Chemical composition of base metals.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art novel imaging techniques by focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this area.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d9159ce31733bf78cc2a79b18c225994",bookSignature:"Dr. Gabriel Cismaru",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11867.jpg",keywords:"Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy, Dilated Cardiomyopathy, Restrictive Cardiomyopathy, Transesophageal Echocardiography, Intracardiac Echocardiography, 3-Dimensional Echocardiography, Adult Congenital Heart Disease, Tetralogy of Fallot, Transposition of the Great Vessels, Coronary Artery Disease, Risk Stratification, Revascularization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 21st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Cismaru Gabriel is an Assistant Professor at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, certified in Cardiology. After completing his certification in cardiology, Dr. Cismaru began his electrophysiology fellowship at the Institut Lorrain du Coeur et des Vaisseaux Louis Mathieu. He has authored or co-authored peer-reviewed articles and book chapters in the field of cardiac pacing, defibrillation, electrophysiological study, and catheter ablation.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Raluca Tomoaia is an MD, Ph.D. in novel techniques in Echocardiography at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Cluj-Napoca, Romania., assistant professor, and a researcher in echocardiography and cardiovascular imaging.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191888/images/system/191888.png",biography:"Dr. Cismaru Gabriel is an assistant professor at the Cluj-Napoca University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania, where he has been qualified in cardiology since 2011. He obtained his Ph.D. in medicine with a research thesis on electrophysiology and pro-arrhythmic drugs in 2016. Dr. Cismaru began his electrophysiology fellowship at the Institut Lorrain du Coeur et des Vaisseaux Louis Mathieu, France, after finishing his cardiology certification with stages in Clermont-Ferrand and Dinan, France. He began working at the Rehabilitation Hospital\\'s Electrophysiology Laboratory in Cluj-Napoca in 2011. He is an experienced operator who can implant pacemakers, CRTs, and ICDs, as well as perform catheter ablation of supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation. He has been qualified in pediatric cardiology since 2022, and he regularly performs device implantation and catheter ablation in children. Dr. Cismaru has authored or co-authored peer-reviewed publications and book chapters on cardiac pacing, defibrillation, electrophysiological studies, and catheter ablation.",institutionString:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5970",title:"Bedside Procedures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba56d3036ac823a7155f40e4a02c030d",slug:"bedside-procedures",bookSignature:"Gabriel Cismaru",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5970.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9064",title:"Epidemiology and Treatment of Atrial Fibrillation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1cd6bf2b3181eb82446347fbe478a2bc",slug:"epidemiology-and-treatment-of-atrial-fibrillation",bookSignature:"Gabriel Cismaru and Keith Andrew Chan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9064.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56592",title:"Friction Stir Welding of Aluminium Alloys",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70233",slug:"friction-stir-welding-of-aluminium-alloys",body:'\nAluminium alloys are widely used in variety of applications ranging from basic to complex such as in the making of aircraft bodies. Due to varied service conditions, there are scenarios where different series of aluminium alloys are to be joined. The most extensively used non precipitation hardenable series of Al alloys in aeronautical applications are 3xxx, 5xxx. Some of the precipitation hardenable series of Al alloys include 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx series. Merits of 2xxx series are that they possess excellent mechanical properties at high temperatures whereas 7xxx series show good mechanical properties at low temperatures and also exhibit high corrosion resistance properties [1]. Identification of appropriate joining process and process parameters employed becomes important in service performance of these materials and in its actual service conditions. aluminium alloys are lighter yet possess good strength and ductility. This makes the material a preferable candidate to work in varied working environments.
\nAA2024, AA5052 aluminium alloys are widely used in, automotive, aerospace and shipbuilding industries [2]. Fusion welding of dissimilar aluminium alloys is very challenging mainly due to the formation of low melting eutectics by the constituent elements resulting in weld solidification cracking. Hot cracking in aluminium alloys are extremely sensitive to weld metal compositions [3]. Hence solid state joining process becomes more suitable for welding aluminium alloys, since this process does not involve melting. Hence the defects like weld solidification cracking, porosity, segregation, liquid cracking on heat effected zone and brittle inter metallic formation could be avoided using this technique [2, 4]. In FS welding techniques, tool geometry plays a major role in obtaining desirable metallurgical and mechanical properties [5–7].
\nIn this study AA2024 and AA5052 were fabricated using friction stir welding process using five different tool pin profiles. Four traditional pin profiles namely cylindrical, threaded, squared, tapered pin and a newly designed stepped pin profile were employed in this research. Al-Cu dissimilar metals were welded as in reference [4] and found that better tensile strengths were achieved in the plates which was welded at 710 rpm, where the tested speed range was 600–1000 rpm. They also concluded that the defect-free joints could be obtained when the plates that had superior mechanical properties were fixed on the advancing side. The author reported that the pin transfers the material layer by layer, while the shoulder transfers the material in bulk and forges it. FS welding of AA 6061 has experimented as in reference [8] by changing ratio of shoulder to pin diameter and reported that the defect free welding can be obtained when keeping the D/d ratio is 3:1. Studies on the FS welding of AA 2219-AA5083 alloy as in reference [3] by changing various pin profiles and found that, cylindrical threaded pin has produced defect free welding with good tensile strength. From extensive literature survey it can be deduced that the newly developed stepped pin profile has not been incorporated in the friction stir welding of aluminium alloys.
\nAluminium alloy AA6061, is extensively used in marine industries and in the construction of storage tanks and pipelines. Joining process for dissimilar materials are considered quite challenging as compared to joining similar metals, due to change in chemical composition of base metals and their mechanical properties [9–11]. Fusion welding of nonferrous metals is tedious due to high heat inputs. Formation of secondary phase in friction stir welding (FSW) process is absent since the temperature reached in this process is well below the melting point of parent metals.
\nThermal dissipation emanates local isothermal stresses. This thermal gradient developed has important and adverse effect on the metallurgical properties and in turn on the mechanical properties of the joint, precisely in the formation of soft zones. This microstructural change affects the performance in service conditions of the weld joints, since mechanical properties decreases with reference to the base material. Valuable details can be obtained by understanding weld thermal cycles precisely in conjunction with transformation curves and their microstructural effect in mechanical properties [12].
\nLiteratures indicate that optimal parameters for joining of dissimilar aluminium alloys are rotation speeds being 600–1000 rpm, D/d ratio of 3:1 traverse speeds around 15–40 mm/min. Out of many materials processed using FSW, the most commendable results obtained were for aluminium and all of its alloys including cast and wrought conditions. Most influential parameters in the FSW process were researched to be tool geometry, travel speed, rotational speed, rotational direction, rotational axis, eccentricity [13]. Studies show that out of two base metals employed, when harder material is placed on the advancing side and softer material in retreating side, better mechanical properties are obtained. Different tool profiles are investigated by researchers, as geometry of tool pin plays a major role in FSW. Threaded, squared and triangular tool pin profiles are efficient to transfer the material from top to bottom of the joint and vice versa by stirring action. The analysis of the results during certain experiments by researchers revealed that during the time of mechanical tests performed, the crack initiation may be significant, at least for welded joints with relative lower stress concentrations and low to moderate loads [14]. Certain researchers have attempted various welding techniques on aluminium alloys. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) and gas tungsten arc (GTA) welds have been attempted for welding aluminium alloys. Important morphological characteristics have been observed on MIEW process when compared to that of GMA welds. When MIEW welds were fabricated, solidification process tended to promote heterogeneous nucleation. Therefore, auto refinement of grain size is promoted. On the other hand, when multi pass GMA welds were employed, columnar epitaxial solidification happens resulting in increase in grain size [15, 16].
\nAluminium alloys AA 5052 and AA 6061 are FS welded with specific tool contours and using two welding parameters of variable feed rate and constant speed. This chapter also discusses on characterization of metallurgical and mechanical properties of the above combination to evaluate the performance characteristics of FS welded joints.
\nThe materials used in this study are commercially available AA 2024-T4 (Al-Cu alloy), AA 5052 and AA 6061-T4 (Al-Mg-Si alloy). Plates of 5 mm thick AA2024, AA5052 and AA6061 were friction stir welded in certain combinations using conventional milling machine employing a specially designed fixture. The chemical compositions of the samples are tabulated in Table 1.
\nMaterial | \nMg | \nMn | \nCu | \nFe | \nSi | \nCr | \nZn | \nTi | \nAl | \n% of Elongation | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AA2024 | \n1.5 | \n0.6 | \n4.35 | \n0.5 | \n0.5 | \n0.10 | \n0.25 | \n0.15 | \nRem | \n137 | \n
AA5052 | \n1.4 | \n0.14 | \n0.14 | \n0.4 | \n0.26 | \n0.15 | \n0.08 | \n– | \nRem | \n330 | \n
AA6061 | \n1 | \n0.15 | \n0.27 | \n0.7 | \n0.6 | \n0.19 | \n0.6 | \n0.15 | \nRem | \n75 | \n
Chemical composition of base metals.
D/d ratio (shoulder/pin) was kept as 3, where shoulder diameter is 16 mm and pin diameter being 6 mm. The aluminium plates were made into coupons of 100 mm × 50 mm where the welding was carried out using milling machine with necessary fixtures. AISI H13 tool steel which has high thermal fatigue resistance was used in this study.
\nTensile test was carried out using INSTRON 8801 UTM according to ASTM E8/E8M standards of sub size specimen and the tests were carried out at a strain rate of 0.5 mm/min. Micro hardness measurements were carried out at a load of 100 gf with dwell time of 10 s and distance of 0.25 mm interval across the weldment.
\nTo study the microstructure of the weldments of these dissimilar aluminium alloys Keller’s reagent (150 ml water + 3 ml of Nitric Acid, 6 ml of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid) was used. In order to analyze the constituents in thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) and weld, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) was used.
\nIn dissimilar welding of AA2024 with AA 5052 and AA 2024-T4 (Al-Cu alloy) with AA 6061-T4 (Al-Mg-Si alloy) welding was carried out by placing AA2024 in the advancing side. It was due to higher mechanical strength of AA 2024. AA 5052 and AA6061 were placed on the retreating side. Different pin profiles viz. cylindrical, threaded, squared, tapered and stepped pin were used in this study. The length of tool pin is kept constant at 4.8 mm. Experiments were conducted at a feed rate of 40 mm/min and 28 mm/min against two different speeds of 710, 1000 rpm. The tensile test results welded with all tool profiles and their Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) values along with place of fracture is tabulated in Table 2.
\nS No | \nTool pin profile | \nUTS (MPa) | \nPercentage strength | \nFracture spot | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nThreaded | \n259 | \n78 | \nTMAZ of 5052 | \n
2 | \nSquared | \n200 | \n60 | \nWeld | \n
3 | \nStepped | \n297 | \n90 | \nTMAZ of 5052 | \n
4 | \nCylindrical | \n195 | \n59 | \nWeld | \n
5 | \nTapered | \n202 | \n61 | \nWeld | \n
Tensile test results of AA 2024 and AA 5052 welded specimens.
The process parameters used in the welding of AA 2024-T4 (Al-Cu alloy) and AA 6061-T4 (Al-Mg-Si alloy) is given in Table 3.
\nS No | \nTool design | \nRotational speed | \nTraverse speed (mm/min) | \nTilting angle (deg) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nThreaded pin | \n710 and 1000 rpm | \n28 | \n2 | \n
2 | \n40 | \n|||
3 | \nSquared pin | \n710 and 1000 rpm | \n28 | \n|
4 | \n40 | \n|||
5 | \nTapered pin | \n710 and 1000 rpm | \n28 | \n|
6 | \n40 | \n|||
7 | \nCylindrical pin | \n710 and 1000 rpm | \n28 | \n|
8 | \n40 | \n|||
9 | \nStepped pin | \n710 and 1000 rpm | \n28 | \n|
10 | \n40 | \n
Welding parameters of AA 2024 and AA 5052 alloys.
The dissimilar alloys AA 5052 and AA6061 were butt welded using cylindrical pin tool with 2 threads. AA 5052 was kept at the advancing side and AA6061 in the retreating side. The two specimens were welded using two parameters: 710 rpm at 28 mm/min and 710 rpm at 20 mm/min.
\nThe different types of pin profiles used in this work along with the corresponding tool dimensions can be seen from Figure 1(a–e).
\nVarious tool pin profiles used and their dimensions.
It is observed that macroscopic defects appeared when using the cylindrical pin tool. The cross sectional macrograph is represented in Figure 2(a–e).
\nCross sectional macrostructures of welded samples.
It clearly shows void defect while using cylindrical and tapered pin tool. This could be due to inferior metal flow during the welding process while using the corresponding profile tools. On the other hand, the joints fabricated using threaded, squared and stepped pin appeared to be free from defects which could possibly be due to effective mix-up and proper inter diffusion of elements from both base metals. It could also be due to optimized heat input within the weld nugget while using these profiled tools. This may be due to lack of heat input during the welding process and the nature of pin profile. Comparing all tool pin profiles, threaded pin and stepped pin resulted in uniform mix-up of elements from both base metals. The micrographs of FS welded samples obtained using these tool profiles are represented in Figure 3(a–f).
\nMicrostructures captured at various zones of AA 2024 and AA5052 welds.
It is observable from Figure 3(a and d) that the material flow from advancing side of AA2024 to the weld nugget is vivid in both threaded and stepped pin profiles. Further refined grain structures appeared on the weld nugget as well as on the AA2024 side.
\nThe tensile test has been carried out for the FS welded samples and the averaged results are represented in Table 2. Two samples were tested on weldments fabricated with each tool pin profiles to ensure the repeatability of weld consistency and testing. Samples welded with threaded pin gave tensile strength of 259 MPa which is 78% of the strength of AA5052. Interestingly the stepped pin profile yielded tensile strength of 297 MPa. The fracture also occurred at the TMAZ of AA5052 and not in the weld. Squared pin, cylindrical pin, and tapered pin fractured in nugget with 60, 59, and 61 percentage of base strength of AA 5052. Stress-strain graphs plotted for both samples are depicted in Figure 4.
\nStress strain plots of AA 2024 and AA 5052 welded samples.
The hardness profiles of the samples welded with traditional tool pins were found to have lower range of hardness value in the weld nugget and heat affected zone. In both the cases, it is apparent the hardness values in the weld nugget seems to be higher than that of the base metal of AA 5052 and less that of AA2024. Hardness plot for threaded and stepped pin profile weldments can be seen from Figure 5.
\nHardness plots of threaded and stepped pin welded samples.
Sudden drop in the hardness value from weld zone to TMAZ in retreating side led to the fracture at that point as micro hardness values are directly proportional to the strength of weld which is also evident from the tensile test. The hardness profile noticed in the weld region of the sample welded with stepped pin is comparatively higher than that of the hardness achieved in joints obtained using other tool profiles eventually proving high strength. Average micro-hardness value of 150 HV was obtained in the welded joints produced through stepped pin tool.
\nThe surface morphologies of the weld fabricated using cylindrical, threaded and squared pin tool profile are shown in Figure 6(a and b).
\nSurface morphology of AA2024 and 6061 welds and macrographs of threaded and squared pin profiles.
The traverse speed and rotational speed for threaded and squared pin were fixed at 28 mm/min at 710 rpm and 40 mm/min at 1000 rpm for respective samples. By varying the process parameters and tool geometry, no defects were found in the welds except for tapered pin. Defective surface morphologies and improper heat diffusion were observed on using tapered pin (Figure 6(b)).
\nFrom the macro-graphic studies, different regions of weldments are identified and it represents the effective stir of both the base material in the nugget zone Figure 6(c, d).
\nThe presence of AA2024 constituent elements in the nugget is more when compared to AA6061. This is because AA2024 was placed on advancing side of the weld. Welds without voids were fabricated using cylindrical threaded pin with parameters of 710 rpm, 28 mm/min and using squared pin with parameters of 1000 rpm, 40 mm/min. For the same process parameters, few macroscopic defects occurred on using cylindrical, tapered and stepped pin. This could be attributed to absence of vertical traverse of metal in nugget region.
\nThe microstructures at different regions of the welded dissimilar materials are shown in Figure 7(a–g).
\nMicrostructures captured at various zones of AA 2024 and AA 6061 weldment.
There are no substantial changes in the base metal microstructure, though the weld nugget undergoes considerable amount of thermal changes. It is evident from the microstructure (Figure 7(b and f)) that the thermal cycle has significantly influenced the heat affected zone. Yet there is no plastic deformation occurred in this region. There is considerable grain growth in the thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ). This could be due to the plastic deformation and low heat levels encountered during welding. A distinct boundary separates the recrystallized zone (weld nugget) from the TMAZ, which is apparent from the micrographs. The dynamically recrystallized zone is the stirred zone. Severe plastic deformation has taken place in this zone resulting in fine equiaxed grains. Stirred zone is a commonly used phrase in friction stir processing which denotes that substantial volume of material is being processed. Weld nugget micrographs (Figure 7(d)), depicts highly refined and increased grain boundaries, which has enhanced the weldment strength.
\nMaximum weld strength of 194 MPa and 209 MPa were obtained for cylindrical threaded and squared pin, respectively. As shown in Figure 8, for both the tool pin geometries, fracture occurred at the HAZ of 6061 alloy.
\nTensile tested AA 2024 and AA 6061 samples welded with (a)Cylindrical threaded pin (b) Squared pin.
For the other tool pin geometry fracture has occurred at the stirred zone. The weld region shows lower strength compared to both base metals. Joint efficiencies obtained for cylindrical threaded pin and squared pin are 80 and 87%, respectively.
\nVickers hardness tests were conducted across the various regions of the weld spacing of (0.25 mm) shown in Figure 9.
\nHardness plots of samples welded using threaded and stepped pin profiles.
Average hardness value across the weldments obtained for cylindrical threaded pin and for squared pin were 105.15 HV and 135.6 HV respectively. The hardness of weld nugget was considerably less than that of AA2024, whereas the hardness was comparatively higher than base metal of 6061 and TMAZ.
\nEvolution of grain structures, their texture, temperature gradient, recrystallization techniques and precipitation of inter – metallic constituents are some of the factors included in micro structural studies. These factors indeed influence the quality and strength of any welds when assessed through tests namely tensile, creep, fatigue etc. [17]. The tool dimension and the tool used for welding are shown in Figure 10(a and b).
\nDimensions of cylindrical threaded tool pin and cross sectional macrostructures of welded samples.
The cross sectional macrograph of weldments showed proper material flow from advancing side to retreating side. This is evidence of the fact that the weld process parameters considered are optimal. A micro void was visible in the sample welded at 40 mm/min (Figure 10(d)). This may be due to improper fusion involved in the weld nugget.
\nThe microstructures taken at various regions of the weldments of both the samples are shown in Figure 11.
\nMicrostructures of AA 5052 and 6061 sample welded at feed rate of 28 mm/min.
The microstructures of the base metals of AA 5052 and AA 6061 are shown in Figure 11(a and b) respectively, whereas Figure 11(c and d) shows the micrographs at TMAZ. Figure 12(a and b) shows the microstructures of weld region and Figure 12(c and d) depicts the microstructures at the interfaces.
\nMicrographs of AA 5052 and AA 6061 samples captured at (g & h) weld regions and (I & j) at interface regions.
It can be observed from (Figure 11(e and f)) that grain formation is refined in the weld zone as compared to TMAZ of both alloys. This should be due to optimality of process parameter that was selected and effective cooling rate. In addition, on comparing the both TMAZ’s, AA 6061 side has considerable grain size increase (Figure 11(f)).
\nTensile tested specimens and stress strain plots of AA 5052 and 6061 welded specimens.
This may have led to deterioration of tensile properties in this zone. It has been analysed in reference [6] that the change of grain size is due to the effect of elevated temperatures and that the strain rates were insignificant. It was also concluded that the decrease in the flow stress at high temperatures was primarily due to the thermally activated dislocation lines.
\nTensile samples were wire cut using electrical discharge machining (EDM) and prepared according to the ASTM standards of sub-size dimensions. It is vivid from Figure 13(a) that in both cases, the fracture has occurred in the TMAZ of the 6061 alloy. This affirms that the weld nugget possesses better strength than base metals.
\nThere is no much difference between UTS of both the samples. However, the tensile stress at break point of Sample B is proportionately higher than Sample A. This means Sample B has yielded suddenly after the elastic limit, whereas Sample A has yielded after demonstrating high ductility. The load at break point adds to the same. Results of tensile test are being tabulated in Table 4.
\nSample | \nMaximum load | \nUTS (MPa) | \nTensile strain at break (%) | \nTensile stress at break (MPa) | \nLoad at break (kN) | \nElongation (%) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sample A | \n4853 | \n180 | \n10.5 | \n2.75 | \n0.07 | \n10.5 | \n
Sample B | \n4837 | \n179 | \n8.4 | \n27.06 | \n0.73 | \n8.33 | \n
Tensile test report of AA 5052 and AA 6061 welded samples.
Welding parameters have been optimized as in reference [2] by design of experiments and the optimum level of settings concluded from their experiments. Corresponding parameters chosen for the studies are rotational speed of 700 rpm, transverse speed of 28 mm/min and D/d ratio being 3 respectively. The performance of cylindrical threaded pin tool profile was better among others considered. D/d ratio plays a vital role and contributes to an overall efficiency of about 60%. It is found in reference [17] that the hardness variations in the FS weld zone of Al 5083 alloy could not be supported by study of grain size in the weld region alone. Hence, in any study, correlation of mechanical performances with that of metallurgical factors becomes important in analysing the nature and reason for the fracture.
\nThe hardness profile obtained for the samples are shown in Figure 14.
\nHardness plots of AA 5052 and AA 6061 welded samples.
From the plots, it can be understood that the feed rate has only little influence on the hardness of the weldments. From the advancing side (AA 5052) to the retreating side (AA 6061) of the weldment, the hardness values show a decreasing trend and again a gradual increasing trend. It is worthy to note that the fracture has also occurred in the TMAZ of AA 6061 (minimum hardness zone). It can be noted from the graph that hardness values of TMAZ in the retreating side are comparatively less. This could be due to constituent gradient in mixing/diffusion of AA 6061 with material from advancing side and weld nugget. As evident from nature of the micrograph, this could be a reason for the failure of tensile specimen in the TMAZ of AA 6061 side. Moreover, it may be due to the grain coarsening effect that the hardness values in the weld nugget shows lower trend when compared with parent metals.
\nIn the FSW of AA 2024 with AA5051, sound welds were produced using a new stepped pin tool, at 710 rpm and 28 mm/min. From morphological studies, there is quantifiable reduction in grain size of weld nugget compared to parent metals. Maximum tensile strength of 297 MPa was achieved on samples welded using stepped pin tool. This strength is comparatively higher than that of the ones that were welded with other profiled pins.
From the FSW of AA 2024 with AA6061, it is deduced that for cylindrical pin, D/d ratio of 3, rotational speed of 710 rpm, traverse speed of 28 mm/min, were the best optimal parameters. Further, better mechanical properties were observed for the same. In addition, it is concluded that squared pin and cylindrical threaded tool profiles perform better than rest of tool profiles considered.
FSW between AA 5052 and AA 6061 alloys sounds promising. Cylindrical threaded pin has imparted excellent bondage between both alloys (AA 5052 and AA 6061) by effective FS joining. Both the samples have exhibited nearly equal ultimate strength. In terms of ductility, Sample B (with 710 rpm and 28 mm/min feed rate) outperformed Sample A (with 710 rpm at 40 mm/min).
The authors wish to extend their sincere thanks to SNR Sons Charitable Trust, Coimbatore and the management of VIT University, Vellore for providing necessary support in executing this research.
\nPrimary vaginal cancer is less prevalent than uterine cancer of the endometrium, ovary, and cervix, but vaginal cancer is more common than vulvar cancer in the United States [1]. Most vaginal tumors are squamous cell carcinomas, but melanomas, sarcomas, adenocarcinomas, and other histologic types also occur. Although primary vaginal cancer is rare, metastasis to the vagina or local spread from adjacent gynecologic or non-gynecologic organs or systems is not uncommon.
In summary, most vaginal malignancies are metastatic and can often arise from the endometrium, cervix, vulva, ovaries, breast, rectum, and kidney [2, 3, 4, 5]. Direct spread (e.g., cervix, vulva, endometrium) or lymphatic or hematogenous spread (e.g., breast, ovary, kidney) can cause vaginal metastases.
In situ or invasive vaginal cancer will be diagnosed in approximately one in every 100,000 women (typically squamous cell histology) [6, 7]. Squamous cell carcinoma, the most frequent histologic form of vaginal cancer, is mainly diagnosed in women in their 60s and 70s, while it can also occur in women in their 20s and 30s. Squamous cell carcinoma occurs more frequently as the patient ages [6].
Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is thought to be the cause of the majority of vaginal cancer cases, as well as cervical, uterine cancer [8]. In a case–control study, more than half of 156 women with in situ or invasive vaginal cancer tested positive for antibodies to HPV 16 or 18 subtypes [9]. As a result, vaginal cancer and cervical neoplasia share the same risk factors. Specifically, the risk increases with more than one sexual partner over a lifetime, early age at first sexual intercourse, if you still smoke, low socioeconomic status, and various other infections that cause immunosuppression [9, 10].
There was evidence that some high-grade vulvar and vaginal intraepithelial neoplasms are monoclonal lesions derived from the high-grade or malignant disease of the cervix [11]. A retrospective cohort study of over 130,000 women found that women with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 3 (CIN 3) had a significantly higher risk of developing vaginal cancer than women in the same population and time interval (incidence rate 6.8, 95% CI 5.6–8.2) [12]. A fourfold or higher risk was found up to 25 years after a CIN 3 diagnosis. Similarly, 30% of all women with in situ or invasive vaginal disease had previously been treated for an anogenital tumor (primarily cervical), and 17 out of 25 (70%) invasive cancer biopsy specimens tested positive for HPV type 16/18 DNA in one case series. Similarly, 51 of 153 women with vaginal cancer treated at Princess Margaret Hospital had pre-existing gynecological malignancies, 34 of whom had cervical uteri cancer, and it is recommended that when each type of cancer is detected, the cervix uteri, vagina, and vulvar region be evaluated together [13].
The most prevalent clinical manifestation of vaginal cancer is vaginal bleeding. Many women are asymptomatic. Vaginal bleeding associated with vaginal cancer is typically postcoital or postmenopausal. Any unplanned vaginal bleeding should be investigated to determine if the source is vaginal. There may also be a watery, bloody, or foul-smelling discharge from the vagina [14, 15, 16].
The patient may also notice a vaginal mass. Other possible symptoms are related to local spread of the disease, urinary symptoms (e.g., frequency, dysuria, hematuria), or gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g., tenesmus, constipation, melena) [14, 15, 16]. Pelvic pain caused by the spread of the disease outside the vagina occurs in 5 percent of patients.
At the time of diagnosis, up to 20% of women have no clinical complaints and are asymptomatic [17, 18, 19]. These vaginal malignancies might be discovered incidentally during a pelvic examination or due to cytological screening for cervical cancer.
Evaluation using pelvic examination, vaginal cytology, and colposcopic or direct vaginal biopsy are the essential parts of diagnostic evaluation.
Questions about the symptoms of vaginal cancer should be included. A gynecologic history, including a history of neoplasms of the cervix or vulvar neoplasia, should be obtained, as a history of other gynecologic malignancies may exclude a diagnosis of vaginal cancer. Medical, surgical, and medication history should be obtained. This should include the evaluation of medical comorbidities that may influence treatment decisions.
A pelvic and physical examination is carried out. The vagina should be extensively checked with the speculum, including the view of the entire periphery and fornix by shifting the speculum position. Any abnormal site or mass should be biopsied. Palpation of the vaginal walls for masses and evaluation of other pelvic masses should be included in a bimanual examination. The inguinal region should be palpated to assess enlarged pathological lymph nodes.
If the lesion is small and located in the lower two-thirds of the vagina, it may be missed on initial examination. On visual inspection of the vagina, the anterior and posterior blades of the speculum obscure this area, so the tumor may be missed unless the vagina is examined when the speculum is removed or the lesion is palpated on bimanual examination. A detailed colposcopic examination is recommended for macroscopic lesions or lesions that cannot be seen with the naked eye.
The rectovaginal examination is also recommended to assess parametrial and pelvic sidewall involvement, as well as probable rectal involvement.
The most prevalent site of primary vaginal carcinoma is the posterior wall of the upper third of the vagina. According to review research, more than half of the tumors in the upper, middle, and lower thirds of the vaginal wall originated in the posterior vaginal wall in 50, 20, and 30% of cases, respectively [7, 20]. A mass, plaque, or ulcer can all be signs of a lesion. To assess metastatic disease, a focused physical examination is conducted. The inguinal region, in particular, should be checked for pathologically enlarged lymph nodes.
A vaginal cytology specimen should be obtained during the pelvic examination. Twenty percent of vaginal cancers are discovered incidentally during cytology screening for cervical cancer [21].
If a lesion cannot be visualized and cytology results are abnormal, acetic acid colposcopy of the cervix and vagina should be performed, followed by Lugol’s iodine staining. If a large lesion is visible, some specialists additionally recommend vaginal colposcopy to evaluate the rest of the vagina.
Biopsy of abnormal areas of the vagina in the office may be performed with punch forceps (Baker or Keyes) or cervical biopsy forceps (Tischler or Burke). Examination under anesthesia may be required for examination and biopsy in women with the significant vaginal stricture that prevents adequate office examination, older adult women, or if cystoscopy and proctoscopy are required for clinical staging.
The only imaging studies part of the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) staging for vaginal cancer are chest and skeletal radiographs.
Modern imaging techniques, such as computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and 18-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose-positron emission tomography and CT (FDG-PET/CT), can help plan treatment. MRI may help determine the size and local extent of the primary vaginal tumor [22, 23]. T2 imaging is usually the best way to see vaginal tumors, and dripping gel into the vaginal canal to expand the vaginal walls can help visualize and evaluate the tumor’s thickness. Primary vaginal tumors and abnormal lymph nodes can also be assessed using FDG-PET [24].
Vaginal cancer is a histologic diagnosis based on vaginal biopsy and the absence of a history of gynecologic malignancy may better identify the vaginal disease as recurrent cancer rather than a new primary disease.
The first step in determining the cause of vaginal bleeding is to rule out bleeding from other areas of the genital tract. A pelvic examination is often used to accomplish this.
Menopausal women may experience vaginal bleeding due to vaginal atrophy. Bleeding can also be caused by a vaginal infection, inflammation, or trauma. A dermatological condition occasionally causes vaginal bleeding (e.g., toxic epidermal necrolysis). Bleeding from these etiologies may result in focal bleeding from a fissure or laceration, which is not usually the case with vaginal cancer. Or there may be ulceration or extensive bleeding, which can also occur with vaginal cancer. A vaginal mass may be benign, such as cysts of the ductus Gartner, vaginal polyps, vaginal adenosis, endometriosis, or dermoid cysts (rare) [25].
Primary vaginal tumors form a heterogeneous group of malignancies. They may be multicentric and involve many areas, so the entire vaginal mucosa is at risk and should be examined.
The majority of vaginal cancers are squamous cell carcinomas. As previously stated, the average age at diagnosis for squamous cell carcinomas is around 60 years [26]. Tumors can be nodular, ulcerative, indurated, endophytic, or exophytic in general. They resemble squamous cell tumors in other regions histologically. Vaginal cancer is also associated with the human papillomavirus (HPV). The vaginal epithelium, on the other hand, is more stable than the cervical epithelium, which undergoes constant metaplasia and is hence less susceptible to oncogenic viruses [27].
Verrucous carcinoma is an uncommon type of vaginal squamous cell carcinoma that is well-differentiated and has a small probability of becoming malignant [28]. It is usually a large, warty, fungal mass that is locally aggressive but rarely metastasizes. Histologically, it consists of large papillary sheets covered with dense keratin. The deep margin forms a driving edge of well-aligned rete ridges, in contrast to the well-demarcated margins of benign condyloma acuminata.
A clinical staging system for vaginal cancer is used by the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) and Tumor, Node, and Metastasis (TNM) [29, 30, 31].
Physical examination, cystoscopy, proctoscopy, and chest and skeletal radiographs are used to determine clinical staging. The results of biopsy or fine-needle aspiration of inguinal/femoral nodes or other nodules may be included in the clinical stage. In addition to clinical staging data, information from the resected specimen, including pelvic and peritoneal lymph nodes, will be used as indicated by the TNM system.
In a review of five series with 1375 cases of vaginal cancer, patients were differentiated according to FIGO stage: stage I (26%), stage II (37%), stage III (24%), and stage IV (13%) [32].
Vaginal tumors can spread locally and in various ways systemically:
Direct extension to the soft tissue structures of the pelvis: parameters, bladder, urethra, and rectum. Eventually, the bony pelvis may also be affected.
Lymphatic spread to the pelvic and para-aortic lymph nodes. The lymphatic drainage of the upper vagina connects with the cervix and continues first to the pelvic nodes and then to the paraaortic nodes. In comparison, the lymphatics of the distal third of the vagina drain first to the inguinal and femoral nodes and secondarily to the pelvic nodes.
Hematogenous spread to other organs, including lungs, liver, and bone, is usually seen late and in histopathologically rare lesions.
Because of its rarity, no randomized trials describe the treatment of vaginal cancer. Instead, the treatment approach of cervical and anal cancer is predicted. In addition, treatment plans should be individualized according to the tumor’s location, size, and clinical stage. This was supported by a review from a single institution, which showed that tumor stage, location, and size were significant prognostic factors in patients with vaginal cancer [33]. In addition, treatment should consider the following:
Local anatomic constraints (e.g., removal of internal genitalia, supporting structures, rectosigmoid, lymphatics, and bladder) prevent wide negative surgical margins without an exenterative surgery.
Psychosexual problems, including the patient’s desire to obtain a functioning vagina.
For most patients with
Radiotherapy is also used for tumors in the mid to lower vagina because of anatomic difficulties, as surgical resection of tumors at this site often requires vulvovaginectomy and inguinal node dissection to achieve negative margins and acceptable oncologic outcomes [34]. On the other hand, surgical resection is more appropriate for patients with lesions in the upper posterior vagina because the anatomy is preserved.
We usually prefer RT to surgery because negative margins are difficult to achieve in tumors bigger than 2 to 3 cm in diameter [35]. Even if surgical resection is performed, obtaining an appropriate margin is challenging if the lesion is located close to the bladder or rectum.
If the tumor is located in the distal part of the vagina, the inguinal lymph nodes should also be examined.
A total radiation dose of at least 70 to 75 Gy is commonly suggested, with 45 to 50 Gy of external beam radiation and additional radiation provided via intracavitary or interstitial brachytherapy radiation, depending on the thickness of the primary tumor. Pelvic lymph nodes rimmed vaginal tumors, vaginal and paravaginal tissues, and inguinal lymph nodes should all be exposed to external radiation if the vaginal tumor is in the lower half of the vaginal canal. Brachytherapy radiation should be given immediately after the completion of external radiation. Vaginal tumors less than 5 mm thick can be treated using a vaginal roller or similar applicator, however tumors thicker than 5 mm require interstitial therapy for appropriate dosage and normal tissue preservation [38].
Surgery is usually not an option for patients with more advanced stages than II to IV. We frequently replace chemoradiotherapy for RT because of the relatively poor results of RT alone. However, given the lack of high-quality data on the benefits of chemoradiation, RT is a reasonable alternative, especially for patients who, for some reason, are not eligible for cisplatin-based chemotherapy.
There are few data to support this approach, particularly in vaginal cancer, and these are mostly limited to small retrospective series [40, 42, 43, 44], which consistently show high rates of locoregional control after chemoradiotherapy and long-term radiation-related side effects. Compared to RT alone, it does not look worse. However, whether chemoradiation is beneficial for these patients or not is not entirely clear because of limited data:
Most of these studies examined women with stage I disease or II, limiting their applicability to these patients.
Because of the disease’s rarity, no randomized clinical trials have been performed.
In a study of 71 patients, 20 patients who received definitive RT concomitant chemotherapy and 51 who did not receive chemotherapy were evaluated. It was found that 3-year and overall survival were statistically significantly longer in the chemosensitive group, and disease-free survival rates were also longer in the chemotherapy group [45].
For patients with stage II to IV disease who are not considered candidates for chemoradiotherapy, RT (with intracavitary or interstitial therapy, depending on tumor thickness) is a reasonable alternative [39, 40, 46, 47, 48, 49].
However, results after RT alone in advanced disease are not as good as in patients with stage I disease. In the same series from a single institution mentioned above, the two-year overall survival rate, regional control rate, and distant metastasis-free survival rate by stage were as follows [20]:
Stage II – 92.3%, 64.7%, and 84.6%, respectively
Stage III – 66.6%, 44.4%, and 50%
Stage IV – 25%, 14.3% and 25%
In patients with advanced disease, surgery as a primary treatment modality is associated with poorer outcomes than chemoradiotherapy. For example, in a literature review, the mean five-year survival rates for patients with stage II, III, and IV disease after surgery were 52, 44, and 14%, respectively, with or without adjuvant radiotherapy [36].
In addition, negative margins in women with large or extensive lesions are usually challenging to achieve without sacrificing the bladder or rectum.
In a small prospective study of 11 patients with stage II disease who previously had three courses of 21 days of paclitaxel (175 mg/m2) and cisplatin (75 mg/m2) chemotherapy, the potential role of neoadjuvant therapy was demonstrated. 91% of these patients had a clinical response after neoadjuvant chemotherapy, and all were able to undergo surgical resection. The pathological complete response rate was 27% [50].
10–15% of patients with vaginal cancer will develop treatment-related complications [51]. These include rectovaginal or vesicovaginal fistulas, radiation cystitis or proctitis, rectal and vaginal strictures, and rarely vaginal necrosis. The proximity of the urethra, bladder, and rectum predisposes these structures to injury from surgery or radiation.
After radiation, women are advised to use a vaginal dilator to minimize the extent of vaginal stenosis. In general, we recommend that women start using the dilator one week after completing radiation and use it daily. Women who are sexually active regularly may need to use the dilator less frequently.
Women under 40 years of age who receive radiation for vaginal carcinoma are at higher risk for radiation-induced early menopause. In numerous ways, attempts to minimize the toxicity of radiation exposure by moving the ovaries to the back of the uterus or the lateral pelvic walls (oophoropexy) have been successful [52, 53]. It is recommended to perform oophoropexy in selected cases.
Recurrent patients may be candidates for surgery. However, for those who are not candidates for surgery for any reason, treatment options are rather limited because of the lack of prospective studies on this disease.
In patients with central recurrence and no other foci of disease, pelvic exenteration may be therapeutic with or without vaginal reconstruction [54, 55, 56]. Exenteration may also be considered in stage IVa patients, especially if a rectovaginal or vesicovaginal fistula is present.
Chemotherapy’s role in recurrent or advanced vaginal cancer patients is unclear. Therefore, we administer chemotherapy to patients with recurrent vaginal cancer when there are no alternatives (e.g., surgery or radiotherapy [RT]) or when there is evidence of metastatic disease outside the pelvis. However, patients and providers should be aware that there is a lack of high-quality data to inform whether the benefits of treatment justify the toxicities associated with systemic chemotherapy. In the absence of clear benefits, these patients should be referred to palliative care when appropriate [57, 58, 59, 60].
Cisplatin was recommended based on the experience of the Gynecological Oncology Group, which included 26 patients with advanced disease. Although the dose of cisplatin was sub-therapeutic by modern standards, these patients had insignificant activity (50 mg/m2 every three weeks) [57]. Combination therapy with bleomycin, vincristine, mitomycin, and cisplatin also appears to be relatively ineffective in patients with advanced or recurrent disease, although it shows marked efficacy in early disease [58]. In patients with early-stage squamous vaginal carcinoma, anecdotal findings suggest an activity for carboplatin, a combination of vinblastine, bleomycin, and cisplatin, and irinotecan, as well as cisplatin [26, 59, 60]. However, a large series of these regimens is lacking to confirm activity in advanced disease.
The optimal surveillance strategy has not yet been determined, and clinical practice varies. We agree with the recommendations of the Society of Gynecological Oncology (SGO) [61]:
Review of symptoms and physical examination:
For low-risk disease (early stage, treated surgically only, no adjuvant therapy) - Every six months for the first two years and annually after that.
For high-risk disease (advanced stage, treated with primary chemo/radiotherapy or surgery plus adjuvant therapy) - Every three months for the first two years, every six months for years 3 through 5, and annually after that.
Cervical cytology (or vaginal cytology if the cervix has been removed) annually. However, the evaluations concluded that there is insufficient evidence to support the use of cytology to detect cancer recurrence but that it may help detect other neoplasms of the lower genital tract.
Routine use of imaging studies is not recommended. Computed tomography (CT) and/or positron emission tomography (PET) should be performed if recurrence is suspected.
If abnormalities are discovered during a physical examination, a vaginal colposcopy and biopsy are indicated.
Given the risk of multifocal vaginal illness and other human papillomavirus (HPV)-related diseases like cervical, vulvar, and anal neoplasia, these patients should also be screened for these diseases.
Following the therapy, sexual dysfunction and body image changes are prevalent and should be addressed during follow-up visits [62, 63].
The stage at presentation, which reflects the extent and depth of tumor penetration, is the most critical variable impacting the prognosis [13, 46, 49, 64, 65, 66, 67]. Data from the United States National Cancer Database, for example, have shown an increased risk of death in women with stage II or higher disease and/or vaginal cancer with tumor size >4 cm (five-year survival 65% vs. 84 percent for tumors ≤4 cm), and the mortality rate for women with melanoma was 51% higher than for squamous cell carcinoma [67]. The lower survival rates in women with vaginal cancer compared with those with cervical or vulvar cancer may reflect the high rate of vaginal tumors diagnosed at an advanced stage and the potential for treatment complications that preclude aggressive treatment.
The stage at presentation, which indicates the degree and depth of tumor penetration, is the most critical variable impacting the prognosis in primary vaginal squamous cell cancer. The lower survival rates in women with primary vaginal cancer than those with cervical or vulvar cancer are related to a high diagnosis rate of advanced-stage vaginal tumors at baseline and potential treatment complications that preclude aggressive treatment.
We would like to express my gratitude to all those who helped me during the writing of this manuscript. Thanks to all the peer reviewers and editors for their opinions and suggestions.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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Modelling and simulating defects, traps and the effect of these traps on the characteristics are also discussed.",book:{id:"6625",slug:"disruptive-wide-bandgap-semiconductors-related-technologies-and-their-applications",title:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications",fullTitle:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications"},signatures:"Neophytos Lophitis, Anastasios Arvanitopoulos, Samuel Perkins and\nMarina Antoniou",authors:[{id:"236488",title:"Dr.",name:"Neophytos",middleName:null,surname:"Lophitis",slug:"neophytos-lophitis",fullName:"Neophytos Lophitis"},{id:"247344",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Antoniou",slug:"marina-antoniou",fullName:"Marina Antoniou"},{id:"247347",title:"Mr.",name:"Anastasios",middleName:null,surname:"Arvanitopoulos",slug:"anastasios-arvanitopoulos",fullName:"Anastasios Arvanitopoulos"},{id:"247349",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perkins",slug:"samuel-perkins",fullName:"Samuel Perkins"}]},{id:"61629",title:"GaN-Based Schottky Diode",slug:"gan-based-schottky-diode",totalDownloads:1688,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Schottky diode, also known as Schottky barrier diode (SBD), fabricated on GaN and related III-Nitride materials has been researched intensively and extensively for the past two decades. This chapter reviews the property of GaN material, the advantage of GaN-based SBD, and the Schottky contact to GaN including current transporation theory, Schottky material selection, contact quality and thermal stability. The chapter also discusses about the GaN lateral, quasi-vertical and vertical SBDs, and AlGaN/GaN field effect SBDs: the evolution of the epitaxial structure, processing techniques and device structure. The chapter closes with challenges ahead and gives an outlook on the future development of the GaN SBDs.",book:{id:"6625",slug:"disruptive-wide-bandgap-semiconductors-related-technologies-and-their-applications",title:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications",fullTitle:"Disruptive Wide Bandgap Semiconductors, Related Technologies, and Their Applications"},signatures:"Yaqi Wang",authors:[{id:"237104",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaqi",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"yaqi-wang",fullName:"Yaqi Wang"}]},{id:"53537",title:"FPGA-Based Software-Defined Radio and Its Real-Time Implementation Using NI-USRP",slug:"fpga-based-software-defined-radio-and-its-real-time-implementation-using-ni-usrp",totalDownloads:2825,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we propose a novel design of scalable and real-time data acquisition software architecture for software-defined radio (SDR) using universal software radio peripheral (USRP). The software has been designed and tested in multi-thread model, using LabVIEW, which guarantees real-time performance and efficiency. With the help of this design, we have been able to improve the stability of the system besides providing a reconfigurable and flexible architecture. Wireless transfer of sensitive data using communication is not a very safe option. In this chapter, we aim to provide a safe and private wireless transmission between two terminals using the SDR approach and verifying the results in real-world environment with the use of USRP. The novel design being presented here can be used to transfer (random data, text or an image) encoded with different forward error correction (FEC) codes, which is then verified at the receiving terminal and then decoded accordingly to produce the desired result.",book:{id:"5597",slug:"field-programmable-gate-array",title:"Field",fullTitle:"Field - Programmable Gate Array"},signatures:"Nikhil Marriwala, Om. Prakash. Sahu and Anil Vohra",authors:[{id:"192912",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nikhil",middleName:null,surname:"Marriwala",slug:"nikhil-marriwala",fullName:"Nikhil Marriwala"},{id:"198652",title:"Prof.",name:"O.P",middleName:null,surname:"Sahu",slug:"o.p-sahu",fullName:"O.P Sahu"},{id:"198654",title:"Prof.",name:"Anil",middleName:null,surname:"Vohra",slug:"anil-vohra",fullName:"Anil Vohra"}]},{id:"61186",title:"Graphene Field-Effect Transistor for Terahertz Modulation",slug:"graphene-field-effect-transistor-for-terahertz-modulation",totalDownloads:1319,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The real-world applications of terahertz (THz) technology necessitate versatile adaptive optical components, for example, modulators. In this chapter, we begin with a brief review on different techniques for THz modulation. After that, we introduce the extraordinary features of graphene along with its advantages and disadvantages as channel materials for field effect transistor (FET). We then discuss two types of graphene FET-based THz modulators, one is rigid and another is flexible. The feasibility of the high-quality THz modulators with different graphene FET structures has been successfully demonstrated. It is observed that by tuning the carrier concentration of graphene by electrical gating, the THz modulation can be obtained with relatively large modulation depth, broad width band, and moderate speed. This chapter helps the reader in obtaining guidelines for the proper choice of a specific structure for THz modulator with graphene FET.",book:{id:"6695",slug:"design-simulation-and-construction-of-field-effect-transistors",title:"Design, Simulation and Construction of Field Effect Transistors",fullTitle:"Design, Simulation and Construction of Field Effect Transistors"},signatures:"Qi-Ye Wen, Yu-Lian He, Jing-Bo Liu, Qi Mao, Qing-Hui Yang, Zhi\nChen and Huai-Wu Zhang",authors:[{id:"235512",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiye",middleName:null,surname:"Wen",slug:"qiye-wen",fullName:"Qiye Wen"},{id:"247833",title:"Ms.",name:"Yu-Lian",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"yu-lian-he",fullName:"Yu-Lian He"},{id:"247834",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhi",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"zhi-chen",fullName:"Zhi Chen"},{id:"247837",title:"Prof.",name:"Qing-Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qing-hui-yang",fullName:"Qing-Hui Yang"},{id:"247839",title:"Prof.",name:"Huai-Wu",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"huai-wu-zhang",fullName:"Huai-Wu Zhang"}]},{id:"53730",title:"High‐Speed Deterministic‐Latency Serial IO",slug:"high-speed-deterministic-latency-serial-io",totalDownloads:1767,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In digital systems, serial IO at speeds in the range from 1 to 20 Gbps is realized by means of dedicated transceivers, named serializer-deserializers (SerDeses). In general, due to their internal architecture, the data transfer delay, or the latency, may vary after a reset of the device. On the other hand, some applications, such as high-speed transfer protocols for analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters, trigger and data acquisition systems, clock distribution, synchronization and control of radio equipment need this delay to be constant at each reset. In this chapter, we focus on a serial IO architecture based on configurable transceivers embedded in field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). We will show how it is possible to achieve deterministic-latency operation in a line-code-independent way. As a case study, we will consider a synchronous 2.5-Gbps serial link based on an 8b10b line code.",book:{id:"5597",slug:"field-programmable-gate-array",title:"Field",fullTitle:"Field - Programmable Gate Array"},signatures:"Raffaele Giordano, Vincenzo Izzo and Alberto Aloisio",authors:[{id:"193125",title:"Prof.",name:"Raffaele",middleName:null,surname:"Giordano",slug:"raffaele-giordano",fullName:"Raffaele Giordano"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"957",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:14,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11409,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/21577",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"21577"},fullPath:"/profiles/21577",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()