymmetric Three- Phase Transformers Serving Unbalanced Nonlinear Loads, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, 23420332041October 2008'},{id:"B4",body:'L. LLaiand W. LChanand C. TTseand A. T. PSoReal-time frequency and harmonic evaluation using artificial neural networks, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, 1415259Jan. 1999'},{id:"B5",body:'PRibeiroTime-Varying Waveform Distortions in Power Systems, Wiley-IEEE Press, 2009'},{id:"B6",body:'M. MBegovic a. n. d P. MDjuric a. n. d SDunlapand A. GPhadkeFrequency tracking in power networks in the presence of harmonics, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, 82480486Apr. 1993'},{id:"B7",body:'BBoashashEstimating and interpreting the instantaneous frequency of a signal. I. Fundamentals, Proceedings of the IEEE, 804520538Apr 1992'},{id:"B8",body:'T. AGeorgeHarmonic power flow determination using the fast Fourier transform, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, 22530535Apr. 1991'},{id:"B9",body:'J. SThorpand A. GPhadkeand K. JKarimiReal-time voltage phasor measurements for static-state estimation, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., PAS-1041130993106Nov. 1985'},{id:"B10",body:'Computer Relaying for Power SystemsNew York: John Wiley and Sons, 1988'},{id:"B11",body:'M. H. JBollenJZhongFZavodaJMeyerAMceachernand F. C. LOpezPower Quality aspects of Smart Grids, International Conference on Renewable Energies and Power Quality, Granada (Spain), 23th to 25th March, 2010'},{id:"B12",body:'M. H. JBollenP. FRibeiroE. O. ALarssonand C. MLundmarkLimits for voltage distortion in the frequency range 2-9 kHz, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 23314811487July 2008'},{id:"B13",body:'S. TTentzerakisand S. APapathanassiouAn Investigation of the Harmonic Emissions of Wind Turbines, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., 221150158March 2007'},{id:"B14",body:'S. APapathanassiouand M. PPapadopoulosHarmonic analysis in a power system with wind generation, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, 214pgs. 2006-2016, October 2006. Instantaneous phase tracking in power networks by demodulation, IEEE Trans. On\n\t\t\t\t\tInstrumentation and Measurement, vol. 41, no. 6, 963967December 1992'},{id:"B15",body:'P. MDjuricand M. MBegovicand MDoroslovaki, Instantaneous phase tracking in power networks by demodulation, IEEE Trans. on Instrumentation and Measurement, 416963967Dec. 1992'},{id:"B16",body:'C. A. GMarquesand M. VRibeiroand C. ADuqueand P. FRibeiroand E. A. B. da Silva, A Controlled Filtering Method for Estimating Harmonics of Off-Nominal Frequencies, IEEE Trans. On Smart Grids, 313849March 2012'},{id:"B17",body:'GGoertzelAn algorithm for the evaluation of finite trigonometric series, The American Mathematical Monthly, 65134351958'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Cristiano A. G. Marques",address:null,affiliation:'
Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Moisés V. Ribeiro",address:null,affiliation:'
Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Carlos A. Duque",address:null,affiliation:'
Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Eduardo A. B. da Silva",address:null,affiliation:'
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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1. Introduction
Pesticides are substances or mixtures of substances that possess unique chemical properties for the control of detrimental pests and insect vectors [1, 2]. Pests are living organisms that pose health risks such as biting and sucking, transmission of allergy-inducing constituents, diseases, as well as parasites, thereby causing harm to humans, animals and various components of the ecosystem [3]. Pesticides can be classified as algicides, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, pyrethroids, fumigants, miticides, molluscicides, etc. with discrete chemical characteristics that decrease economic, health, and environmental risks elicited by pests [4, 5]. The inappropriate application of pesticides can evoke deleterious outcomes in several organisms and the environment. Notably, pesticides do not usually differentiate between pests and other living things, consequently they may cause injury to the organisms they encounter [1].
It has been observed that pesticides may gain access into biological systems through diverse routes. For instance, organophosphate and carbamate insecticides are quickly absorbed after dermal, oral, and inhalation exposures [6]. Damalas and Koutroubas [7] reported that pesticide applicators are commonly exposed to pesticides through the dermal route. Besides, pesticides may be absorbed dermally through a splash, spill, or spray device, when being mixed, loaded or disposed of [8]. Liquid preparations of pesticides are more readily absorbed through the dermal route and other body tissues compared to powders, dusts and granular types [7]. According to [8], oral exposure to a pesticide may occur by accident or intentionally. Moreover, marked damages to the nasal, throat and pulmonary tissues have been observed after inhalation of appreciable quantities of pesticides [7].
Furthermore, exposure of populations to pesticides have been associated with negative health conditions including cancers, congenital disorders, immunological aberrations, respiratory, neurobehavioral and reproductive deficits [9]. These undesirable effects of pesticides may be evoked in several tissues and organs through genetic impairments, epigenetic alterations, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative damage, endoplasmic reticulum stress, endocrine disruption, among others [10]. Some of the clinical manifestations of pesticide toxicosis are confusion, agitation, lacrimation, salivation, emesis, bronchospasm, respiratory failure, micturition, diarrhoea, muscle weakness, paralysis, fasciculations, etc. [11].
Pets are animals that are domesticated and catered for by human beings for companionship, pleasure, provision of services and assistance, among others. They include dogs, cats, ferrets, pet birds, rodents, rabbits, guinea pigs, as well as exotic species like cubs, reptiles, etc. Pets are an essential part of human lives and they have been existing with human beings for thousands of years [12]. They are continually exposed to fleas and ticks. These ectoparasites may cause distress, itching, anaemia and systemic infections in the pets [13]. It is crucial to control ectoparasites in companion animals to prevent vector-borne diseases that may eventually result in high morbidity and mortality [14]. Moreover, the presence of fleas and ticks on pets may make their owners vulnerable to parasitism and zoonosis [15, 16].
The purpose of this chapter was to highlight the advantages of using pesticides for the optimum care of pet animals, while also outlining the adverse effects that may be associated with their applications.
2. Benefits of pesticide usage in pets
Insecticides such as organophosphates (e.g., malathion, diazinon, phosmet, fenthion, chlorfenvinphos, and cythioate) and carbamates (e.g., carbaryl and propoxur) are used to control insect and nematode infestations in animals [17]. They are formulated as sprays, pour-ons, baits, collars, etc. [17]. Carbamates are used more frequently because they are considered safer than organophosphates. However, some signs of intoxication linked to the application of carbamates are abdominal cramping, emesis, diarrhoea, dyspnoea, seizures, among others [18]. Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides competitively impede acetylcholinesterase by binding to its esteric site [19]. The excessive acetylcholine that ensues brings about unwarranted stimulation of smooth muscles and glandular secretions [17]. However, the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase by organophosphates is irreversible, while the inhibition by carbamates is reversible [20]. The classification, examples, routes of administration and mechanisms of toxicity of some insecticides applied to pets are shown in Table 1.
Mimic insect hormones, thereby interfering with the growth and development of insects [26]
Oxadiazine insecticide
Indoxacarb
Administered topically in a spot-on formulation
Bioactivation to an active metabolite that blocks the voltage-gated sodium ion conduits in insects [18]
Phenylpyrazole insecticide
Fipronil
Topical administration
Binds to gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors and the glutamate-gated chloride channels in the central nervous systems of invertebrates [13, 27, 28, 29]
Macrocyclic lactones
Selamectin, aprinomectin, milbemycin
Topical administration
Bind to glutamate-gated chloride channels in the nervous systems of parasites [18]
Formamidines
Amitraz
Available as a dip. Also formulated as impregnated collars for dogs
Binds to octopamine receptors for its insecticidal effects [18]
Spinosyns
Spinosad
Formulated as edible tablets for dogs and cats
Targets the binding sites on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors [18]
Table 1.
Classification, examples, route of administration and mechanisms of toxicity of some insecticides applied to pets.
Pyrethroids are synthetic derivatives of natural pyrethrins derived from the plant, Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium, and they contain esters of chrysanthemum acid [21]. They are 2250 times more poisonous to insects compared to higher organisms [30]. This is because insects possess additional sensitive sodium channels, a reduced conformation and lower body temperature [30]. Permethrin, a type I pyrethroid, exists in the form of a liquid, yellow-brown and brown crystals, and it is soluble in organic solvents [31]. It may enter the body through the dermal, oral and inhalational routes [32, 33]. It is found in shampoos, dips, spot-ons, and sprays for the control of ectoparasites in companion animals [33]. Also, it is used for the treatment of scabies and lice [31, 34, 35]. Permethrin evokes injury to insect neurons by elevating the impulse conduction, thereby causing paralysis and death of insects [21]. It is broken down in the body by hydrolysis, esterification, oxidation and conjugation [30, 36].
Its metabolites include cis-3-(2,2 dichlorovinyl) 2,2 dimethylcyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid, trans-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2 dimethylcyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid) and (3 phenoxybenzoic acid) [31]. The metabolites of permethrin are principally excreted in the urine and faeces [21].
Furthermore, cypermethrin, a type II pyrethroid insecticide, is used for the control of pests in agricultural, public and animal health programmes [37]. It evokes toxicity through the interruption of sodium channels in neurons, thereby disrupting neuronal transmission [22]. Also, it produces oxidative stress in living organisms [38, 39, 40]. Type II pyrethroids are more neurotoxic relative to type I pyrethroids because of their α-cyano constituents [41].
Another class of insecticides administered for pest control in pets are neonicotinoid insecticides such as imidacloprid, nitenpyram and dinotefuran (stated in Table 1). Imidacloprid is structurally similar to nicotine, and is endorsed as a topical spot-on for dogs, as well as for agricultural purposes [14, 23]. It exerts its insecticidal activities by binding to the acetylcholine receptor on the postsynaptic region of insect neurons, thereby averting acetylcholine binding [23, 24]. Besides, imidacloprid has been reported to elicit oxidative stress and cause injury to crucial biological molecules such as deoxyribonucleic acid, proteins and lipids [42]. Moreover, nitenpyram is administered per os to eliminate fleas in dogs and cats [18]. It undergoes fast absorption with utmost blood concentrations attained within one and a half hours, and thirty-six minutes in dogs and cats respectively [18]. Dinotefuran is applied as a topical spot-on with different formulations for dogs and cats against external parasites like fleas, flies, lice, etc. [43].
Fluralaner (an isoxazoline) is a systemically administered insecticidal and acaricidal formulation that elicits long-acting efficacy after oral administration to dogs [44]. Another isooxazoline, afoxolaner, has been reported to be efficacious in dogs and cats against fleas [45, 46, 47], ticks [46], and mites [47, 48, 49, 50]. It is detected in plasma 20–30 minutes following administration through the oral route and it attains its uppermost level in 2–4 hours [51]. Sarolaner is a broad spectrum isooxazoline with efficacy against fleas, ticks and mites in dogs [52, 53]. Isoxazolines bind to the ligand-gated chloride channels in insects and acarines [17]. Consequently, the presynaptic and postsynaptic transmission of chloride ions across the cell membranes ensue, thereby causing hyperexcitation and uninhibited activity of the central nervous system, ultimately resulting in the death of ectoparasites [17].
Lufenuron, a benzoylphenylurea derivative, is a chitin synthesis inhibitor [25]. It is available as an oral suspension and injectable formulation for cats, and an oral tablet for dogs [17]. It eliminates emerging larvae within the egg or after hatching, and female fleas feeding on treated animals are hindered from producing viable eggs or larvae [25].
Methoprene is an insect growth regulator that mimics insect hormones, thereby interfering with the growth and development of insects [26]. It is formulated as suspensions, emulsifiable and soluble concentrates, sprays and spot-ons, etc. [17]. It is used for flea control in dogs and cats, marine mosquito control, as well as agricultural and domestic pest control [54].
Fipronil is a phenylpyrazole insecticide that is approved for agricultural usage, pest control, as well as topical flea and tick treatment for companion animals [55]. It dissolves in sebum because of its high lipid solubility and it is disseminated throughout the body for the manifestation of its insecticidal effect [13]. It has been shown that fipronil binds non-competitively to γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors and the glutamate-gated chloride channels in the central nervous systems of invertebrates (e.g., fleas and ticks), thereby eliciting excessive excitation [13]. Additionally, fipronil also binds to mammalian GABA receptors, [27], and engenders oxidative stress through the production of reactive oxygen species [28, 29]. Some investigators have asserted that the foremost metabolite of fipronil, fipronil sulfone, exerts a more robust inhibitory effect on GABAA receptors and brings about cell impairment at lesser concentrations compared to fipronil [27, 28, 29].
Selamectin, aprinomectin and milbemycin are macrocyclic lactones that are used for the control of endoparasites and ectoparasites in dogs and cats [18]. They are widely administered for the prevention of heartworm disease in dogs [56]. Selamectin and aprinomectin are semisynthetic avermectins, while moxidectin is semisynthetic. These substances bind to glutamate-gated chloride channels in the nervous systems of parasites, and this culminates in a speedy and sustained entry of chloride ions into neurons [18]. As a result of this, the activity of the neurons is impeded and paralysis of the parasites occurs. The macrocyclic lactones are administered topically, and are swiftly absorbed through the dermal route. Selamectin exhibits effective control against the flea, Ctenocephalides felis [57, 58], biting lice (Felicola subrostratus) and ear mites (Otodectes cynotis), among others in cats [59].
Indoxacarb is an oxadiazine insecticide that is administered topically in a spot-on formulation for the control of fleas on companion animals [18]. It is found in insect baits for home use and granules, as well as liquids for agricultural applications [60]. Moreover, it is bioactivated to an active metabolite that blocks the voltage-gated sodium ion conduits in insects [18].
Furthermore, formamidines are acaricidal compounds that exert their effects through binding to octopamine receptors [18]. Amitraz is the only approved formamidine for use in veterinary medical practice, and it is applied primarily as an acaricide to control ticks and mites [18]. It is available as a dip for the control of demodicosis in dogs, as well as the control of scabies. An amitraz-impregnated collar is also marketed for the control of ticks on dogs.
Spinosyns are a family of insecticides obtained from the fermentation of an actinomycete, Saccharopolyspora spinosa [18]. Spinosyns A and D are the main products of the fermentation procedure, as well as the principal components of Spinosad [61]. Spinosyns mostly target the binding sites on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, and they also influence GABA receptor function [18]. This ensues in spontaneous muscle contractions, prostration, tremors, and paralysis of insects. Spinosad is used to control numerous insects and it is formulated as edible tablets for dogs and cats [61].
3. Risks of pesticide usage in pets
There is a predominant exposure of human and animal populations to pesticides and this may be associated with detrimental effects on their health status [4, 62]. According to [17] , clinical signs of pesticide intoxication can occur within a short or long duration of exposure, depending on the dose, route, and noxiousness of the pesticide administered. It has been documented that those pesticides have severe effects on non-target organisms, including various components of the ecosystem [63].
Various pesticides, especially, insecticides applied to pets for the prevention and control of ectoparasites may be associated with some adverse effects. For instance, permethrin poisoning may produce symptoms including epidermal lesions, pharyngitis, salivation, nausea, emesis, abdominal pain, gastrointestinal mucosal irritation and dyspnoea in animals [32, 63, 64]. Cats are more likely than dogs to develop pyrethroid toxicosis because the feline liver cannot conjugate glucuronide efficiently, and conjugation with glucuronide is essential for permethrin metabolism [33]. Permethrins are regarded as the commonest aetiology of poisoning in cats in the United States of America [65]. Cats may be exposed to permethrin from dermal application of topical formulations, oral intake, and direct contact with dogs administered with it topically [66]. The commonest clinical signs of permethrin intoxication in cats are muscle tremors and seizures, but hypersalivation, depression, emesis, anorexia and even death may ensue [33].
Moreover, alpha-cypermethrin (a synthetic pyrethroid like permethrin) intoxication can cause lacrimation, salivation, nausea, emesis, diarrhoea, mucosal irritations, motor coordination dysfunction, chorea, inactivity, tremors and clonic seizures [30, 36]. It has been observed that dogs usually exhibit signs of intoxication such as shaking of their limbs, slight muscle fasciculation, rubbing of the application site, distress and uneasiness after dermal administration of pyrethrins/pyrethroids [67, 68, 69].
Cats are more susceptible to insecticides that inhibit acetylcholinesterase such as organophosphates and carbamates compared to dogs [70]. Also, neonate, geriatric and incapacitated animals are more vulnerable to these groups of pesticides. Organophosphates and carbamates elicit muscarinic, nicotinic, and central nervous system signs of toxicity in biological systems. The muscarinic signs are salivation, lacrimation, urination, defecation, respiratory distress, vomiting, pupillary constriction and reduced heart rate [70]. The nicotinic symptoms include muscle tremors, fasciculations, feebleness, incoordination, and paresis that may culminate in paralysis [71], while the central nervous system signs of toxicity comprise hyperactivity, incoordination, convulsion and unconsciousness [71].
The predominant clinical signs linked to isoxazoline toxicity are emesis, anorexia, diarrhoea and exhaustion in dogs and cats [17]. The administration of lufenuron to cats causes pain at the site of injection and oedema [17]. Additionally, dogs treated with the parenteral formulation of lufenuron developed a marked local reaction [25].
Some investigators asserted that young animals are more likely to exhibit exhaustion and incoordination after oral dosing with methoprene (an insect growth regulator) [71], while the commonest clinical signs of toxicity seen in companion animals exposed to indoxacarb are anorexia, emesis, diarrhoea and lethargy [17]. Moreover, amitraz (a formamidine insecticide, mentioned in Table 1) can cause temporary pruritus, urticaria and oedema after the initial administration to pets [18]. In addition, a brief sedation has been recorded in dogs after an amitraz bath that may last for one day or three days in puppies.
4. Conclusion
This chapter review presented information on the benefits and risks of the applications of pesticides, mainly insecticides, to pets. Even though pests are harmful to companion animals and their owners, they should be controlled cautiously with the use of appropriate pesticides approved by Veterinarians and relevant regulatory agencies in different countries. This will ensure that the hazards inherent in the pesticides are adequately mitigated. Also, there is a need for researchers, Veterinarians, related health care professionals and pesticide manufacturers to collaborate and find out innocuous methods for the prevention and control of pests in pets. This effort can improve human, animal and ecosystem health and integrity.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to the staff of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and the Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Abuja, Nigeria, for their support.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"pesticides, pets, benefits, risks, toxicity, ectoparasites",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81363.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81363.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81363",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81363",totalDownloads:24,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 8th 2022",dateReviewed:"March 22nd 2022",datePrePublished:"May 6th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 18th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The purpose of this chapter was to highlight the advantages of applying pesticides for the optimum care of pet animals, while also outlining the adverse effects that may be associated with their use. Pesticides can be defined as substances that can be applied for the prevention, control or eradication of unwanted organisms in living systems or in the environment. Companion animals, fondly called “pets” include dogs, cats, ferrets, pet birds and some laboratory animals like albino rats, rabbits, guinea pigs, etc. Pesticides are usually applied on pets to control ectoparasites like ticks, fleas, mites, among others. However, pets may be poisoned by pesticides if their dosages and appropriate routes of administration are not strictly adhered to. Pesticides should be administered to pets by Veterinarians and other suitably qualified personnel. Subsequently, the pets should be monitored for signs of toxicity and be treated promptly if such develop.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81363",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81363",signatures:"Motunrayo Ganiyat Akande, Solomon Usman Abraham and Johnson Caleb Ogunnubi",book:{id:"11318",type:"book",title:"Pesticides",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Pesticides",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marcelo L. Larramendy and Dr. Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11318.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-039-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-038-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-040-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Benefits of pesticide usage in pets",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Risks of pesticide usage in pets",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Yadav IS, Devi NL. Pesticides classification and its impact on human and environment. 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Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Abuja, Nigeria
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Abuja, Nigeria
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Carlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
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Open Access background
\\n\\n
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\n
IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\n
At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
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“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\n
Open Access Standards followed by IntechOpen
\\n\\n
OAI-PMH
\\n\\n
As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\n
License
\\n\\n
Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\n
Peer Review Policies
\\n\\n
All scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\n
OA Publishing Fees
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The Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\n
Digital Archiving Policy
\\n\\n
IntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\n
Open Science
\\n\\n
Open Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\n
Open Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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Open Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
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\\n\\t
Promoting open and publicly accessible education tools
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Transparency in experimental methodology, observation, and collection of data
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Reproducible research data and re-analysis
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Public availability and re-usability of scientific data
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Public accessibility and transparency of scientific communication
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Transparent peer-review and publishing practices
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Using web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration
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Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between disciplines
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Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.
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We aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\n
IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\n
At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n
“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\n
Open Access Standards followed by IntechOpen
\n\n
OAI-PMH
\n\n
As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\n
License
\n\n
Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\n
Peer Review Policies
\n\n
All scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\n
OA Publishing Fees
\n\n
The Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\n
Digital Archiving Policy
\n\n
IntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\n
Open Science
\n\n
Open Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\n
Open Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\n
Open Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
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Promoting open and publicly accessible education tools
\n\t
Transparency in experimental methodology, observation, and collection of data
\n\t
Reproducible research data and re-analysis
\n\t
Public availability and re-usability of scientific data
\n\t
Public accessibility and transparency of scientific communication
\n\t
Transparent peer-review and publishing practices
\n\t
Using web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration
\n\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between disciplines
\n\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.
\n
\n\n
We aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\n\n
\n\t
Open Access
\n\t
Open Data
\n\t
Open Metrics and Impact
\n\t
Open Source
\n
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Abdul Khalil, M. Jawaid, A. Hassan, M.T. Paridah and A. Zaidon",authors:[{id:"140848",title:"Prof.",name:"H.P.S.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Khalil",slug:"h.p.s.-abdul-khalil",fullName:"H.P.S. Abdul Khalil"},{id:"140857",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Jawaid",slug:"mohammad-jawaid",fullName:"Mohammad Jawaid"},{id:"155097",title:"Prof.",name:"Azman",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",slug:"azman-hassan",fullName:"Azman Hassan"},{id:"158082",title:"Prof.",name:"Paridah Md",middleName:null,surname:"Tahir",slug:"paridah-md-tahir",fullName:"Paridah Md Tahir"},{id:"158083",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaidon",middleName:null,surname:"Ashaari",slug:"zaidon-ashaari",fullName:"Zaidon Ashaari"}]},{id:"18845",doi:"10.5772/18264",title:"Composite Materials from Natural Resources: Recent Trends and Future Potentials",slug:"composite-materials-from-natural-resources-recent-trends-and-future-potentials",totalDownloads:18113,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:null,book:{id:"202",slug:"advances-in-composite-materials-analysis-of-natural-and-man-made-materials",title:"Advances in Composite Materials",fullTitle:"Advances in Composite Materials - Analysis of Natural and Man-Made Materials"},signatures:"Mohini Saxena, Asokan Pappu, Anusha Sharma, Ruhi Haque and Sonal Wankhede",authors:[{id:"27516",title:"Dr.",name:"Asokan",middleName:null,surname:"Pappu",slug:"asokan-pappu",fullName:"Asokan Pappu"},{id:"30902",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohini",middleName:"-",surname:"Saxena",slug:"mohini-saxena",fullName:"Mohini Saxena"},{id:"47206",title:"Prof.",name:"Anusha",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"anusha-sharma",fullName:"Anusha Sharma"},{id:"47207",title:"MSc",name:"Ruhi",middleName:null,surname:"Haque",slug:"ruhi-haque",fullName:"Ruhi Haque"},{id:"47208",title:"Prof.",name:"Sonal",middleName:null,surname:"Wankhede",slug:"sonal-wankhede",fullName:"Sonal Wankhede"}]},{id:"16971",doi:"10.5772/18127",title:"Fracture Toughness Determinations by Means of Indentation Fracture",slug:"fracture-toughness-determinations-by-means-of-indentation-fracture",totalDownloads:13744,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:null,book:{id:"1046",slug:"nanocomposites-with-unique-properties-and-applications-in-medicine-and-industry",title:"Nanocomposites with Unique Properties and Applications in Medicine and Industry",fullTitle:"Nanocomposites with Unique Properties and Applications in Medicine and Industry"},signatures:"Enrique Rocha-Rangel",authors:[{id:"30489",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",slug:"enrique-rocha",fullName:"Enrique Rocha"}]},{id:"67052",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86225",title:"Novel Applications of Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites",slug:"novel-applications-of-aluminium-metal-matrix-composites",totalDownloads:2828,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:54,abstract:"Advanced materials have offered the materials designer a wide range of options in the specification and selection of materials for various applications. Material properties are continually being improved to meet safety and operational standards in line with prevailing technological developments. Modern technological requirements, together with the consumers’ demands for systems and machines that are more energy efficient, stronger, light-weight, cost-effective, etc., dictate that the search for new and advanced materials will remain a subject of interest all the time. The difficulty in designing materials for such stringent specifications cannot be overstated, owing to the conflicting nature of these specifications. Aluminium metal matrix composites (AlMMCs) are a class of materials that have proven successful in meeting most of the rigorous specifications in applications where light-weight, high stiffness and moderate strength are the requisite properties. With a variety of reinforcement materials and flexibility in their primary processing, AlMMCs offer great potential for the development of composites with the desired properties for certain applications. In this review, the development, utilisation and future potential of AlMMCs in various industrial and commercial applications is discussed, together with the existing challenges hindering their full market penetration.",book:{id:"8862",slug:"aluminium-alloys-and-composites",title:"Aluminium Alloys and Composites",fullTitle:"Aluminium Alloys and Composites"},signatures:"Francis Nturanabo, Leonard Masu and John Baptist Kirabira",authors:[{id:"286492",title:"Mr.",name:"Francis",middleName:null,surname:"Nturanabo",slug:"francis-nturanabo",fullName:"Francis Nturanabo"},{id:"299246",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Masu",slug:"leonard-masu",fullName:"Leonard Masu"},{id:"299247",title:"Prof.",name:"John Baptist",middleName:null,surname:"Kirabira",slug:"john-baptist-kirabira",fullName:"John Baptist Kirabira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"48473",title:"Transmission Electron Microscopy of Biological Samples",slug:"transmission-electron-microscopy-of-biological-samples",totalDownloads:4990,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"During the last 70 years, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has developed our knowledge about ultrastructure of the cells and tissues. Another aim is the determination of molecular structure, interactions and processes including structure-function relationships at cellular level using a variety of TEM techniques with resolution in atomic to nanometre range. Even with the best transmission electron microscope, it is impossible to obtain real results without optimal sample preparation, respecting both the structure and the antigenicity preservation. Preparation techniques for high-resolution study of both macromolecular complex and organelles within cellular complex are based on fast cryoimmobilisation process, where the sample is in the most native, hydrated state. Next, thin samples are directly visualised under cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), while thicker samples require a thinning step via cryo-electron microscopy of vitreous sections (CEMOVIS) or cryo-focused ion beam (cryo-FIB) before visualisation. Alternatively, vitrified samples are freeze substituted and embedded in chosen resin for room temperature ultramicrotomy. This preparation technique is suitable for morphological study, 3D analysis of cellular interior and immunoelectron microscopy. A different route for immunolocalisation study is cryosectioning according to the Tokuyasu technique that is a choice for rare or methacrylate-sensitive antigens. Most recently, new hybrid techniques have been developed for difficult-to-fix organisms and antigens or labile and anoxia-sensitive tissues. Another preparation technique is, the oldest but still important, conventional chemical fixation dedicated in a wide range of research interest, involving morphological and immunolocalisation study. In this chapter, we present different sample preparation approaches for transmission electron microscopy of biological samples, including its methodological basis and applications.",book:{id:"4644",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope-theory-and-applications",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",fullTitle:"The Transmission Electron Microscope - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Łukasz Mielańczyk, Natalia Matysiak, Olesya Klymenko and\nRomuald Wojnicz",authors:[{id:"174365",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Łukasz",middleName:null,surname:"Mielańczyk",slug:"lukasz-mielanczyk",fullName:"Łukasz Mielańczyk"},{id:"175977",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Matysiak",slug:"natalia-matysiak",fullName:"Natalia Matysiak"},{id:"175978",title:"Dr.",name:"Olesya",middleName:null,surname:"Klymenko",slug:"olesya-klymenko",fullName:"Olesya Klymenko"},{id:"175979",title:"Prof.",name:"Romuald",middleName:null,surname:"Wojnicz",slug:"romuald-wojnicz",fullName:"Romuald Wojnicz"}]},{id:"61328",title:"Introductory Chapter: Adsorption and Ion Exchange Properties of Zeolites for Treatment of Polluted Water",slug:"introductory-chapter-adsorption-and-ion-exchange-properties-of-zeolites-for-treatment-of-polluted-wa",totalDownloads:2183,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"6499",slug:"zeolites-and-their-applications",title:"Zeolites and Their Applications",fullTitle:"Zeolites and Their Applications"},signatures:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed and Pachagoundanpalayam\nNachimuthugounder Palanisamy",authors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}]},{id:"63993",title:"Metamaterials in Application to Improve Antenna Parameters",slug:"metamaterials-in-application-to-improve-antenna-parameters",totalDownloads:4969,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"In recent years, the demand for miniaturization and integration of many functions of telecommunication equipment is of great interest, especially devices that are widely used in life such as mobile communication systems, smart phones, handheld tablets, GPS receivers, wireless Internet devices, etc. To satisfy this requirement, the mobile device components must be compact and capable of multifunction, multifrequency band operation. An antenna is one of them; it means that it must be conformal to the body of device, reduced in size, and capable to operating at multiple frequencies of mobile communication systems that have been operating on one, so-called smart device. Nowadays, there are many technical solutions applied in the antenna construction to satisfy of those requirements. There are microstrip antenna technology miniaturized by means of high-permittivity dielectric substrate, using shorting wall, shorting pins, some deformation, as the fractal geometry is, and others. However, these methods have disadvantage such as narrow bandwidth and low gain. A new solution that is of great interest to designers is the use of electromagnetic metamaterials for antenna design. The use of metamaterials in antenna design not only dramatically reduces the size of the antenna but can also improve other antenna parameters such as enhancing bandwidth, increasing gain, or generating multiband frequencies of antennas operation.",book:{id:"6849",slug:"metamaterials-and-metasurfaces",title:"Metamaterials and Metasurfaces",fullTitle:"Metamaterials and Metasurfaces"},signatures:"Wojciech Jan Krzysztofik and Thanh Nghia Cao",authors:null},{id:"16729",title:"The Glass Transition Temperature in Dental Composites",slug:"the-glass-transition-temperature-in-dental-composites",totalDownloads:4490,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"1044",slug:"metal-ceramic-and-polymeric-composites-for-various-uses",title:"Metal, Ceramic and Polymeric Composites for Various Uses",fullTitle:"Metal, Ceramic and Polymeric Composites for Various Uses"},signatures:"J.C.S. Moraes, M.M.D.S. 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Composites have permeated our everyday lives such as products that are used in constructions, medical applications, oil and gas, transportation, sports, aerospace, and many more. Some applications, such as rocket ships, probably would not get off the ground without composite materials. This chapter addresses the advantages of fibre composite materials as well as fundamental effects, product development, and applications of fibre composites, including material chemistry, designing, manufacturing, properties, and utilisation of the materials in various applications.",book:{id:"8768",slug:"composite-and-nanocomposite-materials-from-knowledge-to-industrial-applications",title:"Composite and Nanocomposite Materials",fullTitle:"Composite and Nanocomposite Materials - From Knowledge to Industrial Applications"},signatures:"Tri-Dung Ngo",authors:[{id:"208798",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tri-Dung",middleName:null,surname:"Ngo",slug:"tri-dung-ngo",fullName:"Tri-Dung Ngo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"156",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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